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BASICS OF CRUDE OIL Avg crude has 84% C. cro is classified as parafenic, nephthenic and aromatic based. Assay is used to classify it. It is based on bp and gravity. American petroleum institute(API). Higher api gravity, lighter the crude. If S compounds are more, crude is called sour. If less then sweet. DESALTING Water, inorganic salts, suspended solids and water soluble trace metals are removed. In che desalting water and chel surfactants are added so that impurities get attached to it and we can remove them. Trical desalting has high voltage application so that dirt particles are attracted towards bottom of tank. Both methods are continous. Feed crude oil is heated to 150-350C Nh3 is used to reduce corrosion and acid or alkali used to adjust ph. Safetyinadequate desalting can cause fouling of Hx, so temp and pre can increase. Corrosion by S compounds and overpressuring can also lead to failure. DISTILLATION, FRACTIONATION Atmospheric distillationVarious fractions are obtained by diff boiling ranges. Desalted crude is preheateddirect fired crude charge heatervertical distillation colomn(650-700F, if higher temp, then cracking)vapour rises in the tower so temp is reduces and various products are drawn off. Tower is 120 feet high with steel trays for separating and collecting the liquids. It has bubble cap tray. Liq condences on the tray and overflow pipes take the liq back to the bottom so that it is vaporized again. Product are countinously drawn off and steam is used to lower the vapour pressure. Vacuum distillationvacuum is maintained so that distillation can take place at low temp and thermal cracking does not take place. Dia of tower is larger. In 1st phase, gas oils, lubricating oil, base stocks and heavy residual for propane deasphalting are produced. Safetytemp, pre or liq level may rise if control devices fail. Temp should be controlled to prevent thermal cracking. NH4Cl corrosion should be checked.

SOLVENT EX It separates aromatics, naphthalene and impurities from product stream by dissolving or precipitation. Counter current process. Sometimes desired product is soluble, sometimes impurities are soluble. Solvent is separated form the product by heating, evaporation or fractionation. Finer residuals are removed from the raffinate by steam stripping or vacuum flashing. Popular solvents are phoh, furfural, etc. selection of solvent depends on the feed, product and contaminents.

SOLVENT DEWAXING Used to remove wax from distillate or residual basestocks. Steps in the process are 1. mixing the feed with solvent, 2 precipitate wax form the mixture by chilling, 3 recovering the solvent from the wax and recycling. Phme(dissolves oil) and methyl ethyl ketone(dissolves wax) are used as solvents.

THERMAL CRACKING 3 types are there: visbreaking, steam cracking and coking. Visbreakingits mild thermal cracking and it lowers crude viscosity. Atm distlnresidue is heated at 800-950F gives mild crackingquenching to control overcracking. VB reduces pour point of waxy residues and also reduces viscosity. Steam crackingused to produce olefinic materials. Feeds are mostly ethane, butane, gas oil and naphtha. Naphtha is also produced by this method using gas oil as feed. Temp is about 1500-1600F. Cokingit breaks heavy residuals to lighter products or distillates. It produces gasoline and middle distillate fractions. Coke is formed in the process. Coking is of 2 types-delayed coking and continuous coking. Delayed cokingwe let cracking reactions to complete by allowing long residence time; rxn takes place in large coke drums. Continuous cokingalso called contact or fluid coking. Moving bed process. Temp higher than delayed coking. Cracking occurs in reactor at 50psi. large coke particles are removed as product.

CATALYTIC CRACKING Its similar to thermal cracking except, by catalyst heavy molecules break into lighter products. Here improved quality products are produced at much less severe conditions. Temp is 850-950F; pre is 10-20psi. Catalysts used are zeolite, alhydrosilicate, etc.

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FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING Here catalyst is maintained in fluidized state by the oil vapors. Cracker consists of catalytic section and fractionating section in integrated form. Catalytic section contains a reactor and regenerator. Catalyst is continuously circulated between these 2. Feed and catalyst mix in the riser and cracking takes place in the riser. Reactor just serves as the holding vessel.

THERMOFOR CATALYTIC CRACKING Preheated feed flows by gravity to the catalytic bed reactor. Vapours are separated from the catalyst and sent to fractionating tower. Spent catalyst is recycled.

HYDROCRACKING Its a 2 stage process combining catalytic cracking and hydrogenation. High temp and pre are req. Uses: 1. HC is used for feed containing high polycyclic aromatic content and/or high conc of catalyst poisons. It depends on the relative rate of cracking and hydrogenation. 2. Heavy aromatic is converted into lighter one. H2 prevents formation of polycyclic aromatic compound. 3. It reduces tar formation and building up of coke. 4. Large amount of isobutene is also generated. 5. It also controls pour point and smoke point Process: 1. feed+h2+catalysth2s and nh3 2. Hydrocarbon is cooled, liquefied and is separated. 3. h2 is recycled 4. Liq is charged into the fractionators and desired products are obtained. 5. Bottom fractionator product is rehydrogenated and charged into second stage. It has higher temp and pressure, 2 nd stage products are drawn. Safety: H2s,(NH4)2S and CO should be minimized to prevent corrosion. FeS fires should be prevented while unloading coked catalyst.

CATALYTIC REFORMING Its used to convert low octane naphtha into high octane gasoline blending components called reformats. It means total effect of numerous reactions such as cracking, polymerization, dehydrogenation and isomerization. Depending on feed and catalyst used, reforming can produce high conc of phh, phnh2,phme and other aromatics+h2. Catalytic reformer has reactor section and product recovery section. Pt is used as a catalyst. Diff CR processes include platforming, powerforming, ultraforming and thermofor CR. Pre is either 50-200, or 1000psi.

CATALYTIC HYDROTREATING It is used to remove about 90% of contaminants such as N,S,O and metals from liq petroleum fractions. If they are not removed, they can damage the equipments. Its done before CR and CC. CH converts olefins and aromatics to saturated compounds. Catalytic hydro-sulphurization processit is used to remove sulphur. Here feed is mixed with h2 preheated at 700F 1in reactor 1000psi is maintainednh3 and h2s are formed. H2 is recycled. H2s is removed by stripping. Other applicationsCH of kerosene gives naphthenes, to improve the quality of pyrolysis gasoline. Safetyreduce h2s, hcl, nh4hs

ISOMERIZATION It converts butane, pentane and hexane into isoparaffins of higher octane no. Its of 2 typesbutane and pentane/hexane. In butane ison, alcl3+hcl are catalyst at low temp and pt is catalyst at high temp. 280F 250psi. hcl is removed in stripper colomn. Fractionator separates n-butane from isobutene. In c5/c6 ison, dried and desulphurized feed +chloride+h2+heat. Then parafins isomerizes to isoparafins. As product we get liq isomerate and h2.

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POLYMERIZATION Olefin is feed. It is passed over h3po4 where exothermic rxn occurs. Temp should be controlled to about 350F. Product is sent to fractionator. Polymerization is tried to be stopped at diamer or triamer form.

ALKYLATION Its combining of low mol wt olefins with isobutene in presence of catalyst either h2so4 or hf. Product is called alkylate and is composed of mixture of high octane branched parafins. Alkyalte has good antiknock props.

TREATING It is a means by which contaminants such as organic compounds containing s, n, o, dissolved metals and inorganic salts dissolved in emulsified water are removed from petroleum fractions or streams. Treating materials include acids, alkalis, solvents, oxidizing and adsorption agent. Sweetening treats h2s, thiophene and mercapta to improve colour, odour and oxidation stability. It also reduces CO conc. H2so4 is mostly used in treating process. S recovery after sweetening converts h2s hydrocarbons to S. In h2s scrubbing, hydrocarbon feed stock is first scrubbed to prevent catalyst poisioning.

SATURATED GAS PLANTS It separates butane, pentane, lpg, ethane, etc. absorption-fractionation or straight-fractionation is used for separation. In absfracn, gas/liqde-ethanizerc2 and lighter fractions are separated from heavier fractions. Heavier fractions are stripped and sent to debutanizer and oil is recycled back to absorber-de-ethanizer.

ASPHALT PRODUCTION Asphalt is portion of the residue that remains after primary distillation. Vacuum distillation is used to produce road tar asphalt from the residue. Asphalt is also used for roofing materials. Dehydrn of asphalt form h2s and oxn forms so2. Another method of prodn is solvent deasphalting. Here propane or hexane is used as the solvent. Heavy oil fractions are separated to produce heavy lubricating oil, catalytic cracking feed and asphalt.

HYDROGEN PRODUCTION It can be produced 1. As a bi-product of refinery process, mainly from catalytic reformer product gas. 2. By steam-methane reforming, here desulphurized gases are mixed with super heated steam in tubes with a nickel based catalyst. Reformed gas contains h2, co2; co. co is converted to co2 and is removed by amine washing. So h2 left out is taken as product 3. Steam-naphtha reforming is continuous process for prodn of h2 from liq hydrocarbons. Temp is 1325F.

LUBRICANT, WAX AND GREASE MANUFACTURE These are refined from residue of atmospheric or vacuum distillation. By lubricating oil refinery operations, we remove asphalts, sulfonated aromatics, paraffin and iso-paraffin waxes. Wax manufacture processraffinate from extraction unit contains considerable amount of wax that is removed by solvent extraction and crystallization. Grease compoundinggrease is made by blending metallic soaps and additives into a lubricating oil medium at temperatures of 400-600F. Grease may be either batch produced or continuously compounded. Characterstics of grease depend to a great extent on the metallic element (ca,na,al,li,etc) in the soap and the additives used.

HEATING OPERATIONS Process heaters and hx preheat feed in ditln towers and in refinery processes to rxn temp. heat is generated from heaters fuelled by natural gas, distillate and residual oils. COOLING OPERATIONS Its done by air and water exchangers, fin fans, gas,liq coolers, vapour compression refrigeration system. Common coolants are water, alcohol etc.

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STEAM GENERATION Heat for steam generation is obtained from flue gas mostly. Boilers have a no of tubes that carry water steam mixture through the furnace or maximum heat transfer. Fuel oil is mixture of refinery crude oil with straight run and cracked residues and other products. Feed water entering the system should be equal to the feed leaving the system. Water used in the system must be free from contaminants including mineral and dissolved impurities that can damage the system or affect its operation. Co2 and o2 cause corrosion and r removed by deaeration and treatment. 6 stages for boiler feed water treatment are clarification, sedimentation, filtration, ion exchange, deareation and internal treatment.

WATER TREATMENT It has 3 steps: 1. Pretreatmentits the separation of hydrocarbons and solids from waste water. It is done by API separators, interceptor plates and settling ponds. Gravity separation and neutralization of ph is also done. 2. Secondary treatmentsedimentation, air floatation, filtration. Biological impurities are separated. Tricking filter, anaerobic treatment etc is done. Stripping is done to remove oils and chemicals from water. 3. Tertiary treatmentchlorination, ozonation, ion exchange, RO, activated C adsoption.