Law Related to Trusts Law Related to Trusts

Introduction The concept of 'trust' relates to the ancient times. When the properties were dedicated to charitable, pious, religious, social welfare, educational, medical purposes. The Trust laws came to India via English Trust law which stipulates dual ownership of trust property i.e. legal title vests with the trustee while equitable title vests with the beneficiary. On this basis, Indian Trusts Act 1882 was enacted. The Indian Trusts Act, 1882 codifies the law relating to private trusts and private trustees under different subject heads which include Creation of trusts; Duties and liabilities of trustees; Their rights and powers; Their disabilities; The rights and liabilities of the beneficiary; Vacating the office of trustee; The extinction of trusts and; Certain obligations in the nature of trusts. Hindu charitable or religious trusts are mainly governed by the provisions of Hindu Laws which have been passed by several States under Article 25 (2) of the Constitution of India, like, The Bombay Public Trust Act, 1950, Rajasthan Public Trust Act, 1959, Madras Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowment Act, 1959 etc. The Wakf Act 1995 regulates muslim Wakfs for public benefit. There are also several States laws for regulating the proper administration of Wakfs in India. There are other trust laws like, Sikh Gurdwara Act, 1925 governing Sikh Gurdwaras. A 'trust' is an obligation annexed to the ownership of property and arising out of a confidence reposed in and accepted by the owner, or declared and accepted by him, for the benefit of another or of another and the owner. The following are the essential elements of a trust :1. The author or the settler of the trust; 2. The trustee; 3. The beneficiary; 4. The trust property or the subject-matter of trust 5. The object of the trust; 6. the instrument of trust. Indian Trust Act In view of a plethora of Trust laws, Indian Trust Act 1882 has been considered desirable to be discussed hereunder and for brevity it is referred hereinafter as "The Trust Act". The Act is divided into the following parts: (i) (ii) preliminary; the creation of trusts;
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(iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii) (viii) (ix) the duties and liabilities of trustees; their rights and powers; their disabilities; the rights and liabilities of the beneficiary; vacating the office of trustee; the extinction of trusts; and certain obligations in the nature of trusts.

Scope of the Act As is clear from the preamble; the Act has no application to public or private, religious or charitable endowment. The Indian Trusts Act is exhaustive in respect of any matter specifically provided for in it, but it is not exhaustive of all matters relating to private trusts. Therefore, in cases covered by the Act, its provisions must be applied but if a case is not covered by it, the Court is entitled to apply rules of English law, as laid down by judicial decisions in that country and which are not inconsistent with the Act, as the rules of justice, equity and good conscience. Definition of Trust The Act defines the term 'trust' in Section 3 as (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) an obligation annexed to the ownership of property and arising out of confidence reposed in and accepted by the owner or declared and accepted by him, for the benefit of another or of another and the owner.

The person who reposes or declares the confidence is called the 'author of the trusts', the person who accepts the confidence is called the 'trustee', the person for whose benefit the confidence is accepted is called the 'beneficiary'; the subject matter of the trust is called 'trust property' or 'trusts money'; the 'beneficial interest' is beneficiary's right against the trustee as owner of the trust property; and the instrument declaring the trust is called the 'instrument of trust'. The word 'trust' in its legal sense has a technical and definite meaning which is very much different from the sense in which this word is used in daily parlance. Trust connotes a legal concept or relationship similarly as other relationships created by law, e.g., Contract, Agency. Trust and Contract Trust in its origin was a form of contract distinctively enforced in equity. A contract creates a trust where it has brought into existence an obligation annexed to the ownership of property for the benefit of a person other than the owner. No technical words are required to create a trust. There is always a fiduciary relationship between trustee and beneficiary, but not between the parties to a contract.

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Difference between Trust and Bailment, Trust and Agency The definition of Bailment is given in Section 148 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872. The following is the difference between a trust and a bailment. (i) (ii) (iii) A trustee becomes the full owner of trust property. A bailee acquires special property only. The obligation of the bailee is legal, whereas that of a trustee is equitable. A bailment may be created for movable property only. A trust may be created for both movable and immovable properties.

Difference between Trust and Agency (i) (ii) (iii) An agent has no title to the property. A trustee is the full owner of the trust property. An agent acts on behalf of his principal and is subject to his control. A trustee acts in his own right. An agent is generally not personally liable, a trustee is.

CLASSIFICATION OF TRUSTS (On the basis of the Mode of Creation) Simple and Special Trusts Where the trustee is merely to hold the estate without having any active duties to perform it is called a simple trust. Where, however, the trust has been created for a particular object or purpose there is a special trust. Thus, in a simple trust, the trustee is merely to hold the property for the benefit of the beneficiary and in a special trust; the trustee has duties to perform. Oral and Written Trusts A trust may be declared either orally or through an instrument in writing. However, a trust in relation of movable property can be declared orally by transferring the possession of the property with a direction that the property be held in trust. In regard to a private trust for immovable properties, a written trust deed is prerequisite. Charitable or Religious Trust In order to determine whether a deed of trust is a valid public or charitable trust, it is necessary to see what is the dominant intention of the testator, namely, who are the real objects of his bequest and secondly whether the class indicated as the object of charity forms at least a section of the public. Where the main and paramount intention of the settler was to benefit the members of his family and thereafter the members of his caste who might need assistance from such funds there could be no public or charitable trust created. It is one of the cardinal rules governing execution
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of charitable trusts that the intention of the donor must be observed. This principle has been evolved as an auxilliary to this rule and is never allowed to defeat it. If the charity can be administered according to the directions of the founder, the law requires that it should be so administered. The Courts will not allow any departure from them on the grounds of expediency. Cy pres means near to it. The doctrine of Cy pres applies only to charitable trusts. The reason is that a public charity is perpetual and the rule against perpetuity does not apply to it. It can never die though its nature may be changed. In Halsbury's Law of England, in 3rd Edn. Vol. 4, P. 317, it is stated: "Where a clear charitable intention is expressed, it will not be permitted to fail because the mode, if specified, cannot be executed, but the law will substitute another mode Cy pres, that is, as near as possible to the mode specified by the 'donor'. However, the above doctrine is subject to the doctrine of severability, i.e., the doctrine of Cy pres, applies if the nature of the charitable object is general and not specific. Express and Implied Trusts Express trusts are created by the act of parties either in words or in writing. While an implied trust is one which is deduced from the conduct of the parties and the circumstances of the transactions. Public and Private Trusts The criterion for deciding whether a particular trust is or is not of a private nature, is whether the said trust is or is not for the benefit of individuals. Where the intention of the founder, as shown by the recitals in his Will, was that the property was to be dedicated for the benefit of idols, the trust is undoubtedly of a public nature and not for the benefit of the individual members of family. The essential difference between a private and a public trust is that in the former the beneficiaries are definite and ascertained individuals or individuals who within definite time can be definitely ascertained but in the latter the beneficial interest must be vested in an uncertain and fluctuating body of persons either the public at large or some considerable portion of it answering a particular description. Revocable and Irrevocable Trusts A revocable trust is one which is revocable when it is created by a nontestamentary instrument or orally and a power of revocation has been expressly reserved by the settler. A trust may be revoked by the consent of all the beneficiaries who are competent to contract (Section 78). All other trusts are irrevocable. Besides if a trust is created for charitable or religious purposes, such a trust cannot be revoked.

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Public-cum-Private Trust A Public-cum-Private Trust is one in which a religious trust is created for the immovable property like a Temple, Durgah etc. in the nature of a public trust but there is a direction for use of income through offerings or otherwise for public purposes and also a part thereof to person(s) in charge of the Temple, Durgah etc. A public-cum-private trust may become a fully public trust when the private beneficiary (ies) renounces his/their rights to which they are entitled. Constructive Trust A constructive trust is one which is not created by the express or implied act of the settler, but which is deemed by operation of law or arises by construction of law. A constructive trust is a relationship with respect to a property subjecting the person by whom the title to the property is held by an equitable duty to convey it to another on the ground that his acquisition or retention of the property would be wrongful and that he would be unjustly enriched if he were permitted to retain the property. Resulting Trust A resulting trust is one, which is implied in favour of the settler or his representative. It comes into existence where the property is incompletely conveyed or where on a conveyance, the beneficial interest in the property is not completely disposed of and the property or the undisposed beneficial interest in it reverts back to the settler. When a trust is bad as a charitable trust, a resulting trust comes into existence in favour of the settler. [Dwarkadas Bhimji v. CIT (1948) 16/TR 160 Bom.]. Executed and Executory Trust An executed trust is one in which the limitation of the estate and the beneficiaries are prescribed by the settler in the trust deed itself and no further instrument is required. An executory trust is not complete in itself and its execution is left to the judgement of the trustees. Here, the settler instead of expressing exactly what he means, tells the trustees to do their best to carry out his intentions. CREATION OF TRUSTS (i) Creation of Trusts for lawful purposes only

The Act allows creation of a trust for any lawful purposes. What is lawful can be gathered from the provisions of Section 4 of the Act which provides that purpose of a trust is lawful unless it is (a) Forbidden by law, or (b) Is of such a nature which will defeat the provisions of any law, or (c) is fraudulent, or
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(d)Involves or implies injury to the person or property of another, or (e) The Court regards it as immoral or opposed to public policy. Thus a trust which does not fall in any of the above prohibitions is deemed to be for lawful purpose. A trust for an unlawful purpose is void. Where a trust is created for two purposes one lawful and another unlawful, and the purposes are inseparable from one another, the whole trust is void. On the other hand if one of the objects of a trust is lawful and the expenses on it are fixed, and that object is not dependent upon and is separate from the other objects, the trust to that extent will be valid. The expression 'law' includes the law of a foreign country in which immovable property of a trust is situated. (ii) Trust of immovable property

Section 5 of the Act lays down the formalities which are to be observed for creation of a trust. It provides that a trust of immovable property can be created by an instrument in writing and registered, signed by the author of the trust or by Will. Trust of movable property requires no writing or registration. The mere transfer of possession coupled with the intention of the parties that such delivery of possession should vest the property in the trustee is sufficient to create a trust. (iii) Creation of a trust

Section 6 lays down provisions for creating a trust. It provides that subject to the provisions of Section 5 a trust is created when the author of the trust indicates with reasonable certainty by any words or acts: (a) an intention on his part to create thereby a trust; (b) the purpose of the trust; (c) the beneficiary, and (d) the trust property; transfer the trust property to the trustee except where a trust is declared by Will or the author of the trust is himself to be the trustee. If a trust is to be valid and enforceable, it is material to ascertain the author of the trust. Next the intention to create a trust, the purpose of the trust, the trust-property and the beneficiaries must be indicated and in such a way that the trust could be administered by the Court if the occasion arose. Certainties of a Trust For creating a trust the author of the trust should indicate with reasonable certainty the following: (1) Certainty in words: The words used to create a trust must be clear and certain so as to explain a clear intention to create a trust. Recommendatory words like "I hope" "I wish" are not sufficient. (2) Certainty in the object of the trust : The beneficiary, for whose benefit the trust is created, must be shown clearly.

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(3) Certainty in the subject-matter of the trust : The subject matter of the trust must be clear, i.e., the property, in respect of which a trust is created, must be shown clearly. Purpose of the trust should be certain. If the trust instrument is lacking in first and third certainties, no trust is created but if the second certainty is absent, resulting trust will be created in favour of the author of the trust. Illustrations: (a) A bequeaths certain property to B, "having the fullest confidence that he will dispose of it for the benefit of C". This creates a trust so far as regards A and C. B is not bound as a trustee. (b) A bequeaths certain property to B, "hoping he will continue it in the family". This does not create a trust as the beneficiary is not indicated with reasonable certainty. (c) A bequeaths certain property to B, requesting him to distribute it amongst such members of C's family as B should think most deserving. This does not create a trust, for the beneficiaries are not indicated with reasonable certainty. (d) A bequeaths certain property to B desiring him to divide the bulk of it among C's children. This does not create a trust, for the trust property is not indicated with sufficient certainty. (e) A bequeaths a shop and stock-in-trade to B on condition that he pays A's debts and a legacy to C. This is condition, not a trust for A's creditors and C. Who can create a Trust A trust may be created (i) (ii) by every person competent to contract, and with the permission of a Principal Civil Court of original jurisdiction, by or on behalf of a minor (Section 7).

Thus, generally any person competent to contract and competent to deal with the property can create a trust. Who may be a Trustee Every person capable of holding property may be a trustee. But if the trust involves the exercise of discretion, he cannot execute it unless he is competent to contract (Section 10). No one is bound to accept a trust. Acceptance of the trust by a trustee may be express or implied. Illustrations:

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(a) A bequeaths certain property to B and C, his executors as trustees for D. B and C prove A's will. This is in itself an acceptance of the trust, and B and C hold the property in trust for D. (b) A transfers certain property to B in trust to sell it, and to pay out of the proceeds, A's debts. B accepts the trust and sell the property. So far as regards B, a trust proceed is created for A's creditors. (c) A bequeaths, a lakh of rupees to B upon certain trusts, and appoints him his executor. B serves the lakh of rupees from the general assets, and appropriates it to the specific purpose. This is an acceptance of the trust. Duties of Trustee Sections 11 to 22 of the Act deal with the duties of trustee. They are as under: (1) The Trustee should execute the trust and obey the directions given in the instrument of the trust. He can make any alteration in those directions only with the consent of beneficiaries who are competent to contract. If a beneficiary is incompetent to enter into a contract, the Principal Civil Court of original jurisdiction may give consent on behalf of the minor. Illustrations: (a) A, a trustee, is simply authorised to sell certain land by public auction. He cannot sell the land by private contract. (b) A, a trustee of certain land for X, Y and Z, is authorized to sell the land to B for a specified sum. X, Y and Z, competent to contract, consent that A may sell the land to C for a lesser sum. A may sell the land accordingly. (c) A, a trustee, for B and her children, is directed by the author of the trust to lend, on B's request, trust property to B's husband, C on the security of his bond. C becomes insolvent and B requests A to make the loan. A may refuse to make it. (2) It is a duty of a trustee to acquaint him with the nature of the trust property. (3) The trustee must protect and preserve the trust property. Illustrations: The trust property is immovable property which has been given to the author of the trust by an unregistered instrument. The trustee's duty is to cause the instrument to be registered. (4) The trustee must not set up a title to the trust property, which is adverse to the interest of the beneficiary. Nor should he allow any person to do so. (5) He must deal with the trust property in such a manner as a man of ordinary prudence would deal with such property as if it were his own. Illustrations:
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(a) A, a trustee for B, in execution of trust sells trust property but for want of due diligence on his part, fails to receive part of the purchase money. A is bound to make good the loss. (b) A, trustee for B, allows the trust to be executed solely by his co-trustee C. C misapplies the trust property. A is personally answerable for the loss resulting to B. (6) If a trust is created in favour of several persons in succession and the trust property is of washing nature or consists of a future or reversionary interest, the trustee is bound to convert it into property of permanent nature. However, this is subject to any contrary intention which could be inferred from the trust instrument. Illustrations: A bequeaths to B all his property on trust for C during his life, and on his death for D, on D's death for E. A's property consists of three leasehold houses and there is nothing in A's will to show that he intended the houses to be enjoyed in specie. B should sell the houses and invest the proceed in trust securities as per Section 20. (7) The trustee must act impartially where there are more than one beneficiary. (8) Where the trust is created for the benefit of several persons in succession and one of them is in possession of the trust property, if that person commits any act destructive or injurious to the trust property, the trustee must take the steps to prevent it. (9) The trustee must keep an accurate account of the trust property. At the request of the beneficiary he must furnish him the account and the state of trust property. (10) The trustee must invest the trust property and funds in the securities mentioned in Section 20 of the Act. This is subject to any contrary directions in the trust instrument. (11) The trustee must sell the trust property within the specified or extended time without prejudice to the beneficiary or as authorized by the Court. Liabilities of Trustees 1. Liability for a breach of Trust: If a trustee commits a breach of the trust, he is liable to make good the loss which the trust property of the beneficiary has suffered. However, in two cases he is not liable for such a loss. (i) Where the breach of the trust has resulted due to any fraud committed by the beneficiary; and (ii) Where the beneficiary, being competent to contract, has given his consent for that breach without any coercion or undue influence or subsequently acquiesced therein, with full knowledge of the facts (Section 23).

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Illustrations: (a) A trustee improperly leaves trust property outstanding, and if it is consequently lost he is liable to make good the property lost, but he is not liable to pay interest thereon. (b) A trustee is guilty of unreasonable delay in investing trust money in accordance with Section 20, or in paying it to the beneficiary. The trustee is liable to pay interest thereon for the period of the delay. (c) The instrument of trust directs the trustee to invest trust money either in any of such securities or on mortgage of immovable property. The trustee does neither. He is liable for the principal money and interest. (d) The trust property consists of land. The trustee sells the land to a purchaser for a consideration without notice of the trust. The trustee is liable at the option of the beneficiary, to purchase other land of equal value to be settled upon the like trust, or to be charged with the proceeds of the sale with interest. 2. No right of set-off: A trustee who is liable for a loss because of a breach of trust committed by him in respect of one portion of the trust property is not allowed to setoff against his liability, a gain which he has accrued to another portion of the trust property through another and distinct breach of the trust property (Section 24). 3. A trustee is not liable for the acts and defaults of his predecessor. 4. Generally a trustee is not liable for a breach of the trust committed by his cotrustee. However, such a trustee will be liable in the following cases: (i) Where he delivers his trust property to his co-trustee without seeing to its proper application; (ii) Where he allows his co-trustee to receive the trust property and fails to make due inquiries about his co-trustee's dealing therewith; and (iii) Where after he comes to know of the breach of the trust committed by his co-trustee, he either actively conceals it or does not take proper steps to protect the interest of the beneficiary. However, a co-trustee who joins in signing a receipt for the trust property for sake of conformity without actually receiving it shall not be liable merely by reason of his signature only. A trustee is liable for money and property actually received by him. 5. Nature of liability of a co-trustee: When co-trustees jointly commit a breach of trust, and when one of them, by his negligence, enables another trustee to commit a breach of trust, each trustee is liable to the beneficiary for the whole loss sustained by the beneficiary. 6. Under Section 23 of the Act, in certain circumstances, a trustee is liable to pay simple or compound interest to the beneficiary.
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Rights, Powers and Disabilities of Trustees The rights, powers and disabilities of a trustee are discussed in Chapter IV of the Act. The important rights are as under: 1. The right to have the possession of the instrument of trust and the title-deed relating to the trust property. 2. The right to reimburse him of all costs, expenses and liabilities incurred in administration of the trust. 3. In case of a breach of the trust, the person who derives any benefit out of such a breach, must indemnify, the trustee to the extent of the amount actually received by him. 4. A trustee has a right to take opinion, advice or direction from the Court on questions relating to the management and administration of the trust. 5. When a trustee, properly completes his duties, he is entitled to get a discharge to the effect in writing. 6. A trustee has a general right to do all necessary acts (i) for preservation and protection of the trust property, and (ii) to protect the interest of a beneficiary who is not competent to contract but he cannot give on lease any trust property for more than twenty-one years without the permission of a Court. Powers of Trustee 1. He can sell the trust property where instrument of the trust so empowers him. 2. A trustee has a power to vary investments. 3. A trustee has a power to apply the trust property for the maintenance of property as provided in the instrument of trust. 4. A trustee can compromise claims unless a contrary intention appears from the instrument of the trust. 5. A trustee can give receipt for the money received on account of the trust. 6. In case of death of one of the trustees, the other trustees have a right to act, unless contrary intention appears from the instrument of the trust. Disabilities of Trustees 1. A trustee who once accepted the trust, cannot renounce it except: (i) with the permission of the Court, (ii) with the consent of the beneficiaries who are competent to contract, (iii) by virtue of a special power in the instrument of the trust.

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2. A trustee cannot delegate his office or any of his duties either to a co-trustee or to a stranger, except in the following cases: (1) When the instrument of the trust so provides, (2) When such a delegation is in the regular course of business, (3) When such a delegation is necessary, and (4) The beneficiary, being competent to contract, consents to such a delegation. Illustrations: (a) A bequeaths certain property to B and C on certain trust to be executed by them or the survivor of them or the assigns of such survivor, B dies. C may bequeath the trust property to D and E upon the trusts of A's will. (b) A is a trustee of certain property with power to sell the same. A may employ an auctioneer to effect the sale. (c) A bequeaths to B fifty houses let at monthly rents in trust to collect the rents and pay them to C. B may employ a proper person to collect these rents. 3. Where there are more trustees than one, all must join in the execution of the trust unless the trust instrument or any law for the time being in force provides otherwise. 4. The trustees cannot exercise their discretionary powers arbitrarily. 5. In the absence of express direction to the contrary contained in the instrument of trust or of a contract entered into with the beneficiary or of the sanction of the Court, the trustee has no right to remuneration. 6. A trustee may not use or deal with the trust property for his own use. 7. No trustee whose duty is to sell the trust property may directly or indirectly buy the trust property. 8. No trustee and no person who has recently ceased to be a trustee may, without the permission of the Court, buy, or become mortgagee or lessee of the trust property. 9. The trustee and the co-trustee may not lend the trust amount to themselves. Vacating the office of trusteeship The office of a trustee is vacated on his death or by his discharge. He may be discharged from his office by the extinction of the trust or by the completion of his duties or by new appointee etc. Meaning of a Beneficiary The person or persons for whose benefit, a trust has been created, is called the beneficiary or beneficiaries. While the trustees hold the legal title in trust property, the beneficiary holds the beneficial interest in that property.
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Who may be a beneficiary? A beneficiary may be any person, so specified by the author of the trust, a beneficiary may be a near or distant relative of the author or a person not related to the author at all or general public or a class thereof. A minor, woman and even an unborn person can be a beneficiary. In case of a charitable or religious trust, there need not be a specific beneficiary; the beneficiary there under is the object or the purpose of the trust. If the beneficiaries under a trust are not specified and they are not capable of being ascertained, no trust can come into existence [Allahabad Bank v. CIT AIR 1953 476]. A beneficiary may renounce his interest under the trust by (i) a disclaimer addressed to the trustee or (ii) by setting up a claim inconsistent with the trust. On the disclaimer by a beneficiary and the trust deed does not provide for such disclaimer, the trust would revert to the author or settler as a resulting trust. Doctrine of Cypres Where the object of the charitable trust, specified by the settler, is or subsequently becomes impossible or impracticable or unlawful, the trust will not necessarily fail, but the Court has power to apply the trust to some other charitable object as nearly as possible resembling the intention of the author. This power of the Court is known as "doctrine of cypres". When a particular mode of charity indicated by the author is not capable of being carried out, yet a general intention of charity, is indicated by the author of the trust, the Court would execute it 'cypres' i.e. in a way as nearly as possible to that which testator specified. Rights and Liabilities of Beneficiaries Important rights of the beneficiary of the trust are: 1. Right to rents and profits of the trust-property; 2. Right to the specific execution of the trust; 3. Right to inspect and take copies of the instrument of trust; 4. Right to transfer the beneficial interest, if he is competent to contract; 5. Right to sue for execution of trust; 6. Right to proper trustees; and proper number of trustees; 7. A beneficiary has a right to follow the trust property in the hands of a third person. Even where a trustee disposes of the trust property and acquires some other property with the help of the disposal money, the beneficiary is entitled to have the latter property, the same rights or as nearly as possible the same rights, he had over the trust property.
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Illustrations: (a) A, a trustee for B wrongfully invests ` 10,000 in the purchase of certain land, B is entitled to the land. (b) A, a trustee, wrongfully purchases land in his own name, partly with his own money, partly with money subject to a trust for B. B is entitled to a charge on the land for the amount of the trust money so misemployed. 8. Right to compel to any act of duty. Liabilities: If a beneficiary commits a breach of trust or obtains any advantage, the other beneficiaries may attach the interest of such a beneficiary until the loss caused by the breach has been compensated. Extinction of a Trust (Section 77) A trust is extinguished: (a) When its purpose is completely fulfilled; or (b) When its purpose becomes unlawful; or (c) When the fulfilment of its purpose becomes impossible by destruction of the trust property or otherwise; or (d) When the trust being revocable, is revoked. Revocation of a Trust (Section 78) If a trust is created by a Will, it may be revoked by the revocation of the Will. A trust which has been created otherwise, by an instrument other than a Will or orally, can be revoked only: (a) With the consent of all the beneficiaries competent to contract; (b) By the exercise of power of revocation expressly reserved by the author of the trust (in cases of trusts declared orally or by non-testamentary instruments); or (c) Where the trust is created for the payment of debts of the author of the trust, and has not been communicated to the creditors, at the pleasure of the author of the trust. A conveys property to B in trust to sell the same, and pays out of the proceeds the claims of A's creditors. A reserves no power of revocation. If no communication has been made to the creditor, A may revoke the trust. But if the creditors are parties to the agreement, the trust cannot be revoked without their consent. A trust is generally irrevocable unless a power of revocation is expressly reserved.
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