Assignment 3 Write an article on Chemical Bonding 1.

Interatomic force Inter atomic forces is term to include bonds between ions or indeed molecules. The bonds is set up by a balance molecules between attractive and repulsive forces with the net force being zero when the bond is at equilibrium. For example, crystal of NaCl is more stable than a collection of free Na and Cl atoms. This implies that Na atoms and Cl atom attract each other as they close to each other by an attractive inter atomic force. Interatomic force is responsible for crystal formation. The energy of the crystal is lower than that of the free atoms by an amount equal to the energy required to pull the crystal apart into a set of free atoms. This is called the binding (cohesive) energy of the crystal. NaCl is more stable than a collection of free Na and Cl. Ge crystal is more stable than a collection of free Ge

The potential energy representing the interaction between two atoms varies greatly with the distance between the atoms. A typical curve of this pair potential representing the equilibrium interatomic distance at Ro and the stable binding energy at Vo.

Vo

This typical curve has a minimum at equilibrium distance R0 R > R0 ; the potential increases gradually, approaching 0 as R the force is attractive

 R < R0; the potential increases very rapidly, approaching at small separation. the force is repulsive Force between the atoms is the negative of the slope of this curve. At equlibrium, repulsive force becomes equals to the attractive part.

2. Types of bonding a. Ionic bonds Ionic bonding is the electrostatic force of attraction between positively and negatively charged ions (between non-metals and metals). These ions have been produced as a result of a transfer of electrons between two atoms with a large difference in electro negativities. All ionic compounds are crystalline solids at room temperature.NaCl is a typical example of ionic bonding. The metallic elements have only up to the valence electrons in their outer shell will lose their electrons and become positive ions, whereas electronegative elements tend to acquire additional electrons to complete their octed and become negative ions, or anions.

After the reaction takes place, the charge Na+ anfd Cl- are held together by electrostatic force, thus forming an ionic bond.

The ionic bond is strong when compared to the other bonds. This strength is attributed to the strength of the coulomb force that is responsible for the bonding. Experimentally this strength is characterized bt the high melting temperatures associated with ionic crystal. b. Covalent bonds Covalent bond is formed when two or more similar or different atoms share valence electrons between them so that each atoms gets the octet or duplet electron arrangement that is a stable arrangement for noble gas. Sharing can be one pair, two pairs or three pairs. The forces that exist between neutral molecules are weak Van der Waals forces. The Van der Waals forces become stronger when the molecule size increases. For example, oxygen molecule.

Two oxygen atoms joint together and share their outer electron will resulting oxygen molecule to form. O2. c. Metallic bonds Metallic bonding is the type of bonding found in metal elements. This is the electrostatic force of attraction between positively charged ions and delocalized outer electrons. The metallic bond is weaker than the ionic and the covalent bonds. The weakness of the individual bonding actions in a metal is due to the enlargement of the internuclear spacing. Valance electrons are relatively bound to the nucleus and therefore they move freely through the metal and they are spread out among the atoms in the form of a low-density electron cloud. A metallic bond result from the sharing of a variable number of electrons by a variable number of atoms. A metal may be described as a cloud of free electrons. Therefore, metals have high electrical and thermal conductivity. All valence electrons in a metal combine to form a sea of electrons that move freely between the atom cores. The more electrons, the stronger the attraction. This means the melting and boiling points are higher, and the metal is stronger and harder. The positively charged cores are held together by these negatively charged electrons. The free electrons act as the bond (or as a glue) between the positively charged ions. As a result we have a high ductility of metals - the bonds do not break when atoms are rearranged and metals can experience a significant degree of plastic deformation.

d. Hydrogen bonds Hydrogen bonding differs from other uses of the word "bond" since it is a force of attraction between a hydrogen atom in one molecule and a small atom of high electronegativity in another molecule. A hydrogen atom, having one electron, can be covalently bonded to only one atom. However, the hydrogen atom can involve itself in an additional electrostatic bond with a second atom of highly electronegative character such as nitrogen, fluorine or oxygen. A hydrogen atom attached to a relatively electronegative atom is a hydrogen bond donor.

Consider two water molecules coming close together. The + hydrogen is so strongly attracted to the lone pair. It doesn't go far, but the attraction is significantly stronger than an ordinary dipoledipole interaction. Hydrogen bonds have about a tenth of the strength of an average covalent bond, and are being constantly broken and reformed in liquid water. Each water molecule can potentially form four hydrogen bonds with surrounding water molecules. There are exactly the right numbers of + hydrogens and lone pairs so that every one of them can be involved in hydrogen bonding. This is why the boiling point of water is higher than that of ammonia or hydrogen fluoride. In the case of ammonia, the amount of hydrogen bonding is limited by the fact that each nitrogen only has one lone pair. In a group of ammonia molecules, there aren't enough lone pairs to go around to satisfy all the hydrogens. Ice is a good example of a hydrogen bonded solid.There are lots of different ways that the water molecules can be arranged in ice. This is one of them, but NOT the common one - I can't draw that in any way that makes sense! The one below is known as "cubic ice", or "ice Ic". It is based on the water molecules arranged in a diamond structure. e. Van der waals (London dispersion forces)

Another bond which plays important role in inert-gas solids is the van der waals bond. It occurs between neutral atoms and molecules. The explanation of these weak forces of attraction is that there are natural fluctuation in the electron density of all molecules and these cause small temporary dipoles within the molecules. It is these temporary dipoles that attract one molecule to another.

The shape of a molecule influences its ability to form temporary dipoles. Long thin molecules can pack closer to each other than molecules that are more spherical. The bigger the 'surface area' of a molecule, the greater the van der Waal's forces will be and the higher the melting and boiling points of the compound will be. The dipoles can be formed as a result of unbalanced distribution of electrons in asymettrical molecules. This is caused by the instantaneous location of a few more electrons on one side of the nucleus than on the other.

Therefore atoms or molecules containing dipoles are attracted to each other by electrostatic forces.

3. Summary table Types of Description Typical of which bond compound Ionic Ionic bonding is the Sodium chloride bond electrostatic force of attraction between positively and negatively charged ions (between non-metals and metals). Forces between ions. Stronger forces. More heat needed to break the bond. Covalent bond Covalent bond is formed Chlorine when two or more similar or molecules different atoms share valence electrons between them so that each atoms gets the octet or duplet electron arrangement Typical properties Ionic compounds conduct electricity when molten or in solution, but not as a solid. There are strong electrostatic attractions and it takes a lot of heat energy to overcome them. Ionic substances all have high melting and boiling points. Lower melting and boiling points than ionic compounds. Soft and squishy Cannot conduct elctricity in water

Metallic bond

Metallic bonding is the type Zn, Hg, Cd of bonding found in metal elements. This is the electrostatic force of attraction between positively charged ions and delocalized outer electrons.

Strength, malleability, ductility, thermal and electrical conductivity. The atoms in metals have a strong attractive force between them. Much energy is required to overcome it. Therefore, metals often have high boiling points Hydrogen bonds are classified as weak bonds because they are easily and rapidly formed and broken under normal biological conditions.

Hydrogen bond

Attraction between a NH3, Ice, water hydrogen atom in one molecule and a small atom of high electronegativity in another molecule.

Highly electronegative character such as nitrogen, fluorine or oxygen Van der It occurs between neutral Covalent waals atoms and molecules. compound Forces between molecules. Weak forces attraction But get stronger when the size of the molecules increases e.g H2,CO2 ,CH4

Molecular shape affects the strength of the dispersion forces. Thus effect the boiling point of molecules. Momentary dipoles occurring due to uneven electron distributions in neighboring molecules as they approach one another.

Momentary dipoles occurring due to uneven electron distributions in neighboring molecules as they approach one another