Basic Amplifier

Electronic Circuits
Revision on
Basic Transistor Amplifiers
Contents
Biasing Amplification principles Small-signal model development for BJT
Aim of this chapter

To show how transistors can be used to amplify a signal.
amplifier
Prof. C.K. Tse: Revision on Amplifier Configurations
Basic idea
Step 1: Set the transistor at a certain DC level
biasing
Step 2: Inject a small signal to the input and get a bigger output
coupling
0.6V
amplifier
7V
Biasing the transistor

To set the transistor to a certain DC level = To set VCE and IC
VCC=10V RB IB
+ VBE
RL
IC
+ VCE
Suppose we want the following biasing condition: IC = 10 mA and VCE = 5 V Find RB and RL Start with VBE 0.7 V. Then, IB = (10 VBE )/ RB = (10 0.7)/ RB IC = IB = 100 (10 0.7)/ RB = 10 mA
So, RB = 94k
Also, VCE = 10 RL IC Hence, 5 = 10 10RL
Transistor: = 100
So, RL = 0.5k
dependent biasing bad biasing

VCC=10V RB IB
+ VBE Now, lets go to the lab and try using RB = 94k and RL = 0.5k, and see if we get what we want.
RL
IC
+ VCE
totally wrong! We dont get IC = 10mA and VCE = 5V
This is a bad biasing circuit!

because it relies on the accuracy of , but can be 50% different from what is given in the databook.
Transistor: = 100
A slightly better biasing method

VCC=10V RB1 IB RB2
+ VBE Again, our objective is to find the resistors such that IC = 10mA and VCE = 5V. First, if IB is small, we can approximately write
0.6 = 10
RL
IC
+ VCE
RB 2 R B1 + R B2
R B 1 94 = 6 RB 2
Suppose we get IC = 10mA. Then RL = 0.5k. We can start with RB1 = 940 and RB2 = 60. Such resistors will make sure IB is much smaller than the current flowing down RB1 and RB2, which is consistent with the assumption. What we need in practice is to fine tune RB1 or RB2 such that VCE is exactly 5V.
A much better biasing method emitter degeneration

VCC=10V RB1 IB RB2
+ VE Again, our objective is to find the resistors such that IC = 10mA and VCE = 5V. Set VE = 2V, say. Then, RE = 2V/10mA = 0.2k. Surely, RL = 0.5k in order to get VCE = 5V. Finally, we have VB = VE + 0.6. Therefore, if IB is small compared to IRB1 and IRB2, we have R B 1 74 = RB 2 26 Hence, RB1 = 740 and RB1 = 260.
RL
IC
+ VCE
RE
NOTE: is never used in calculation!!

Stable (good) biasing

Summary of biasing with emitter degeneration:
VCC=10V RB1 VB RB2 IB

+ VE
Choose VE , IC and VCE .
RL
IC
+ VCE
RE
RL
RE
Use VBE 0.6 to get VB. Then use
R B 1 10 VB = RB 2 VB
to choose RB1 and RB2 such that IB is much smaller the current flowing in RB1 and RB2.
Terminology
The following are the same: Biasing point Quiescent point Operating point (OP) DC point
Alternative view of biasing

VCC
RL IC
+ VCE +
IC RL
+ VR + VCE Load line Slope=1/RL
VCC
IC
+ VBE
operating point
VCC
VCE
10
What controls the operating point?

VCC
RL IC
+ VCE
operating point
IC
Load line Slope=1/RL
a bigger VBE
+ VBE
a smaller RL
VCC
VCE
CONCLUSION: VBE or IB controls the OP RL also controls the OP

11
What happens if VBE dances up and down?

VCC
RL IC
+ VCE
IC
Load line Slope=1/RL a bigger VBE = 0.65 a smaller VBE = 0.6
The OP also dances up and down along the load line.
+ VBE
VCE also moves up and down.
VCC
VCE
Typically, when VBE moves a little bit, VCE moves a lot! THIS IS CALLED AMPLICATION.
12
Animation to show amplifier action
13
Derivation of voltage gain

Question: what is
VCC
RL IC
+ VCE
V Vo = CE Vin VBE
Clearly, Ohms law says that
VCE = VCC IC RL
VCE = RL .IC
IC VBE
Then, what relates IC and VBE ?
+ VBE
Last lecture: transconductance gm = Hence,
VCE = gmR L VBE

14
Common-emitter amplifier
The one we have just studied is called COMMON-EMITTER amplifier.
VCC
RB1 RL IC
+ vCE
SUMMARY:
Small-signal voltage gain = gmRL That means we can increase the gain by increasing gm and/or RL. Output waveform is antiphase.
RB2
+ vBE
15
How do we inject signal into the amplifier?

VCC
RB1 RL IC
+ ~ vCE = VCE + vCE
or
vin vin 20mV

~
?
RB2
+ VBE
vCE
16
Note on symbols
=
~
Total signal a DC point A
vCE = VCE + vCE

total signal (large signal)
operating point or DC value or quiescent point
small signal or ac signal
Small signal
~
a or a
17
Solution: Add the same biasing DC level

VCC
Exactly the same biasing VBE + But, it is impossible to find a voltage source which is equal to the exact biasing voltage across B-E.
RB1
RL
IC
+
vin
20mV
RB2
+ vBE
vCE
VBE could actually be 0.621234V, which is determined by the network RB1, RB2 and the transistor characteristic!!
How to apply the exact VBE?
18
The wonderful voltage source: capacitor

VCC
The capacitor voltage is exactly equal to VBE because DC current must be zero + VC
RB1
RL
IC
+ VCE
0A
RB2
+ VBE
19
Solution insert coupling capacitor

DC voltage equal to exactly the same biasing VBE This is called a
VCC
RB1
+ + vBE
RL
IC
+ vCE
coupling capacitor
vin 20mV
RB2
20
Complete common emitter amplifier

VCC
RB1
+ ~ +
RL
IC
+ vCE + + ~
vin
RB2
+ vBE
vo
coupling capacitors (large enough so that they become short-circuit at signal frequencies)
21
Can we simplify the analysis?

We are mainly interested in the ac signals. The DC bias does not matter! Can we create a simple circuit just to look at ac signals?
+ ~
vin
common emitter amplifier
+ ~
vo
22
Small-signal model
Two basic questions:
+ ~ + ~
vin
common emitter amplifier
vo
What is the loading (resistance) seen here?
What is the Thvenin or Norton equivalent circuit seen here?

23
Small-signal model of BJT: objectives

To find:
rin Ro Gm
or
rin Ro Am
+
Ro
rin Gmvin
Norton form
Ro
rin Amvin
Thvenin form
24
Derivation of the small-signal model

Input side:
iB
+
rin =
vB E v = BE iB iC /
For small-signal,
vBE
rin =
=
v BE i B
v BE i C /
= (i C / v BE ) gm
r = /gm
where gm is the BJTs transconductance
25

Output side:
VCC
RL IC
+ vCE
vCE = VCC ICRL

For small-signal,
RL gmvBE
~
vCE
v CE = i C RL = g m v BE R L
where gm is the BJTs transconductance

26

+
Output side:
Including BJTs Early effect
VCC
RL IC
+ vCE
v CE vCE + = iC RL ro
v CE = i C (RL
ro gmvBE
ro )
~
RL
vCE
ro )
= g m v BE (R L
where ro is the Early resistor of the BJT.
Recall: ro = VA/IC , where VA is typically about 100V. A very rough approx. is ro = .

27
Initial small-signal model for BJT
MUST REMEMBER
B
+ ~
+ ~
vBE
gmvBE
E
ro
vCE
Small-signal BJT parameters: IC I gm = = C (kT / q ) VT r = gm V ro = A IC

VT is thermal voltage 25mV VA is Early voltage
typically ~ 100V
BJT model
28
Initial small-signal model for FET

Similar to BJT, but input resistance is .
G
+ ~
vGS
gmvGS
S FET model
ro vDS
+ ~
Small-signal FET parameters:

gm = 2 K I D ro =
1
is the channel length modulation parameter K is a semiconductor parameter
All amplifier configurations using BJT can be likewise constructed using FET.
29
Example: common-emitter amplifier

VCC is ac 0V.
Assume the coupling caps are large enough to be considered as shortcircuit at signal frequency
VCC
RB1 RL
+ vo
RB1 ||RB1
RL
B C
r
E
ro
gm~ vBE
+ vin
RB2
+ vBE
30
Complete model for common-emitter amplifier

Complete model: + vin + ~ vBE + vo
RB1 ||RB1
r
gm~ vBE
ro
RL
Total input resistance
Rin = RB1 ||RB1 || r

Total output resistance
Simplified model:
Ro = RL||ro
+ vin
RB1 ||RB1 || r
+ ~ vBE gm~ vBE
RL||ro
+ vo
Voltage gain
vo = g m (R L || ro ) v in g m R L
31
Alternative model for common-emitter amplifier

Output in Thvenin form:
RL||ro
Total input resistance
+ vin
RB1 ||RB1 || r
+ ~ vBE
+
~
+ vo
gm(RL||ro) vBE
Rin = RB1 ||RB1 || r

Total output resistance
Ro = RL||ro
Voltage gain
vo = g m (R L || ro ) v in g m R L
32
More about common-emitter amplifier

Because the output resistance is quite large (equal to RL||ro RL), the common-emitter amplifier is a POOR voltage driver. That means, it is not a good idea to use such an amplifier for loads which are smaller than RL. This makes it not suitable to deliver current to load.
1k, for example

RL||ro
+ vin
RB1 ||RB1 || r
+ ~ vBE
+
~
+ vo
gm(RL||ro) vBE
practically no output!!
10
33
Bad idea wrong use of common-emitter amplifier

+10V
RB1
5mA 1k
But the output circuit is:
Transconductance gm = IC /(25mV) = 5/25 = 0.2 A/V Expected gain = gmRL = (0.2)(1k) = 200 or 46dB
+ vin
RB2
+ vBE
+ speaker vo 10
200vin
1k 10
+ vo
The effective gain drops to
200
10 = 1.98 1000 + 10
34
Proper use of common-emitter amplifier

+10V
RB1
5mA 1k nearly open circuit + 10M vo The load must be much larger than RL.
Now the output circuit is: 1k 10M
+ vin
RB2
+ vBE
200vin
+ vo
The effective gain is
200
107 1000 + 10
7
200
35
How can we use the amplifier in practice?

+10V
RB1
5mA 1k
How to connect the output to load?
?
+ vin
RB2
+ vBE
+ vo
speaker 10
36
Emitter follower
+10V
RB1 IC biased to 10mA VCE biased to 5V
+ vin Biasing conditions:
Base voltage 5.6V Emitter voltage 5V Collector current 10mA RE = 500 RB1:RB2 44:56 Say, RB1 = 440k RB2 = 560k
RB2 RE
+ vo
VE = VB 0.6
Thus, for small signal, V E = V B or vo = vin
Gain =
vo / vin
=1
37
Small-signal model of emitter follower

+10V
B C
RB1 r
RB1 || RB2 gm~ vBE
ro
E
+ vin
RB2 RE
+ vo
RE
+ vo
38

Input resistance is
vin
iB rin
rin =
=
r
E
ro
gmvBE
~
vi n v BE + v E = iB iB
RB1 || RB2
RE
+ vo
vB E v E + iB iB v = r + E iB vE = r + i E /(1 + ) = r + (1 + )R E
which is quite large (good)!!
39

Output resistance is B C
rout =
v BE v m v BE = = im im iE i B gm v BE 1 vE = = 1 1 v iE + E + gmv E + + gm r RE r 1 1 = 1 1 g + m + gm + gm RE RE 1 = R E || gm
r
E
ro
gm~ vBE
im
E
rout RE
vm
which is quite small (good)!!
40

Thevenin form:
very large
+ vin
RE||(1/gm)
+
very small + vo
r + (1+ ) RE
1 vin
Large input resistance Small output resistance Voltage gain = 1
Draw no current from previous stage Good for any load
41
A better emitter follower

+10V
RB1
Input resistance is very LARGE because RE = . Output resistance is 1/gm. Gain = 1. + vin
RB2
IE
1/gm
+ vo
This circuit is also called CLASS A output stage. Details to be studied in second year EC2.
42
Common-emitter amplifier with emitter follower as buffer

+10V
RB1 RL
emitter follower (unit gain)
+ vin
RB2
+ vBE
IE
1 gm + speaker vo 10
common-emitter amplifier (high gain)
43
FET amplifiers (similar to BJT amplifiers)

+10V
RG1 RL
source follower (unit gain)
+ vin
RG2
+ vGS
IS
1 gm + speaker vo 10
common-source amplifier (high gain = gmRL)
44
Further thoughts
Will the biasing resistors affect the gain?
Seems not, because
Rbias
RL
Gain = gmRL + vo which does not depend on Rbias . However, a realistic voltage source has finite internal resistance. This will affect the gain.
+ vin
45
Input source with finite resistance

Rbias Rs
+ vin
RL
+ vo
The input has a voltage divider network. R bias || r v BE = v in R bias || r + R s Therefore, the gain decreases to
vo R bias || r = (g m R L ) v in R bias || r + R s
assuming ro very large.
Rs
+ vin
Rbias
+ vBE
gmvBE
ro
RL
+ vo
46
Example
10V
5mA
By how much does the gain drop?

1k + vo + vin 50 + vBE
94k 50 + vin 600
Rbias
94k||600 = 596
gm = 5mA/25mV = 0.2A/V
r = /gm = 100/0.2 = 500

Voltage divider attenuation =
R bias || r 596|| 500 = = 0.845 or 1.463dB 50 + R bias || r 50 + 596||500
Hence, the gain is reduced to 0.845(gmRL) = 169

47
Further thoughts
Recall that the best biasing scheme should be independent.
10V
5mA
84k + vin
1k + vo
One good scheme is emitter degeneration, i.e., using RE to fix biasing current directly. Here, since VB is about 1.6V, as fixed by the base resistor divider, VE is about 1V. Therefore, IC VE/RE = 5mA (no needed!)
16k
200
Question:
Will this biasing scheme affect the gain?
48
Common-emitter amplifier with emitter degeneration

VCC RB1
+ vin
Exercise: Find the small-signal gain of this amplifier.

RL
+ vo
Answer:
vo = v in
g m RL 1 1 + 1 + gmR E g m R L 1 + gmR E R L
RB2
RE
RE
The gain is MUCH smaller.
We have a good biasing, but a poor gain! Can we improve the gain?
49
Common-emitter amplifier with emitter by-pass

VCC RB1
+ vin Add CE such that the effective emitter resistance becomes zero at signal frequency.
RL
+ vo
So, this circuit has good biasing, and the gain is still very high! Gain = gmRL which is unaffected by RE because effectively RE is shorted at signal frequency.
RB2
RE
CE
CE is called bypass capacitor.
50
Summary
Basic BJT model (small-signal ac model):
IC I = C (kT / q ) VT r = gm V ro = A IC gm = VT is thermal voltage 25mV VA is Early voltage
typically ~ 100V
B + vBE E
gmvBE
ro
E
51
Summary
Basic FET model (small-signal ac model):
G + vGS S D
Similar to the BJT model, but with infinite input resistance. Therefore, the FET can be used in the same way as amplifiers.
gmvGS
ro
S
52
Summary
Common-emitter (CE) amplifier small-signal ac model:
+ vin + vo
Rbias
RL
Rbias
+ vBE
gmvBE
ro
RL
+ vo
+ vin
Gain = gmRL Input resistance = Rbias || r Output resistance = RL ||ro RL (quite large desirable) (large undesirable)
53
Summary
Emitter follower (EF) small-signal ac model:
Rbias
+ vin + vin + vBE
gmvBE
+ vo
Rbias
RE
+ vo Gain = 1 Input resistance = Rbias || [r +(1+)RE ] Output resistance = RE || (1/gm)
RE
(quite large desirable) (small desirable)

54

Basic Amplifier

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Electronic Circuits

Basic Transistor Amplifiers

Aim of this chapter

Prof. C.K. Tse: Revision on Amplifier Configurations

Prof. C.K. Tse: Revision on Amplifier Configurations

Biasing the transistor

Prof. C.K. Tse: Revision on Amplifier Configurations

dependent biasing bad biasing

totally wrong! We dont get IC = 10mA and VCE = 5V

This is a bad biasing circuit!

Prof. C.K. Tse: Revision on Amplifier Configurations

A slightly better biasing method

A much better biasing method emitter degeneration

NOTE: is never used in calculation!!

Stable (good) biasing

VCC=10V RB1 VB RB2 IB

Choose VE , IC and VCE .

Use VBE 0.6 to get VB. Then use

Prof. C.K. Tse: Revision on Amplifier Configurations

Alternative view of biasing

Prof. C.K. Tse: Revision on Amplifier Configurations

What controls the operating point?

CONCLUSION: VBE or IB controls the OP RL also controls the OP

What happens if VBE dances up and down?

The OP also dances up and down along the load line.

VCE also moves up and down.

Prof. C.K. Tse: Revision on Amplifier Configurations

Animation to show amplifier action

Prof. C.K. Tse: Revision on Amplifier Configurations

Derivation of voltage gain

Clearly, Ohms law says that

Then, what relates IC and VBE ?

Last lecture: transconductance gm = Hence,

VCE = gmR L VBE

Prof. C.K. Tse: Revision on Amplifier Configurations

Prof. C.K. Tse: Revision on Amplifier Configurations

How do we inject signal into the amplifier?

vin vin 20mV

Prof. C.K. Tse: Revision on Amplifier Configurations

Total signal a DC point A

vCE = VCE + vCE

operating point or DC value or quiescent point

small signal or ac signal

Prof. C.K. Tse: Revision on Amplifier Configurations

Solution: Add the same biasing DC level

Prof. C.K. Tse: Revision on Amplifier Configurations

The wonderful voltage source: capacitor

Prof. C.K. Tse: Revision on Amplifier Configurations

Solution insert coupling capacitor

Prof. C.K. Tse: Revision on Amplifier Configurations

Complete common emitter amplifier

Can we simplify the analysis?

common emitter amplifier

Prof. C.K. Tse: Revision on Amplifier Configurations

common emitter amplifier

What is the loading (resistance) seen here?

What is the Thvenin or Norton equivalent circuit seen here?

Prof. C.K. Tse: Revision on Amplifier Configurations

Small-signal model of BJT: objectives

Prof. C.K. Tse: Revision on Amplifier Configurations

Derivation of the small-signal model

where gm is the BJTs transconductance

Prof. C.K. Tse: Revision on Amplifier Configurations

Derivation of the small-signal model