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Planet

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Planets) Jump to: navigation, search This article is about the astronomical object. For other uses, see Planet (disambiguation).

Planetary-sized objects to scale: Top row: Uranus and Neptune; second row: Earth, white dwarf star Sirius B, Venus; bottom row (reproduced and enlarged in lower image) above: Mars and Mercury; below: the Moon, dwarf planets Pluto and Haumea A planet (from Ancient Greek (astr plants), meaning "wandering star") is an astronomical object orbiting a star or stellar remnant that is massive enough to be rounded by its own gravity, is not massive enough to cause thermonuclear fusion, and has cleared its neighbouring region of planetesimals.[a][1][2] The term planet is ancient, with ties to history, science, mythology, and religion. The planets were originally seen by many early cultures as divine, or as emissaries of deities. As scientific knowledge advanced, human perception of the planets changed, incorporating a number of disparate objects. In 2006, the International

Astronomical Union (IAU) officially adopted a resolution defining planets within the Solar System. This definition has been both praised and criticized and remains disputed by some scientists because it excludes many objects of planetary mass based on where or what they orbit. While eight of the planetary bodies discovered before 1950 remain "planets" under the modern definition, some celestial bodies, such as Ceres, Pallas, Juno, Vesta (each an object in the Solar asteroid belt), and Pluto (the first-discovered trans-Neptunian object), that were once considered planets by the scientific community are no longer viewed as such. The planets were thought by Ptolemy to orbit the Earth in deferent and epicycle motions. Although the idea that the planets orbited the Sun had been suggested many times, it was not until the 17th century that this view was supported by evidence from the first telescopic astronomical observations, performed by Galileo Galilei. By careful analysis of the observation data, Johannes Kepler found the planets' orbits were not circular but elliptical. As observational tools improved, astronomers saw that, like Earth, the planets rotated around tilted axes, and some shared such features as ice caps and seasons. Since the dawn of the Space Age, close observation by probes has found that Earth and the other planets share characteristics such as volcanism, hurricanes, tectonics, and even hydrology. Planets are generally divided into two main types: large, low-density gas giants and smaller, rocky terrestrials. Under IAU definitions, there are eight planets in the Solar System. In order of increasing distance from the Sun, they are the four terrestrials, Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars, then the four gas giants, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. Six of the planets are orbited by one or more natural satellites. Additionally, the IAU accepts five dwarf planets,[3] with many others under consideration,[4] and hundreds of thousands of small Solar System bodies. Since 1992, hundreds of planets around other stars ("extrasolar planets" or "exoplanets") in the Milky Way have been discovered. As of 17 July 2013, 919 known extrasolar planets (in 708 planetary systems and 142 multiple planetary systems) are listed in the Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia, ranging in size from that of terrestrial planets similar to Earth to that of gas giants larger than Jupiter.[5] On December 20, 2011, the Kepler Space Telescope team reported the discovery of the first Earth-sized extrasolar planets, Kepler-20e[6] and Kepler-20f,[7] orbiting a Sun-like star, Kepler-20.[8][9][10] A 2012 study, analyzing gravitational microlensing data, estimates an average of at least 1.6 bound planets for every star in the Milky Way.[11] Astronomers at the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics (CfA) reported in January 2013 that "at least 17 billion" Earth-sized (i.e. 0.81.25 Earth masses) exoplanets with orbital periods of 85 days or less are estimated to reside in the Milky Way Galaxy.[12]

Contents

1 History o 1.1 Babylon o 1.2 Greco-Roman astronomy o 1.3 India o 1.4 Medieval Muslim astronomy

1.5 European Renaissance 1.6 19th century 1.7 20th century 1.8 21st century 1.8.1 Extrasolar planet definition 1.8.2 2006 definition o 1.9 Former classifications 2 Mythology and naming 3 Formation 4 Solar System o 4.1 Planetary attributes 5 Extrasolar planets 6 Planetary-mass objects o 6.1 Rogue planets o 6.2 Sub-brown dwarfs o 6.3 Former stars o 6.4 Satellite planets and belt planets 7 Attributes o 7.1 Dynamic characteristics 7.1.1 Orbit 7.1.2 Axial tilt 7.1.3 Rotation 7.1.4 Orbital clearing o 7.2 Physical characteristics 7.2.1 Mass 7.2.2 Internal differentiation 7.2.3 Atmosphere 7.2.4 Magnetosphere o 7.3 Secondary characteristics 8 Related terms 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 External links

o o o o

History
Further information: History of astronomy and Definition of planet See also: Timeline of Solar System astronomy

Printed rendition of a geocentric cosmological model from Cosmographia, Antwerp, 1539 The idea of planets has evolved over its history, from the divine wandering stars of antiquity to the earthly objects of the scientific age. The concept has expanded to include worlds not only in the Solar System, but in hundreds of other extrasolar systems. The ambiguities inherent in defining planets have led to much scientific controversy. The five classical planets, being visible to the naked eye, have been known since ancient times and have had a significant impact on mythology, religious cosmology, and ancient astronomy. In ancient times, astronomers noted how certain lights moved across the sky in relation to the other stars. Ancient Greeks called these lights (planetes asteres, "wandering stars") or simply (plantai, "wanderers"),[13] from which today's word "planet" was derived.[14][15] In ancient Greece, China, Babylon, and indeed all pre-modern civilizations,[16][17] it was almost universally believed that Earth was the center of the Universe and that all the "planets" circled the Earth. The reasons for this perception were that stars and planets appeared to revolve around the Earth each day[18] and the apparently common-sense perceptions that the Earth was solid and stable and that it was not moving but at rest.

Babylon
Main article: Babylonian astronomy The first civilization known to possess a functional theory of the planets were the Babylonians, who lived in Mesopotamia in the first and second millennia BC. The oldest surviving planetary astronomical text is the Babylonian Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa, a 7th-century BC copy of a list of observations of the motions of the planet Venus, that probably dates as early as the second millennium BC.[19] The MUL.APIN is a pair of cuneiform tablets dating from the 7th century BC that lays out the motions of the Sun, Moon and planets over the course of the year.[20] The Babylonian astrologers also laid the foundations of what would eventually become Western astrology.[21] The Enuma anu enlil, written during the Neo-Assyrian period in the 7th century BC,[22] comprises a list of omens and their relationships with various celestial phenomena including the motions of the planets.[23][24] Venus, Mercury and the outer planets Mars, Jupiter

and Saturn were all identified by Babylonian astronomers. These would remain the only known planets until the invention of the telescope in early modern times.[25]

Greco-Roman astronomy
See also: Greek astronomy Ptolemy's 7 planetary spheres
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Moon Mercury Venus Sun Mars Jupiter Saturn

The ancient Greeks initially did not attach as much significance to the planets as the Babylonians. The Pythagoreans, in the 6th and 5th centuries BC appear to have developed their own independent planetary theory, which consisted of the Earth, Sun, Moon, and planets revolving around a "Central Fire" at the center of the Universe. Pythagoras or Parmenides is said to have been the first to identify the evening star and morning star (Venus) as one and the same.[26] In the 3rd century BC, Aristarchus of Samos proposed a heliocentric system, according to which the Earth and planets revolved around the sun. However, the geocentric system would remain dominant until the Scientific Revolution. By the 1st century BC, during the Hellenistic period, the Greeks had begun to develop their own mathematical schemes for predicting the positions of the planets. These schemes, which were based on geometry rather than the arithmetic of the Babylonians, would eventually eclipse the Babylonians' theories in complexity and comprehensiveness, and account for most of the astronomical movements observed from Earth with the naked eye. These theories would reach their fullest expression in the Almagest written by Ptolemy in the 2nd century CE. So complete was the domination of Ptolemy's model that it superseded all previous works on astronomy and remained the definitive astronomical text in the Western world for 13 centuries.[19][27] To the Greeks and Romans there were seven known planets, each presumed to be circling the Earth according to the complex laws laid out by Ptolemy. They were, in increasing order from Earth (in Ptolemy's order): the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn.[15][27][28]

India
Main articles: Indian astronomy and Hindu cosmology In 499 CE, the Indian astronomer Aryabhata propounded a planetary model which explicitly incorporated the Earth's rotation about its axis, which he explains as the cause of what appears to be an apparent westward motion of the stars. He also believed that the orbit of planets are elliptical.[29] Aryabhata's followers were particularly strong in South India, where his principles of the diurnal rotation of the earth, among others, were followed and a number of secondary works were based on them.[30]

In 1500, Nilakantha Somayaji of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics, in his Tantrasangraha, revised Aryabhata's model.[31] In his Aryabhatiyabhasya, a commentary on Aryabhata's Aryabhatiya, he developed a planetary model where Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn orbit the Sun, which in turn orbits the Earth, similar to the Tychonic system later proposed by Tycho Brahe in the late 16th century. Most astronomers of the Kerala school who followed him accepted his planetary model.[31][32]

Medieval Muslim astronomy


Main articles: Astronomy in medieval Islam and Islamic cosmology In the 11th century, the transit of Venus was observed by Avicenna, who established that Venus was, at least sometimes, below the Sun.[33] In the 12th century, Ibn Bajjah observed "two planets as black spots on the face of the Sun", which was later identified as a transit of Mercury and Venus by the Maragha astronomer Qotb al-Din Shirazi in the 13th century.[34] However, Ibn Bajjah could not have observed a transit of Venus, as none occurred in his lifetime.[35]

European Renaissance
Renaissance planets, ca. 1543 to 1781
1 2 3 4 5 6 Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn

See also: Heliocentrism With the advent of the Scientific Revolution, understanding of the term "planet" changed from something that moved across the sky (in relation to the star field); to a body that orbited the Earth (or that were believed to do so at the time); and in the 16th century to something that directly orbited the Sun when the heliocentric model of Copernicus, Galileo and Kepler gained sway. Thus, the Earth became included in the list of planets,[36] while the Sun and Moon were excluded. At first, when the first satellites of Jupiter and Saturn were discovered in the 17th century, the terms "planet" and "satellite" were used interchangeably although the latter would gradually become more prevalent in the following century.[37] Until the mid-19th century, the number of "planets" rose rapidly since any newly discovered object directly orbiting the Sun was listed as a planet by the scientific community.

19th century
New planets, 18071845
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Mercury Venus Earth Mars Vesta Juno Ceres Pallas Jupiter Saturn Uranus

In the 19th century astronomers began to realize that recently discovered bodies that had been classified as planets for almost half a century (such as Ceres, Pallas, and Vesta) were very different from the traditional ones. These bodies shared the same region of space between Mars and Jupiter (the asteroid belt), and had a much smaller mass; as a result they were reclassified as "asteroids". In the absence of any formal definition, a "planet" came to be understood as any "large" body that orbited the Sun. Since there was a dramatic size gap between the asteroids and the planets, and the spate of new discoveries seemed to have ended after the discovery of Neptune in 1846, there was no apparent need to have a formal definition.[38]

20th century
Planets 18541930, 2006present
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune

However, in the 20th century, Pluto was discovered. After initial observations led to the belief it was larger than Earth,[39] the object was immediately accepted as the ninth planet. Further monitoring found the body was actually much smaller: in 1936, Raymond Lyttleton suggested that Pluto may be an escaped satellite of Neptune,[40] and Fred Whipple suggested in 1964 that Pluto may be a comet.[41] However, as it was still larger than all known asteroids and seemingly did not exist within a larger population,[42] it kept its status until 2006. Planets 19302006
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Pluto

In 1992, astronomers Aleksander Wolszczan and Dale Frail announced the discovery of planets around a pulsar, PSR B1257+12.[43] This discovery is generally considered to be the first definitive detection of a planetary system around another star. Then, on October 6, 1995, Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz of the University of Geneva announced the first definitive detection of an exoplanet orbiting an ordinary main-sequence star (51 Pegasi).[44] The discovery of extrasolar planets led to another ambiguity in defining a planet; the point at which a planet becomes a star. Many known extrasolar planets are many times the mass of Jupiter, approaching that of stellar objects known as "brown dwarfs".[45] Brown dwarfs are generally considered stars due to their ability to fuse deuterium, a heavier isotope of hydrogen. While stars more massive than 75 times that of Jupiter fuse hydrogen, stars of only 13 Jupiter

masses can fuse deuterium. However, deuterium is quite rare, and most brown dwarfs would have ceased fusing deuterium long before their discovery, making them effectively indistinguishable from supermassive planets.[46]

21st century
With the discovery during the latter half of the 20th century of more objects within the Solar System and large objects around other stars, disputes arose over what should constitute a planet. There were particular disagreements over whether an object should be considered a planet if it was part of a distinct population such as a belt, or if it was large enough to generate energy by the thermonuclear fusion of deuterium. A growing number of astronomers argued for Pluto to be declassified as a planet, since many similar objects approaching its size had been found in the same region of the Solar System (the Kuiper belt) during the 1990s and early 2000s. Pluto was found to be just one small body in a population of thousands. Some of them including Quaoar, Sedna, and Eris were heralded in the popular press as the tenth planet, failing however to receive widespread scientific recognition. The announcement of Eris in 2005, an object 27% more massive than Pluto, created the necessity and public desire for an official definition of a planet. Acknowledging the problem, the IAU set about creating the definition of planet, and produced one in August 2006. The number of planets dropped to the eight significantly larger bodies that had cleared their orbit (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune), and a new class of dwarf planets was created, initially containing three objects (Ceres, Pluto and Eris).[47] Extrasolar planet definition In 2003, The International Astronomical Union (IAU) Working Group on Extrasolar Planets made a position statement on the definition of a planet that incorporated the following working definition, mostly focused upon the boundary between planets and brown dwarfs:[2]

Artistic comparison of Eris, Pluto, Makemake, Haumea, Sedna, 2007 OR10, Quaoar, Orcus, and Earth. ( This box:

view talk edit

) 1. Objects with true masses below the limiting mass for thermonuclear fusion of deuterium (currently calculated to be 13 times the mass of Jupiter for objects with the same isotopic abundance as the Sun[48]) that orbit stars or stellar remnants are "planets" (no matter how they formed). The minimum mass and size required for an extrasolar object to be considered a planet should be the same as that used in the Solar System. 2. Substellar objects with true masses above the limiting mass for thermonuclear fusion of deuterium are "brown dwarfs", no matter how they formed or where they are located. 3. Free-floating objects in young star clusters with masses below the limiting mass for thermonuclear fusion of deuterium are not "planets", but are "sub-brown dwarfs" (or whatever name is most appropriate). This definition has since been widely used by astronomers when publishing discoveries of exoplanets in academic journals.[49] Although temporary, it remains an effective working definition until a more permanent one is formally adopted. However, it does not address the dispute over the lower mass limit,[50] and so it steered clear of the controversy regarding objects within the Solar System. This definition also makes no comment on the planetary status of objects orbiting brown dwarfs, such as 2M1207b. One definition of a sub-brown dwarf is a planet-mass object that formed through cloud-collapse rather than accretion. This formation distinction between a sub-brown dwarf and a planet is not universally agreed upon; astronomers are divided into two camps as whether to consider the formation process of a planet as part of its division in classification.[51] One reason for the dissent is that often, it may not be possible to determine the formation process: for example an accretionformed planet around a star may get ejected from the system to become free-floating, and likewise a cloud-collapse-formed sub-brown dwarf formed on its own in a star cluster may get captured into orbit around a star. Dwarf planets 2006present
Ceres Pluto Makemake Haumea Eris

The 13 Jupiter-mass cutoff is a rule of thumb rather than something of precise physical significance. The question arises: what is meant by deuterium burning? This question arises because large objects will burn most of their deuterium and smaller ones will burn only a little, and the 13 MJ value is somewhere in between. The amount of deuterium burnt depends not only on mass but also on the composition of the planet, on the amount of helium and deuterium present.[52]

Another criterion for separating planets and brown dwarfs, rather than deuterium burning, formation process or location is whether the core pressure is dominated by coulomb pressure or electron degeneracy pressure.[53][54] 2006 definition Main article: IAU definition of planet The matter of the lower limit was addressed during the 2006 meeting of the IAU's General Assembly. After much debate and one failed proposal, the assembly voted to pass a resolution that defined planets within the Solar System as:[55] A celestial body that (a) is in orbit around the Sun, (b) has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape, and (c) has cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit. Under this definition, the Solar System is considered to have eight planets. Bodies which fulfill the first two conditions but not the third (such as Pluto, Makemake and Eris) are classified as dwarf planets, provided they are not also natural satellites of other planets. Originally an IAU committee had proposed a definition that would have included a much larger number of planets as it did not include (c) as a criterion.[56] After much discussion, it was decided via a vote that those bodies should instead be classified as dwarf planets.[57] This definition is based in theories of planetary formation, in which planetary embryos initially clear their orbital neighborhood of other smaller objects. As described by astronomer Steven Soter:[58] The end product of secondary disk accretion is a small number of relatively large bodies (planets) in either non-intersecting or resonant orbits, which prevent collisions between them. Minor planets and comets, including KBOs [Kuiper belt objects], differ from planets in that they can collide with each other and with planets. In the aftermath of the IAU's 2006 vote, there has been controversy and debate about the definition,[59][60] and many astronomers have stated that they will not use it.[61] Part of the dispute centres around the belief that point (c) (clearing its orbit) should not have been listed, and that those objects now categorised as dwarf planets should actually be part of a broader planetary definition. Beyond the scientific community, Pluto has held a strong cultural significance for many in the general public considering its planetary status since its discovery in 1930. The discovery of Eris was widely reported in the media as the tenth planet and therefore the reclassification of all three objects as dwarf planets has attracted a lot of media and public attention as well.[62]

Former classifications
The table below lists Solar System bodies formerly considered to be planets:

Body The Moon

Current classification Moon

Notes
Classified as planets in antiquity, in accordance with the now disproved geocentric model. The four largest moons of Jupiter, known as the Galilean moons after their discoverer Galileo Galilei. He referred to them as the "Medicean Planets" in honor of his patron, the Medici family. Five of Saturn's larger moons, discovered by Christiaan Huygens and Giovanni Domenico Cassini. The first known asteroids, from their discoveries between 1801 and 1807 until their reclassification as asteroids during the 1850s.[64] Ceres has subsequently been classified as a dwarf planet in 2006. More asteroids, discovered between 1845 and 1851. The rapidly expanding list of planets prompted their reclassification as asteroids by astronomers, and this was widely accepted by 1854.[65] The first known trans-Neptunian object (i.e. minor planet with a semi-major axis beyond Neptune). In 2006, Pluto was reclassified as a dwarf planet. Discovered in 2003, this trans-Neptunian object (i.e. minor planet with a semi-major axis beyond Neptune) was recognized in 2005, before, like Pluto, in 2006 getting classified as a dwarf planet.

Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Moon Callisto Titan,[b] Iapetus,[c] Rhea,[c] Tethys,[d] and Dione[d] Ceres[e] Pallas, Juno, and Vesta Moon Dwarf planet and asteroid Asteroid

Astrea, Hebe, Iris, Flora, Metis, Hygeia, Parthenope, Asteroid Victoria, Egeria, Irene, Eunomia Pluto[f] Dwarf planet

Eris

Dwarf planet

Mythology and naming


See also: Weekday names and Naked-eye planet

The gods of Olympus, after whom the Solar System's planets are named The names for the planets in the Western world are derived from the naming practices of the Romans, which ultimately derive from those of the Greeks and the Babylonians. In ancient Greece, the two great luminaries the Sun and the Moon were called Helios and Selene; the farthest planet (Saturn) was called Phainon, the shiner; followed by Phaethon (Jupiter), "bright"; the red planet (Mars) was known as Pyroeis, the "fiery"; the brightest (Venus) was known as Phosphoros, the light bringer; and the fleeting final planet (Mercury) was called Stilbon, the gleamer. The Greeks also made each planet sacred to one among their pantheon of gods, the Olympians: Helios and Selene were the names of both planets and gods; Phainon was sacred to Cronus, the Titan who fathered the Olympians; Phaethon was sacred to Zeus, Cronus's son who deposed him as king; Pyroeis was given to Ares, son of Zeus and god of war; Phosphoros was ruled by Aphrodite, the goddess of love; and Hermes, messenger of the gods and god of learning and wit, ruled over Stilbon.[19] The Greek practice of grafting of their gods' names onto the planets was almost certainly borrowed from the Babylonians. The Babylonians named Phosphoros after their goddess of love, Ishtar; Pyroeis after their god of war, Nergal, Stilbon after their god of wisdom Nabu, and Phaethon after their chief god, Marduk.[66] There are too many concordances between Greek and Babylonian naming conventions for them to have arisen separately.[19] The translation was not perfect. For instance, the Babylonian Nergal was a god of war, and thus the Greeks identified him with Ares. However, unlike Ares, Nergal was also god of pestilence and the underworld.[67] Today, most people in the western world know the planets by names derived from the Olympian pantheon of gods. While modern Greeks still use their ancient names for the planets, other European languages, because of the influence of the Roman Empire and, later, the Catholic Church, use the Roman (Latin) names rather than the Greek ones. The Romans, who, like the Greeks, were Indo-Europeans, shared with them a common pantheon under different names but lacked the rich narrative traditions that Greek poetic culture had given their gods. During the later period of the Roman Republic, Roman writers borrowed much of the Greek narratives and applied them to their own pantheon, to the point where they became virtually indistinguishable.[68] When the Romans studied Greek astronomy, they gave the planets their own gods' names: Mercurius (for Hermes), Venus (Aphrodite), Mars (Ares), Iuppiter (Zeus) and Saturnus (Cronus). When subsequent planets were discovered in the 18th and 19th centuries, the naming practice was retained with Neptnus (Poseidon). Uranus is unique in that it is named for a Greek deity rather than his Roman counterpart. Some Romans, following a belief possibly originating in Mesopotamia but developed in Hellenistic Egypt, believed that the seven gods after whom the planets were named took hourly shifts in looking after affairs on Earth. The order of shifts went Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Sun, Venus, Mercury, Moon (from the farthest to the closest planet).[69] Therefore, the first day was started by Saturn (1st hour), second day by Sun (25th hour), followed by Moon (49th hour), Mars, Mercury, Jupiter and Venus. Since each day was named by the god that started it, this is also the order of the days of the week in the Roman calendar after the Nundinal cycle was rejected and still preserved in many modern languages.[70] In English, Saturday, Sunday, and Monday are straightforward translations of these Roman names. The other days were renamed

after Tiw, (Tuesday) Wden (Wednesday), Thunor (Thursday), and Frge (Friday), the AngloSaxon gods considered similar or equivalent to Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, and Venus, respectively. Earth is the only planet whose name in English is not derived from Greco-Roman mythology. Since it was only generally accepted as a planet in the 17th century,[36] there is no tradition of naming it after a god. (The same is true, in English at least, of the Sun and the Moon, though they are no longer generally considered planets.) The name originates from the 8th century Anglo-Saxon word erda, which means ground or soil and was first used in writing as the name of the sphere of the Earth perhaps around 1300.[71][72] As with its equivalents in the other Germanic languages, it derives ultimately from the Proto-Germanic word ertho, "ground",[72] as can be seen in the English earth, the German Erde, the Dutch aarde, and the Scandinavian jord. Many of the Romance languages retain the old Roman word terra (or some variation of it) that was used with the meaning of "dry land" as opposed to "sea".[73] However, the non-Romance languages use their own native words. The Greeks retain their original name, (Ge). Non-European cultures use other planetary-naming systems. India uses a system based on the Navagraha, which incorporates the seven traditional planets (Surya for the Sun, Chandra for the Moon, and Budha, Shukra, Mangala, Bhaspati and Shani for Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn) and the ascending and descending lunar nodes Rahu and Ketu. China and the countries of eastern Asia historically subject to Chinese cultural influence (such as Japan, Korea and Vietnam) use a naming system based on the five Chinese elements: water (Mercury), metal (Venus), fire (Mars), wood (Jupiter) and earth (Saturn).[70]

Formation
Main article: Nebular hypothesis It is not known with certainty how planets are formed. The prevailing theory is that they are formed during the collapse of a nebula into a thin disk of gas and dust. A protostar forms at the core, surrounded by a rotating protoplanetary disk. Through accretion (a process of sticky collision) dust particles in the disk steadily accumulate mass to form ever-larger bodies. Local concentrations of mass known as planetesimals form, and these accelerate the accretion process by drawing in additional material by their gravitational attraction. These concentrations become ever denser until they collapse inward under gravity to form protoplanets.[74] After a planet reaches a diameter larger than the Earth's moon, it begins to accumulate an extended atmosphere, greatly increasing the capture rate of the planetesimals by means of atmospheric drag.[75]

An artist's impression of protoplanetary disk

When the protostar has grown such that it ignites to form a star, the surviving disk is removed from the inside outward by photoevaporation, the solar wind, PoyntingRobertson drag and other effects.[76][77] Thereafter there still may be many protoplanets orbiting the star or each other, but over time many will collide, either to form a single larger planet or release material for other larger protoplanets or planets to absorb.[78] Those objects that have become massive enough will capture most matter in their orbital neighbourhoods to become planets. Meanwhile, protoplanets that have avoided collisions may become natural satellites of planets through a process of gravitational capture, or remain in belts of other objects to become either dwarf planets or small bodies. The energetic impacts of the smaller planetesimals (as well as radioactive decay) will heat up the growing planet, causing it to at least partially melt. The interior of the planet begins to differentiate by mass, developing a denser core.[79] Smaller terrestrial planets lose most of their atmospheres because of this accretion, but the lost gases can be replaced by outgassing from the mantle and from the subsequent impact of comets.[80] (Smaller planets will lose any atmosphere they gain through various escape mechanisms.) With the discovery and observation of planetary systems around stars other than our own, it is becoming possible to elaborate, revise or even replace this account. The level of metallicity an astronomical term describing the abundance of chemical elements with an atomic number greater than 2 (helium) is now believed to determine the likelihood that a star will have planets.[81] Hence, it is thought that a metal-rich population I star will likely possess a more substantial planetary system than a metal-poor, population II star.

Solar System

Planets and dwarf planets of the Solar System (Sizes to scale, distances not to scale)

The inner planets. From left to right: Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars in true-color. (Sizes to scale, distances not to scale)

The four gas giants against the Sun: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune (Sizes to scale, distances not to scale) Main article: Solar System See also: List of gravitationally rounded objects of the Solar System According to the IAU, there are eight planets and five recognized dwarf planets in the Solar System. In increasing distance from the Sun, the planets are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune

Jupiter is the largest, at 318 Earth masses, while Mercury is smallest, at 0.055 Earth masses. The planets of the Solar System can be divided into categories based on their composition:

Terrestrials: Planets that are similar to Earth, with bodies largely composed of rock: Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. At 0.055 Earth masses, Mercury is the smallest terrestrial planet (and smallest planet) in the Solar System, while Earth is the largest terrestrial planet. Gas giants (Jovians): Planets largely composed of gaseous material and significantly more massive than terrestrials: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune. Jupiter, at 318 Earth masses, is the largest planet in the Solar System, while Saturn is one third as big, at 95 Earth masses. o Ice giants, comprising Uranus and Neptune, are a sub-class of gas giants, distinguished from gas giants by their significantly lower mass (only 14 and 17 Earth masses), and by depletion in hydrogen and helium in their atmospheres together with a significantly higher proportion of rock and ice. Dwarf planets: Before the August 2006 decision, several objects were proposed by astronomers, including at one stage by the IAU, as planets. However in 2006 several of these objects were reclassified as dwarf planets, objects distinct from planets. Currently five dwarf planets in the Solar System are recognized by the IAU: Ceres, Pluto, Haumea, Makemake and Eris. Several other objects in both the asteroid belt and the Kuiper belt are under consideration, with as many as 50 that could eventually qualify. There may be as many as 200 that could be discovered once the Kuiper belt has been fully explored. Dwarf planets share many of the same characteristics as planets, although notable differences remain namely that they are not dominant in their orbits. By definition, all dwarf planets are members of larger populations. Ceres is the largest body in the asteroid belt, while Pluto, Haumea, and Makemake are members of the Kuiper belt and Eris is a member of the scattered disc. Scientists such as Mike Brown believe that there are probably over one hundred trans-Neptunian objects that qualify as dwarf planets under the IAU's recent definition.[82]

Planetary attributes
Orbit Inclina Orbi Rotat Equatoria al tion Confir tal Orbital ion l Mas perio to med Rin Atmosp Name eccentri perio [a [a] radi diameter s d Sun's moons[c gs here us city d ] ] (years equato (AU) [a] (days) ) r () Mercur y 0.310.24 0.47

Type

0.382

0.06

3.38

0.206

58.64

no minimal

Terrest rial planet

Venus

0.949

0.82 0.72 0.62

3.86

0.007

243. 02

no CO2, N2

Type

Orbit Inclina Orbi Rotat Equatoria al tion Confir tal Orbital ion l Mas perio to med Rin Atmosp Name radi eccentri perio diameter[a s[a] d Sun's moons[c gs here us city d ] ] (years equato (AU) [a] (days) ) r () N2, O2, Ar

Earth[b]

1.00

1.00 1.00 1.00

7.25

0.017

1.00

no

Mars

0.532

0.11 1.52 1.88 317. 5.20 11.86 8 95.2 9.54 29.46 14.6 19.22 84.01

5.65

0.093

1.03

no CO2, N2

Jupiter

11.209

6.09

0.048

0.41

67

yes H2, He

Saturn Gas giant Uranus

9.449 4.007

5.51 6.48

0.054 0.047

0.43 0.72

62 27

yes H2, He yes H2, He

Neptun e

3.883

17.2 30.06 164.8

6.43

0.009

0.67

14

yes H2, He

Ceres

0.08

0.00 2.5 4.60 0 2 3.0

10.59

0.080

0.38

no

none

Pluto Dwarf planet

0.18

0.00 29.7 248.0 17.14 2 2 49.3 9

0.249

6.39

no

temporar y

Haume 0.150.12 0.00 35.2 282.7 28.19 a 0.08 0 7 51.5 6 Makem ake 0.00 38.5 309.8 28.96 0 7 53.1 8

0.189

0.16

~0.12

0.159

0.32

? [d]

Type

Orbit Inclina Orbi Rotat Equatoria al tion Confir tal Orbital ion l Mas perio to med Rin Atmosp Name radi eccentri perio diameter[a s[a] d Sun's moons[c gs here us city d ] ] (years equato (AU) [a] (days) ) r () 0.00 37.8 ~557 2 5 97.6

Eris
a

0.19

44.19

0.442

~0.3

? [d]

Measured relative to the Earth. See Earth article for absolute values. c Jupiter has the most verified satellites (67) in the Solar System.[83] d Like Pluto, when near perihelion, a temporary atmosphere is suspected.
b

Extrasolar planets
Main article: Extrasolar planet

Exoplanets, by year of discovery, through 2011-07-10. In early 1992, radio astronomers Aleksander Wolszczan and Dale Frail announced the discovery of two planets orbiting the pulsar PSR 1257+12.[43] This discovery was confirmed, and is generally considered to be the first definitive detection of exoplanets. These pulsar planets are believed to have formed from the unusual remnants of the supernova that produced the pulsar, in a second round of planet formation, or else to be the remaining rocky cores of gas giants that survived the supernova and then decayed into their current orbits. The first confirmed discovery of an extrasolar planet orbiting an ordinary main-sequence star occurred on 6 October 1995, when Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz of the University of Geneva announced the detection of an exoplanet around 51 Pegasi. Of the 919 extrasolar planets discovered by 17 July 2013,[5] most have masses which are comparable to or larger than Jupiter's, though masses ranging from just below that of Mercury to many times Jupiter's mass have been

observed.[5] The smallest extrasolar planets found to date have been discovered orbiting burnedout star remnants called pulsars, such as PSR B1257+12.[84] There have been roughly a dozen extrasolar planets found of between 10 and 20 Earth masses,[5] such as those orbiting the stars Mu Arae, 55 Cancri and GJ 436.[85] Another new category are the so-called "super-Earths", possibly terrestrial planets larger than Earth but smaller than Neptune or Uranus. To date, about twenty possible super-Earths (depending on mass limits) have been found, including OGLE-2005-BLG-390Lb and MOA2007-BLG-192Lb, frigid icy worlds discovered through gravitational microlensing,[86][87] Kepler 10b, a planet with a diameter roughly 1.4 times that of Earth, (making it the smallest super-Earth yet measured)[88] and five of the six planets orbiting the nearby red dwarf Gliese 581. Gliese 581 d is roughly 7.7 times Earth's mass,[89] while Gliese 581 c is five times Earth's mass and was initially thought to be the first terrestrial planet found within a star's habitable zone.[90] However, more detailed studies revealed that it was slightly too close to its star to be habitable, and that the farther planet in the system, Gliese 581 d, though it is much colder than Earth, could potentially be habitable if its atmosphere contained sufficient amounts of greenhouse gases.[91] Another super-Earth, Kepler-22b, was later confirmed to be orbiting comfortably within the habitable zone of its star.[92] On December 20, 2011, the Kepler Space Telescope team reported the discovery of the first Earth-size extrasolar planets, Kepler-20e[6] and Kepler-20f,[7] orbiting a Sun-like star, Kepler-20.[8][9][10]

Comparison of Kepler-20e[6] and Kepler-20f[7] with Venus and Earth. It is far from clear if the newly discovered large planets would resemble the gas giants in the Solar System or if they are of an entirely different type as yet unknown, like ammonia giants or carbon planets. In particular, some of the newly discovered planets, known as hot Jupiters, orbit extremely close to their parent stars, in nearly circular orbits. They therefore receive much more stellar radiation than the gas giants in the Solar System, which makes it questionable whether they are the same type of planet at all. Also, a class of hot Jupiters may exist called Chthonian planets, that orbit so close to their star that their atmospheres have been blown away completely by stellar radiation. While many hot Jupiters have been found in the process of losing their atmospheres, as of 2008, no genuine Chthonian planets have been discovered.[93]

Size comparison of HR 8799 c (gray) with Jupiter. Most exoplanets discovered thus far are larger than Jupiter. More detailed observation of extrasolar planets will require a new generation of instruments, including space telescopes. Currently the COROT and Kepler spacecraft are searching for stellar luminosity variations due to transiting planets. Several projects have also been proposed to create an array of space telescopes to search for extrasolar planets with masses comparable to the Earth. These include the proposed NASA's, Terrestrial Planet Finder, and Space Interferometry Mission programs, and the CNES' PEGASE.[94] The New Worlds Mission is an occulting device that may work in conjunction with the James Webb Space Telescope. However, funding for some of these projects remains uncertain. The first spectra of extrasolar planets were reported in February 2007 (HD 209458 b and HD 189733 b).[95][96] The frequency of occurrence of such terrestrial planets is one of the variables in the Drake equation which estimates the number of intelligent, communicating civilizations that exist in our galaxy.[97]

Planetary-mass objects
A planetary-mass object, PMO, or planemo is a celestial object with a mass that falls within the range of the definition of a planet: massive enough to achieve hydrostatic equilibrium (to be rounded under its own gravity), but not enough to sustain core fusion like a star.[98] By definition, all planets are planetary-mass objects, but the purpose of the term is to describe objects which do not conform to typical expectations for a planet. These include dwarf planets, the larger moons, free-floating planets not orbiting a star, such as rogue planets ejected from their system, and objects that formed through cloud-collapse rather than accretion (sometimes called sub-brown dwarfs).

Rogue planets
Main article: Rogue planet Several computer simulations of stellar and planetary system formation have suggested that some objects of planetary mass would be ejected into interstellar space.[99] Some scientists have argued that such objects found roaming in deep space should be classed as "planets", although others have suggested that they could be low-mass stars.[100][101]

Sub-brown dwarfs
Main article: Sub-brown dwarf

Stars form via the gravitational collapse of gas clouds, but smaller objects can also form via cloud-collapse. Planetary-mass objects formed this way are sometimes called sub-brown dwarfs. Sub-brown dwarfs may be free-floating such as Cha 110913-773444, or orbiting a larger object such as 2MASS J04414489+2301513. For a brief time in 2006, astronomers believed they had found a binary system of such objects, Oph 162225-240515, which the discoverers described as "planemos", or "planetary-mass objects". However, recent analysis of the objects has determined that their masses are probably each greater than 13 Jupiter-masses, making the pair brown dwarfs.[102][103][104]

Former stars
In close binary star systems one of the stars can lose mass to a heavier companion. See accretionpowered pulsars. The shrinking star can then become a planetary-mass object. An example is a Jupiter-mass object orbiting the pulsar PSR J1719-1438.[105]

Satellite planets and belt planets


Some large satellites are of similar size or larger than the planet Mercury, e.g. Jupiter's Galilean moons and Titan. Alan Stern has argued that location should not matter and that only geophysical attributes should be taken into account in the definition of a planet, and proposes the term satellite planet for a planet-sized satellite. Likewise, dwarf planets in the asteroid belt and Kuiper belt should be considered planets according to Stern.[106]

Attributes
Although each planet has unique physical characteristics, a number of broad commonalities do exist among them. Some of these characteristics, such as rings or natural satellites, have only as yet been observed in planets in the Solar System, whilst others are also commonly observed in extrasolar planets.

Dynamic characteristics
See also: Kepler's laws of planetary motion Orbit

The orbit of the planet Neptune compared to that of Pluto. Note the elongation of Pluto's orbit in relation to Neptune's (eccentricity), as well as its large angle to the ecliptic (inclination). According to current definitions, all planets must revolve around stars; thus, any potential "rogue planets" are excluded. In the Solar System, all the planets orbit the Sun in the same direction as the Sun rotates (counter-clockwise as seen from above the Sun's north pole). At least one extrasolar planet, WASP-17b, has been found to orbit in the opposite direction to its star's rotation.[107] The period of one revolution of a planet's orbit is known as its sidereal period or year.[108] A planet's year depends on its distance from its star; the farther a planet is from its star, not only the longer the distance it must travel, but also the slower its speed, as it is less affected by the star's gravity. Because no planet's orbit is perfectly circular, the distance of each varies over the course of its year. The closest approach to its star is called its periastron (perihelion in the Solar System), while its farthest separation from the star is called its apastron (aphelion). As a planet approaches periastron, its speed increases as it trades gravitational potential energy for kinetic energy, just as a falling object on Earth accelerates as it falls; as the planet reaches apastron, its speed decreases, just as an object thrown upwards on Earth slows down as it reaches the apex of its trajectory.[109] Each planet's orbit is delineated by a set of elements:

The eccentricity of an orbit describes how elongated a planet's orbit is. Planets with low eccentricities have more circular orbits, while planets with high eccentricities have more elliptical orbits. The planets in the Solar System have very low eccentricities, and thus nearly circular orbits.[108] Comets and Kuiper belt objects (as well as several extrasolar planets) have very high eccentricities, and thus exceedingly elliptical orbits.[110][111]

Illustration of the semi-major axis The semi-major axis is the distance from a planet to the half-way point along the longest diameter of its elliptical orbit (see image). This distance is not the same as its apastron, as no planet's orbit has its star at its exact centre.[108]

The inclination of a planet tells how far above or below an established reference plane its orbit lies. In the Solar System, the reference plane is the plane of Earth's orbit, called the ecliptic. For extrasolar planets, the plane, known as the sky plane or plane of the sky, is the plane of the observer's line of sight from Earth.[112] The eight planets of the Solar System all lie very close to the ecliptic; comets and Kuiper belt objects like Pluto are at far more extreme angles to it.[113] The points at which a planet crosses above and below its reference plane are called its ascending and descending nodes.[108] The longitude of the ascending node is the angle between the reference plane's 0 longitude and the planet's

ascending node. The argument of periapsis (or perihelion in the Solar System) is the angle between a planet's ascending node and its closest approach to its star.[108] Axial tilt

Earth's axial tilt is about 23. Planets also have varying degrees of axial tilt; they lie at an angle to the plane of their stars' equators. This causes the amount of light received by each hemisphere to vary over the course of its year; when the northern hemisphere points away from its star, the southern hemisphere points towards it, and vice versa. Each planet therefore possesses seasons; changes to the climate over the course of its year. The time at which each hemisphere points farthest or nearest from its star is known as its solstice. Each planet has two in the course of its orbit; when one hemisphere has its summer solstice, when its day is longest, the other has its winter solstice, when its day is shortest. The varying amount of light and heat received by each hemisphere creates annual changes in weather patterns for each half of the planet. Jupiter's axial tilt is very small, so its seasonal variation is minimal; Uranus, on the other hand, has an axial tilt so extreme it is virtually on its side, which means that its hemispheres are either perpetually in sunlight or perpetually in darkness around the time of its solstices.[114] Among extrasolar planets, axial tilts are not known for certain, though most hot Jupiters are believed to possess negligible to no axial tilt, as a result of their proximity to their stars.[115] Rotation The planets rotate around invisible axes through their centres. A planet's rotation period is known as a stellar day. Most of the planets in the Solar System rotate in the same direction as they orbit the Sun, which is counter-clockwise as seen from above the Sun's north pole, the exceptions being Venus[116] and Uranus[117] which rotate clockwise, though Uranus's extreme axial tilt means there are differing conventions on which of its poles is "north", and therefore whether it is rotating clockwise or anti-clockwise.[118] However, regardless of which convention is used, Uranus has a retrograde rotation relative to its orbit. The rotation of a planet can be induced by several factors during formation. A net angular momentum can be induced by the individual angular momentum contributions of accreted objects. The accretion of gas by the gas giants can also contribute to the angular momentum. Finally, during the last stages of planet building, a stochastic process of protoplanetary accretion

can randomly alter the spin axis of the planet.[119] There is great variation in the length of day between the planets, with Venus taking 243 Earth days to rotate, and the gas giants only a few hours.[120] The rotational periods of extrasolar planets are not known; however their proximity to their stars means that hot Jupiters are tidally locked (their orbits are in sync with their rotations). This means they only ever show one face to their stars, with one side in perpetual day, the other in perpetual night.[121] Orbital clearing The defining dynamic characteristic of a planet is that it has cleared its neighborhood. A planet that has cleared its neighborhood has accumulated enough mass to gather up or sweep away all the planetesimals in its orbit. In effect, it orbits its star in isolation, as opposed to sharing its orbit with a multitude of similar-sized objects. This characteristic was mandated as part of the IAU's official definition of a planet in August, 2006. This criterion excludes such planetary bodies as Pluto, Eris and Ceres from full-fledged planethood, making them instead dwarf planets.[1] Although to date this criterion only applies to the Solar System, a number of young extrasolar systems have been found in which evidence suggests orbital clearing is taking place within their circumstellar discs.[122]

Physical characteristics
Mass A planet's defining physical characteristic is that it is massive enough for the force of its own gravity to dominate over the electromagnetic forces binding its physical structure, leading to a state of hydrostatic equilibrium. This effectively means that all planets are spherical or spheroidal. Up to a certain mass, an object can be irregular in shape, but beyond that point, which varies depending on the chemical makeup of the object, gravity begins to pull an object towards its own centre of mass until the object collapses into a sphere.[123] Mass is also the prime attribute by which planets are distinguished from stars. The upper mass limit for planethood is roughly 13 times Jupiter's mass for objects with solar-type isotopic abundance, beyond which it achieves conditions suitable for nuclear fusion. Other than the Sun, no objects of such mass exist in the Solar System; but there are exoplanets of this size. The 13MJ limit is not universally agreed upon and the Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia includes objects up to 20 Jupiter masses,[124] and the Exoplanet Data Explorer up to 24 Jupiter masses.[125] The smallest known planet, excluding dwarf planets and satellites, is PSR B1257+12A, one of the first extrasolar planets discovered, which was found in 1992 in orbit around a pulsar. Its mass is roughly half that of the planet Mercury.[5] The smallest known planet orbiting a main-sequence star other than the Sun is Kepler-37b, with a mass (and radius) slightly higher than that of the Moon. Internal differentiation

Illustration of the interior of Jupiter, with a rocky core overlaid by a deep layer of metallic hydrogen Every planet began its existence in an entirely fluid state; in early formation, the denser, heavier materials sank to the centre, leaving the lighter materials near the surface. Each therefore has a differentiated interior consisting of a dense planetary core surrounded by a mantle which either is or was a fluid. The terrestrial planets are sealed within hard crusts,[126] but in the gas giants the mantle simply dissolves into the upper cloud layers. The terrestrial planets possess cores of magnetic elements such as iron and nickel, and mantles of silicates. Jupiter and Saturn are believed to possess cores of rock and metal surrounded by mantles of metallic hydrogen.[127] Uranus and Neptune, which are smaller, possess rocky cores surrounded by mantles of water, ammonia, methane and other ices.[128] The fluid action within these planets' cores creates a geodynamo that generates a magnetic field.[126] Atmosphere See also: Extraterrestrial atmospheres

Earth's atmosphere All of the Solar System planets except Mercury[129] have substantial atmospheres as their large masses mean gravity is strong enough to keep gases close to the surface. The larger gas giants are massive enough to keep large amounts of the light gases hydrogen and helium close by, while the smaller planets lose these gases into space.[130] The composition of the Earth's atmosphere is different from the other planets because the various life processes that have transpired on the planet have introduced free molecular oxygen.[131] Planetary atmospheres are affected by the varying insolation or internal energy, leading to the formation of dynamic weather systems such as hurricanes, (on Earth), planet-wide dust storms

(on Mars), an Earth-sized anticyclone on Jupiter (called the Great Red Spot), and holes in the atmosphere (on Neptune).[114] At least one extrasolar planet, HD 189733 b, has been claimed to possess such a weather system, similar to the Great Red Spot but twice as large.[132] Hot Jupiters, due to their extreme proximities to their host stars, have been shown to be losing their atmospheres into space due to stellar radiation, much like the tails of comets.[133][134] These planets may have vast differences in temperature between their day and night sides which produce supersonic winds,[135] although the day and night sides of HD 189733 b appear to have very similar temperatures, indicating that that planet's atmosphere effectively redistributes the star's energy around the planet.[132] Magnetosphere

Schematic of Earth's magnetosphere One important characteristic of the planets is their intrinsic magnetic moments which in turn give rise to magnetospheres. The presence of a magnetic field indicates that the planet is still geologically alive. In other words, magnetized planets have flows of electrically conducting material in their interiors, which generate their magnetic fields. These fields significantly change the interaction of the planet and solar wind. A magnetized planet creates a cavity in the solar wind around itself called magnetosphere, which the wind cannot penetrate. The magnetosphere can be much larger than the planet itself. In contrast, non-magnetized planets have only small magnetospheres induced by interaction of the ionosphere with the solar wind, which cannot effectively protect the planet.[136] Of the eight planets in the Solar System, only Venus and Mars lack such a magnetic field.[136] In addition, the moon of Jupiter Ganymede also has one. Of the magnetized planets the magnetic field of Mercury is the weakest, and is barely able to deflect the solar wind. Ganymede's magnetic field is several times larger, and Jupiter's is the strongest in the Solar System (so strong in fact that it poses a serious health risk to future manned missions to its moons). The magnetic fields of the other giant planets are roughly similar in strength to that of Earth, but their magnetic moments are significantly larger. The magnetic fields of Uranus and Neptune are strongly tilted relative the rotational axis and displaced from the centre of the planet.[136]

In 2004, a team of astronomers in Hawaii observed an extrasolar planet around the star HD 179949, which appeared to be creating a sunspot on the surface of its parent star. The team hypothesised that the planet's magnetosphere was transferring energy onto the star's surface, increasing its already high 7,760 C temperature by an additional 400 C.[137]

Secondary characteristics
Several planets or dwarf planets in the Solar System (such as Neptune and Pluto) have orbital periods that are in resonance with each other or with smaller bodies (this is also common in satellite systems). All except Mercury and Venus have natural satellites, often called "moons". Earth has one, Mars has two, and the gas giants have numerous moons in complex planetary-type systems. Many gas giant moons have similar features to the terrestrial planets and dwarf planets, and some have been studied as possible abodes of life (especially Europa).[138][139][140]

The rings of Saturn The four gas giants are also orbited by planetary rings of varying size and complexity. The rings are composed primarily of dust or particulate matter, but can host tiny 'moonlets' whose gravity shapes and maintains their structure. Although the origins of planetary rings is not precisely known, they are believed to be the result of natural satellites that fell below their parent planet's Roche limit and were torn apart by tidal forces.[141][142] No secondary characteristics have been observed around extrasolar planets. However the subbrown dwarf Cha 110913-773444, which has been described as a rogue planet, is believed to be orbited by a tiny protoplanetary disc.[100]

Related terms

Comet Double planet Dwarf planet Extrasolar planet (or Exoplanet) celestial body outside the Solar System Mesoplanet Minor planet celestial body smaller than a planet

Planetar (astronomy) Planetary mnemonic Planetesimal Protoplanet Rogue planet

See also
Astronomy portal Solar System portal Space portal

Extraterrestrial skies List of hypothetical Solar System objects Landings on other planets Space exploration Planetary habitability Planetary science Exoplanetology Theoretical planetology Planets in astrology Planets in science fiction

Notes
1. ^ a b c d This definition is drawn from two separate IAU declarations; a formal definition agreed by the IAU in 2006, and an informal working definition established by the IAU in 2001/2003 for objects outside of the Solar System. The 2006 definition, while official, applies only to the Solar System, while the 2003 definition applies to planets around other stars. The extrasolar planet issue was deemed too complex to resolve at the 2006 IAU conference. 2. ^ a b Referred to by Huygens as a Planetes novus ("new planet") in his Systema Saturnium 3. ^ a b c Both labelled nouvelles plantes (new planets) by Cassini in his Dcouverte de deux nouvelles planetes autour de Saturne[63] 4. ^ a b c d Both once referred to as "planets" by Cassini in his An Extract of the Journal Des Scavans.... The term "satellite", however, had already begun to be used to distinguish such bodies from those around which they orbited ("primary planets"). 5. ^ Classified as a dwarf planet in 2006. 6. ^ Regarded as a planet from its discovery in 1930 until redesignated as a trans-Neptunian dwarf planet in August 2006.

References

Earth
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search This article is about the planet. For other uses, see Earth (disambiguation). Earth

"The Blue Marble" photograph of Earth, taken from Apollo 17 Designations Alternative Tellus or Terra,[note 1] Gaia names Orbital characteristics Epoch J2000.0[note 2] 152,098,232 km Aphelion 1.01671388 AU[note 3]

147,098,290 km 0.98329134 AU[note 3] 149,598,261 km Semi-major axis 1.00000261 AU[1] 0.01671123[1] Eccentricity 365.256363004 days[2] Orbital period 1.000017421 yr Average orbital 29.78 km/s[3] 107,200 km/h speed Mean anomaly 357.51716[3] 7.155 to Sun's equator Inclination 1.57869[4] to invariable plane Longitude of 348.73936[3][note 4] ascending node Argument of 114.20783[3][note 5] perihelion 1 natural (the Moon), 8,300+ artificial (as of Satellites 1 March 2001)[5] Physical characteristics 6,371.0 km[6] Mean radius Equatorial 6,378.1 km[7][8] radius 6,356.8 km[9] Polar radius 0.0033528[10] Flattening 40,075.017 km (equatorial)[8] Circumference 40,007.86 km (meridional)[11][12] 510,072,000 km2[13][14][note 6] 148,940,000 km2 land (29.2 %) Surface area Perihelion Volume Mass 361,132,000 km2 water (70.8 %) 1.083211012 km3[3] 5.97361024 kg[3]

3.0106 Suns 5.515 g/cm3[3] Mean density 9.780327 m/s2[15] Equatorial surface gravity 0.99732 g Escape velocity 11.186 km/s[3] 0.99726968 d[16] Sidereal

rotation period 23h 56m 4.100s Equatorial 1,674.4 km/h (465.1 m/s)[17] rotation velocity 2326'21".4119[2] Axial tilt 0.367 (geometric)[3] Albedo 0.306 (Bond)[3] Surface temp. Kelvin Celsius Surface pressure min mean 184 K[18] 288 K[19] 89.2 C 15 C Atmosphere 101.325 kPa (MSL) 78.08% nitrogen (N2)[3] (dry air) 20.95% oxygen (O2) 0.93% argon 0.039% carbon dioxide[21] About 1% water vapor (varies with climate) max 330 K[20] 56.7 C

Composition

Earth is the third planet from the Sun, and the densest and fifth-largest of the eight planets in the Solar System. It is also the largest of the Solar System's four terrestrial planets. It is sometimes referred to as the world or the Blue Planet.[22] Earth formed approximately 4.54 billion years ago, and life appeared on its surface within its first billion years.[23] Earth's biosphere then significantly altered the atmospheric and other basic physical conditions, which enabled the proliferation of organisms as well as the formation of the ozone layer, which together with Earth's magnetic field blocked harmful solar radiation, and permitted formerly ocean-confined life to move safely to land.[24] The physical properties of the Earth, as well as its geological history and orbit, have allowed life to persist. Estimates on how much longer the planet will be able to continue to support life range from 500 million years (myr), to as long as 2.3 billion years (byr).[25][26][27] Earth's lithosphere is divided into several rigid segments, or tectonic plates, that migrate across the surface over periods of many millions of years. About 71% of the surface is covered by salt water oceans, with the remainder consisting of continents and islands which together have many lakes and other sources of water that contribute to the hydrosphere. Earth's poles are mostly covered with ice that is the solid ice of the Antarctic ice sheet and the sea ice that is the polar ice packs. The planet's interior remains active, with a solid iron inner core, a liquid outer core that generates the magnetic field, and a thick layer of relatively solid mantle. Earth gravitationally interacts with other objects in space, especially the Sun and the Moon. During one orbit around the Sun, the Earth rotates about its own axis 366.26 times, creating 365.26 solar days, or one sidereal year.[note 7] The Earth's axis of rotation is tilted 23.4 away from

the perpendicular of its orbital plane, producing seasonal variations on the planet's surface with a period of one tropical year (365.24 solar days).[28] The Moon is Earth's only natural satellite. It began orbiting the Earth about 4.53 billion years ago (bya). The Moon's gravitational interaction with Earth stimulates ocean tides, stabilizes the axial tilt, and gradually slows the planet's rotation. The planet is home to millions of species of life, including humans.[29] Both the mineral resources of the planet and the products of the biosphere contribute resources that are used to support a global human population.[30] These inhabitants are grouped into about 200 independent sovereign states, which interact through diplomacy, travel, trade, and military action. Human cultures have developed many views of the planet, including its personification as a planetary deity, its shape as flat, its position as the center of the universe, and in the modern Gaia Principle, as a single, self-regulating organism in its own right.

Contents

1 Name and etymology 2 Chronology o 2.1 Formation o 2.2 Evolution of life o 2.3 Future 3 Composition and structure o 3.1 Shape o 3.2 Chemical composition o 3.3 Internal structure o 3.4 Heat o 3.5 Tectonic plates o 3.6 Surface o 3.7 Hydrosphere o 3.8 Atmosphere 3.8.1 Weather and climate 3.8.2 Upper atmosphere o 3.9 Magnetic field 4 Orbit and rotation o 4.1 Rotation o 4.2 Orbit o 4.3 Axial tilt and seasons 5 Moon 6 Asteroids and artificial satellites 7 Habitability o 7.1 Biosphere o 7.2 Natural resources and land use o 7.3 Natural and environmental hazards o 7.4 Human geography 8 Cultural and historical viewpoint 9 See also

10 Notes 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External links

Name and etymology


The modern English noun earth developed from Middle English erthe (recorded in 1137), itself from Old English eorthe (dating from before 725), deriving from Proto-Germanic *erth. Earth has cognates in all other Germanic languages, including Dutch aarde, German Erde, and Swedish, Norwegian, and Danish jord.[31] The Earth is personified as a goddess in Germanic paganism (appearing as Jr in Norse mythology, mother of the god Thor).[32] In general English usage, the name earth can be capitalized or spelled in lowercase interchangeably, either when used absolutely or prefixed with "the" (i.e. "Earth", "the Earth", "earth", or "the earth"). Many deliberately spell the name of the planet with a capital, both as "Earth" or "the Earth". This is to distinguish it as a proper noun, distinct from the senses of the term as a mass noun or verb (e.g. referring to soil, the ground, earthing in the electrical sense, etc.). Oxford spelling recognizes the lowercase form as the most common, with the capitalized form as a variant of it. Another common convention is to spell the name with a capital when occurring absolutely (e.g. Earth's atmosphere) and lowercase when preceded by "the" (e.g. the atmosphere of the earth). The term almost exclusively exists in lowercase when appearing in common phrases, even without "the" preceding it (e.g. "It does not cost the earth.", "What on earth are you doing?").[33]

Chronology
Formation
Main article: History of the Earth

Artist's impression of the birth of the Solar System

The earliest material found in the Solar System is dated to 4.56720.0006 bya;[34] therefore, it is inferred that the Earth must have been formed by accretion around this time. By 4.540.04 bya[23] the primordial Earth had formed. The formation and evolution of the Solar System bodies occurred in tandem with the Sun. In theory a solar nebula partitions a volume out of a molecular cloud by gravitational collapse, which begins to spin and flatten into a circumstellar disk, and then the planets grow out of that in tandem with the star. A nebula contains gas, ice grains and dust (including primordial nuclides). In nebular theory planetesimals commence forming as particulate accrues by cohesive clumping and then by gravity. The assembly of the primordial Earth proceeded for 1020 myr.[35] The Moon formed shortly thereafter, about 4.53 bya.[36] The Moon's formation remains debated. The working hypothesis is that it formed by accretion from material loosed from the Earth after a Mars-sized object dubbed Theia impacted with Earth.[37] The model, however, is not self-consistent. In this scenario, the mass of Theia is 10% of the Earth's mass,[38] it impacts with the Earth in a glancing blow,[39] and some of its mass merges with the Earth. Between approximately 3.8 and 4.1 bya, numerous asteroid impacts during the Late Heavy Bombardment caused significant changes to the greater surface environment of the Moon, and by inference, to the Earth. Earth's atmosphere and oceans formed by volcanic activity and outgassing that included water vapor. The origin of the world's oceans was condensation augmented by water and ice delivered by asteroids, proto-planets, and comets.[40] In this model, atmospheric "greenhouse gases" kept the oceans from freezing while the newly forming Sun was only at 70% luminosity.[41] By 3.5 bya, the Earth's magnetic field was established, which helped prevent the atmosphere from being stripped away by the solar wind.[42] A crust formed when the molten outer layer of the planet Earth cooled to form a solid as the accumulated water vapor began to act in the atmosphere. The two models[43] that explain land mass propose either a steady growth to the present-day forms[44] or, more likely, a rapid growth[45] early in Earth history[46] followed by a long-term steady continental area.[47][48][49] Continents formed by plate tectonics, a process ultimately driven by the continuous loss of heat from the earth's interior. On time scales lasting hundreds of millions of years, the supercontinents have formed and broken up three times. Roughly 750 mya (million years ago), one of the earliest known supercontinents, Rodinia, began to break apart. The continents later recombined to form Pannotia, 600540 mya, then finally Pangaea, which also broke apart 180 mya.[50]

Evolution of life
Main article: Evolutionary history of life For more details on the current eon, see Geological history of Earth.

Stratocumulus clouds over the Pacific, viewed from orbit. Over 70% percent of Earth's surface is covered with water, which contains about half of the planet's species.[51] Highly energetic chemistry is thought to have produced a self-replicating molecule around 4 bya and half a billion years later the last common ancestor of all life existed.[52] The development of photosynthesis allowed the Sun's energy to be harvested directly by life forms; the resultant oxygen accumulated in the atmosphere and formed a layer of ozone (a form of molecular oxygen [O3]) in the upper atmosphere. The incorporation of smaller cells within larger ones resulted in the development of complex cells called eukaryotes.[53] True multicellular organisms formed as cells within colonies became increasingly specialized. Aided by the absorption of harmful ultraviolet radiation by the ozone layer, life colonized the surface of Earth.[54] Since the 1960s, it has been hypothesized that severe glacial action between 750 and 580 mya, during the Neoproterozoic, covered much of the planet in a sheet of ice. This hypothesis has been termed "Snowball Earth", and is of particular interest because it preceded the Cambrian explosion, when multicellular life forms began to proliferate.[55] Following the Cambrian explosion, about 535 mya, there have been five major mass extinctions.[56] The most recent such event was 66 mya, when an asteroid impact triggered the extinction of the (non-avian) dinosaurs and other large reptiles, but spared some small animals such as mammals, which then resembled shrews. Over the past 66 myr, mammalian life has diversified, and several million years ago an African ape-like animal such as Orrorin tugenensis gained the ability to stand upright.[57] This enabled tool use and encouraged communication that provided the nutrition and stimulation needed for a larger brain, which allowed the evolution of the human race. The development of agriculture, and then civilization, allowed humans to influence the Earth in a short time span as no other life form had,[58] affecting both the nature and quantity of other life forms. The present pattern of ice ages began about 40 mya and then intensified during the Pleistocene about 3 mya. High-latitude regions have since undergone repeated cycles of glaciation and thaw, repeating every 40100,000 years. The last continental glaciation ended 10,000 years ago.[59]

Future

Main article: Future of the Earth See also: Risks to civilization, humans, and planet Earth

The life cycle of the Sun The future of the planet is closely tied to that of the Sun. As a result of the steady accumulation of helium at the Sun's core, the star's total luminosity will slowly increase. The luminosity of the Sun will grow by 10% over the next 1.1 byr and by 40% over the next 3.5 byr.[60] Climate models indicate that the rise in radiation reaching the Earth is likely to have dire consequences, including the loss of the planet's oceans.[61] The Earth's increasing surface temperature will accelerate the inorganic CO2 cycle, reducing its concentration to levels lethally low for plants (10 ppm for C4 photosynthesis) in approximately 500-900 myr.[25] The lack of vegetation will result in the loss of oxygen in the atmosphere, so animal life will become extinct within several million more years.[62] After another billion years all surface water will have disappeared[26] and the mean global temperature will reach 70 C[62] (158 F). The Earth is expected to be effectively habitable for about another 500 myr from that point,[25] although this may be extended up to 2.3 byr if the nitrogen is removed from the atmosphere.[27] Even if the Sun were eternal and stable, 27% of the water in the modern oceans will descend to the mantle in one billion years, due to reduced steam venting from mid-ocean ridges.[63] The Sun, as part of its evolution, will become a red giant in about 5 byr. Models predict that the Sun will expand out to about 250 times its present radius, roughly 1 AU (150,000,000 km).[60][64] Earth's fate is less clear. As a red giant, the Sun will lose roughly 30% of its mass, so, without tidal effects, the Earth will move to an orbit 1.7 AU (250,000,000 km) from the Sun, when the star reaches its maximum radius. The planet was, therefore, initially expected to escape envelopment by the expanded Sun's sparse outer atmosphere, though most, if not all, remaining life would have been destroyed by the Sun's increased luminosity (peaking at about 5,000 times its present level).[60] A 2008 simulation indicates that the Earth's orbit will decay due to tidal effects and drag, causing it to enter the red giant Sun's atmosphere and be vaporized.[64] After that, the Sun's core will collapse into a white dwarf, as its outer layers are ejected into space as a planetary nebula. The matter that once made up the Earth will be released into interstellar space, where it may one day become incorporated into a new generation of planets and other celestial bodies.

Composition and structure

Size comparison of inner planets (left to right): Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars in true-color. Main article: Earth science Further information: Earth physical characteristics tables Earth is a terrestrial planet, meaning that it is a rocky body, rather than a gas giant like Jupiter. It is the largest of the four terrestrial planets in size and mass. Of these four planets, Earth also has the highest density, the highest surface gravity, the strongest magnetic field, and fastest rotation,[65] and is probably the only one with active plate tectonics.[66]

Shape
Main article: Figure of the Earth

Chimborazo, Ecuador. The furthermost point on the Earth's surface from its center.[67] The shape of the Earth approximates an oblate spheroid, a sphere flattened along the axis from pole to pole such that there is a bulge around the equator.[68] This bulge results from the rotation of the Earth, and causes the diameter at the equator to be 43 km (kilometer) larger than the poleto-pole diameter.[69] For this reason the furthest point on the surface from the Earth's center of mass is the Chimborazo volcano in Ecuador.[70] The average diameter of the reference spheroid is about 12,742 km, which is approximately 40,000 km/, as the meter was originally defined as 1/10,000,000 of the distance from the equator to the North Pole through Paris, France.[71] Local topography deviates from this idealized spheroid, although on a global scale, these deviations are small: Earth has a tolerance of about one part in about 584, or 0.17%, from the reference spheroid, which is less than the 0.22% tolerance allowed in billiard balls.[72] The largest local deviations in the rocky surface of the Earth are Mount Everest (8,848 m above local sea level) and the Mariana Trench (10,911 m below local sea level). Due to the equatorial bulge, the surface locations farthest from the center of the Earth are the summits of Mount Chimborazo in Ecuador and Huascarn in Peru.[73][74][75]

Chemical composition of the crust[76] Composition Compound Formula silica SiO2 alumina Al2O3 lime CaO magnesia MgO iron(II) oxide FeO sodium oxide Na2O potassium oxide K2O iron(III) oxide Fe2O3 water H2O carbon dioxide CO2 titanium dioxide TiO2 phosphorus pentoxide P2O5 Total 60.2% 15.2% 5.5% 3.1% 3.8% 3.0% 2.8% 2.5% 1.4% 1.2% 0.7% 0.2% 99.6%

Continental Oceanic

48.6% 16.5% 12.3% 6.8% 6.2% 2.6% 0.4% 2.3% 1.1% 1.4% 1.4% 0.3% 99.9%

Chemical composition
See also: Abundance of elements on Earth The mass of the Earth is approximately 5.981024 kg. It is composed mostly of iron (32.1%), oxygen (30.1%), silicon (15.1%), magnesium (13.9%), sulfur (2.9%), nickel (1.8%), calcium (1.5%), and aluminium (1.4%); with the remaining 1.2% consisting of trace amounts of other elements. Due to mass segregation, the core region is believed to be primarily composed of iron (88.8%), with smaller amounts of nickel (5.8%), sulfur (4.5%), and less than 1% trace elements.[77] The geochemist F. W. Clarke calculated that a little more than 47% of the Earth's crust consists of oxygen. The more common rock constituents of the Earth's crust are nearly all oxides; chlorine, sulfur and fluorine are the only important exceptions to this and their total amount in any rock is usually much less than 1%. The principal oxides are silica, alumina, iron oxides, lime, magnesia, potash and soda. The silica functions principally as an acid, forming silicates, and all the commonest minerals of igneous rocks are of this nature. From a computation based on 1,672 analyses of all kinds of rocks, Clarke deduced that 99.22% were composed of 11 oxides (see the table at right), with the other constituents occurring in minute quantities.[78]

Internal structure
Main article: Structure of the Earth The interior of the Earth, like that of the other terrestrial planets, is divided into layers by their chemical or physical (rheological) properties, but unlike the other terrestrial planets, it has a

distinct outer and inner core. The outer layer of the Earth is a chemically distinct silicate solid crust, which is underlain by a highly viscous solid mantle. The crust is separated from the mantle by the Mohorovii discontinuity, and the thickness of the crust varies: averaging 6 km (kilometers) under the oceans and 30-50 km on the continents. The crust and the cold, rigid, top of the upper mantle are collectively known as the lithosphere, and it is of the lithosphere that the tectonic plates are comprised. Beneath the lithosphere is the asthenosphere, a relatively lowviscosity layer on which the lithosphere rides. Important changes in crystal structure within the mantle occur at 410 and 660 km below the surface, spanning a transition zone that separates the upper and lower mantle. Beneath the mantle, an extremely low viscosity liquid outer core lies above a solid inner core.[79] The inner core may rotate at a slightly higher angular velocity than the remainder of the planet, advancing by 0.10.5 per year.[80] Geologic layers of the Earth[81] Depth[82]
km

Density Component Layer Lithosphere[note 8] Crust[note 9] Upper mantle


g/cm3

060 035 3560

2.22.9 3.44.4 3.45.6 9.912.2 12.813.1

352890 Mantle 100700


Earth cutaway from core to exosphere. Not to scale.

Asthenosphere

28905100 Outer core 51006378 Inner core

Heat
Earth's internal heat comes from a combination of residual heat from planetary accretion (about 20%) and heat produced through radioactive decay (80%).[83] The major heat-producing isotopes in the Earth are potassium-40, uranium-238, uranium-235, and thorium-232.[84] At the center of the planet, the temperature may be up to 6,000 C (10,830 F),[85] and the pressure could reach 360 GPa.[86] Because much of the heat is provided by radioactive decay, scientists believe that early in Earth history, before isotopes with short half-lives had been depleted, Earth's heat production would have been much higher. This extra heat production, twice present-day at approximately 3 byr,[83] would have increased temperature gradients within the Earth, increasing the rates of mantle convection and plate tectonics, and allowing the production of igneous rocks such as komatiites that are not formed today.[87] Present-day major heat-producing isotopes[88] Half-life Mean mantle concentration Heat release Isotope Heat release
Wkg isotope

years

kg isotopekg mantle

Wkg mantle

U 235 U 232 Th 40 K

238

9.46 105 5.69 104 2.64 105 2.92 105

4.47 109 7.04 108 1.40 1010 1.25 109

30.8 109 0.22 109 124 109 36.9 109

2.91 1012 1.25 1013 3.27 1012 1.08 1012

The mean heat loss from the Earth is 87 mW m2, for a global heat loss of 4.42 1013 W.[89] A portion of the core's thermal energy is transported toward the crust by mantle plumes; a form of convection consisting of upwellings of higher-temperature rock. These plumes can produce hotspots and flood basalts.[90] More of the heat in the Earth is lost through plate tectonics, by mantle upwelling associated with mid-ocean ridges. The final major mode of heat loss is through conduction through the lithosphere, the majority of which occurs in the oceans because the crust there is much thinner than that of the continents.[91]

Tectonic plates
Earth's main plates[92]

Plate name Pacific Plate African Plate[note 10] North American Plate Eurasian Plate Antarctic Plate Indo-Australian Plate South American Plate Main article: Plate tectonics

Area
106 km2

103.3 78.0 75.9 67.8 60.9 47.2 43.6

The mechanically rigid outer layer of the Earth, the lithosphere, is broken into pieces called tectonic plates. These plates are rigid segments that move in relation to one another at one of three types of plate boundaries: Convergent boundaries, at which two plates come together, Divergent boundaries, at which two plates are pulled apart, and Transform boundaries, in which two plates slide past one another laterally. Earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain-building, and oceanic trench formation can occur along these plate boundaries.[93] The tectonic plates ride on top of the asthenosphere, the solid but less-viscous part of the upper mantle that can flow and

move along with the plates,[94] and their motion is strongly coupled with convection patterns inside the Earth's mantle. As the tectonic plates migrate across the planet, the ocean floor is subducted under the leading edges of the plates at convergent boundaries. At the same time, the upwelling of mantle material at divergent boundaries creates mid-ocean ridges. The combination of these processes continually recycles the oceanic crust back into the mantle. Due to this recycling, most of the ocean floor is less than 100 myr old in age. The oldest oceanic crust is located in the Western Pacific, and has an estimated age of about 200 myr.[95][96] By comparison, the oldest dated continental crust is 4,030 myr.[97] The seven major plates are the Pacific, North American, Eurasian, African, Antarctic, IndoAustralian, and South American. Other notable plates include the Arabian Plate, the Caribbean Plate, the Nazca Plate off the west coast of South America and the Scotia Plate in the southern Atlantic Ocean. The Australian Plate fused with the Indian Plate between 50 and 55 mya. The fastest-moving plates are the oceanic plates, with the Cocos Plate advancing at a rate of 75 mm/year[98] and the Pacific Plate moving 5269 mm/year. At the other extreme, the slowestmoving plate is the Eurasian Plate, progressing at a typical rate of about 21 mm/year.[99]

Surface
Main articles: Landform and Extreme points of Earth The Earth's terrain varies greatly from place to place. About 70.8%[13] of the surface is covered by water, with much of the continental shelf below sea level. This equates to 361.132 million km2 (139.43 million sq mi).[100] The submerged surface has mountainous features, including a globe-spanning mid-ocean ridge system, as well as undersea volcanoes,[69] oceanic trenches, submarine canyons, oceanic plateaus and abyssal plains. The remaining 29.2% (148.94 million km2, or 57.51 million sq mi) not covered by water consists of mountains, deserts, plains, plateaus, and other geomorphologies. The planetary surface undergoes reshaping over geological time periods due to tectonics and erosion. The surface features built up or deformed through plate tectonics are subject to steady weathering from precipitation, thermal cycles, and chemical effects. Glaciation, coastal erosion, the build-up of coral reefs, and large meteorite impacts[101] also act to reshape the landscape.

Present-day Earth altimetry and bathymetry. Data from the National Geophysical Data Center's TerrainBase Digital Terrain Model. The continental crust consists of lower density material such as the igneous rocks granite and andesite. Less common is basalt, a denser volcanic rock that is the primary constituent of the ocean floors.[102] Sedimentary rock is formed from the accumulation of sediment that becomes compacted together. Nearly 75% of the continental surfaces are covered by sedimentary rocks, although they form only about 5% of the crust.[103] The third form of rock material found on Earth is metamorphic rock, which is created from the transformation of pre-existing rock types through high pressures, high temperatures, or both. The most abundant silicate minerals on the Earth's surface include quartz, the feldspars, amphibole, mica, pyroxene and olivine.[104] Common carbonate minerals include calcite (found in limestone) and dolomite.[105] The pedosphere is the outermost layer of the Earth that is composed of soil and subject to soil formation processes. It exists at the interface of the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. Currently the total arable land is 13.31% of the land surface, with only 4.71% supporting permanent crops.[14] Close to 40% of the Earth's land surface is presently used for cropland and pasture, or an estimated 1.3107 km2 of cropland and 3.4107 km2 of pastureland.[106] The elevation of the land surface of the Earth varies from the low point of 418 m at the Dead Sea, to a 2005-estimated maximum altitude of 8,848 m at the top of Mount Everest. The mean height of land above sea level is 840 m.[107] Besides being divided logically into Northern and Southern Hemispheres centered on the earths poles, the earth has been divided arbitrarily into Eastern and Western Hemispheres.

Hydrosphere
Main article: Hydrosphere

Elevation histogram of the surface of the Earth The abundance of water on Earth's surface is a unique feature that distinguishes the "Blue Planet" from others in the Solar System. The Earth's hydrosphere consists chiefly of the oceans, but technically includes all water surfaces in the world, including inland seas, lakes, rivers, and underground waters down to a depth of 2,000 m. The deepest underwater location is Challenger Deep of the Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean with a depth of 10,911.4 m.[note 11][108] The mass of the oceans is approximately 1.351018 metric tons, or about 1/4400 of the total mass of the Earth. The oceans cover an area of 3.618108 km2 with a mean depth of 3,682 m, resulting in an estimated volume of 1.332109 km3.[109] If all the land on Earth were spread evenly, water would rise to an altitude of more than 2.7 km.[note 12] About 97.5% of the water is saline, while the remaining 2.5% is fresh water. Most fresh water, about 68.7%, is currently ice.[110] The average salinity of the Earth's oceans is about 35 grams of salt per kilogram of sea water (35 salt).[111] Most of this salt was released from volcanic activity or extracted from cool, igneous rocks.[112] The oceans are also a reservoir of dissolved atmospheric gases, which are essential for the survival of many aquatic life forms.[113] Sea water has an important influence on the world's climate, with the oceans acting as a large heat reservoir.[114] Shifts in the oceanic temperature distribution can cause significant weather shifts, such as the El Nio-Southern Oscillation.[115]

Atmosphere
Main article: Atmosphere of Earth

This is a picture of Earth in ultraviolet light, taken from the surface of the Moon. The day-side (right) reflects a lot of UV light from the Sun, but the night-side (left) shows bands of UV emission from the aurora caused by charged particles.[116] The atmospheric pressure on the surface of the Earth averages 101.325 kPa, with a scale height of about 8.5 km.[3] It is 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen, with trace amounts of water vapor, carbon dioxide and other gaseous molecules. The height of the troposphere varies with latitude, ranging between 8 km at the poles to 17 km at the equator, with some variation resulting from weather and seasonal factors.[117] Earth's biosphere has significantly altered its atmosphere. Oxygenic photosynthesis evolved 2.7 bya, forming the primarily nitrogenoxygen atmosphere of today. This change enabled the proliferation of aerobic organisms as well as the formation of the ozone layer which blocks ultraviolet solar radiation, permitting life on land. Other atmospheric functions important to life on Earth include transporting water vapor, providing useful gases, causing small meteors to burn up before they strike the surface, and moderating temperature.[118] This last phenomenon is known as the greenhouse effect: trace molecules within the atmosphere serve to capture thermal energy emitted from the ground, thereby raising the average temperature. Water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane and ozone are the primary greenhouse gases in the Earth's atmosphere. Without this heat-retention effect, the average surface would be 18 C, in contrast to the current +15 C, and life would likely not exist.[119] Weather and climate Main articles: Weather and Climate

Satellite cloud cover image of Earth using NASA's Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer

The Earth's atmosphere has no definite boundary, slowly becoming thinner and fading into outer space. Three-quarters of the atmosphere's mass is contained within the first 11 km of the planet's surface. This lowest layer is called the troposphere. Energy from the Sun heats this layer, and the surface below, causing expansion of the air. This lower-density air then rises, and is replaced by cooler, higher-density air. The result is atmospheric circulation that drives the weather and climate through redistribution of thermal energy.[120] The primary atmospheric circulation bands consist of the trade winds in the equatorial region below 30 latitude and the westerlies in the mid-latitudes between 30 and 60.[121] Ocean currents are also important factors in determining climate, particularly the thermohaline circulation that distributes thermal energy from the equatorial oceans to the polar regions.[122] Water vapor generated through surface evaporation is transported by circulatory patterns in the atmosphere. When atmospheric conditions permit an uplift of warm, humid air, this water condenses and settles to the surface as precipitation.[120] Most of the water is then transported to lower elevations by river systems and usually returned to the oceans or deposited into lakes. This water cycle is a vital mechanism for supporting life on land, and is a primary factor in the erosion of surface features over geological periods. Precipitation patterns vary widely, ranging from several meters of water per year to less than a millimeter. Atmospheric circulation, topological features and temperature differences determine the average precipitation that falls in each region.[123] The amount of solar energy reaching the Earth's decreases with increasing latitude. At higher latitudes the sunlight reaches the surface at lower angles and it must pass through thicker columns of the atmosphere. As a result, the mean annual air temperature at sea level decreases by about 0.4 C per degree of latitude away from the equator.[124] The Earth can be subdivided into specific latitudinal belts of approximately homogeneous climate. Ranging from the equator to the polar regions, these are the tropical (or equatorial), subtropical, temperate and polar climates.[125] Climate can also be classified based on the temperature and precipitation, with the climate regions characterized by fairly uniform air masses. The commonly used Kppen climate classification system (as modified by Wladimir Kppen's student Rudolph Geiger) has five broad groups (humid tropics, arid, humid middle latitudes, continental and cold polar), which are further divided into more specific subtypes.[121] Upper atmosphere

This view from orbit shows the full Moon partially obscured and deformed by the Earth's atmosphere. NASA image See also: Outer space Above the troposphere, the atmosphere is usually divided into the stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere.[118] Each layer has a different lapse rate, defining the rate of change in temperature with height. Beyond these, the exosphere thins out into the magnetosphere, where the Earth's magnetic fields interact with the solar wind.[126] Within the stratosphere is the ozone layer, a component that partially shields the surface from ultraviolet light and thus is important for life on Earth. The Krmn line, defined as 100 km above the Earth's surface, is a working definition for the boundary between atmosphere and space.[127] Thermal energy causes some of the molecules at the outer edge of the Earth's atmosphere to increase their velocity to the point where they can escape from the planet's gravity. This causes a slow but steady leakage of the atmosphere into space. Because unfixed hydrogen has a low molecular weight, it can achieve escape velocity more readily and it leaks into outer space at a greater rate than other gasses.[128] The leakage of hydrogen into space contributes to the pushing of the Earth from an initially reducing state to its current oxidizing one. Photosynthesis provided a source of free oxygen, but the loss of reducing agents such as hydrogen is believed to have been a necessary precondition for the widespread accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere.[129] Hence the ability of hydrogen to escape from the Earth's atmosphere may have influenced the nature of life that developed on the planet.[130] In the current, oxygen-rich atmosphere most hydrogen is converted into water before it has an opportunity to escape. Instead, most of the hydrogen loss comes from the destruction of methane in the upper atmosphere.[131]

Magnetic field

Schematic of Earth's magnetosphere. The solar wind flows from left to right Main article: Earth's magnetic field The Earth's magnetic field is shaped roughly as a magnetic dipole, with the poles currently located proximate to the planet's geographic poles. At the equator of the magnetic field, the magnetic field strength at the planet's surface is 3.05 105 T, with global magnetic dipole

moment of 7.91 1015 T m3.[132] According to dynamo theory, the field is generated within the molten outer core region where heat creates convection motions of conducting materials, generating electric currents. These in turn produce the Earth's magnetic field. The convection movements in the core are chaotic; the magnetic poles drift and periodically change alignment. This causes field reversals at irregular intervals averaging a few times every million years. The most recent reversal occurred approximately 700,000 years ago.[133][134] The field forms the magnetosphere, which deflects particles in the solar wind. The sunward edge of the bow shock is located at about 13 times the radius of the Earth. The collision between the magnetic field and the solar wind forms the Van Allen radiation belts, a pair of concentric, torusshaped regions of energetic charged particles. When the plasma enters the Earth's atmosphere at the magnetic poles, it forms the aurora.[135]

Orbit and rotation


Rotation
Main article: Earth's rotation

Earth's axial tilt (or obliquity) and its relation to the rotation axis and plane of orbit Earth's rotation period relative to the Sunits mean solar dayis 86,400 seconds of mean solar time (86,400.0025 SI seconds).[136] As the Earth's solar day is now slightly longer than it was during the 19th century due to tidal acceleration, each day varies between 0 and 2 SI ms longer.[137][138] Earth's rotation period relative to the fixed stars, called its stellar day by the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS), is 86,164.098903691 seconds of mean solar time (UT1), or 23h 56m 4.098903691s.[2][note 13] Earth's rotation period relative to the precessing or moving mean vernal equinox, misnamed its sidereal day, is 86,164.09053083288 seconds of mean solar time (UT1) (23h 56m 4.09053083288s) as of 1982.[2] Thus the sidereal day is shorter than the stellar day by about 8.4 ms.[139] The length of the mean solar day in SI seconds is available from the IERS for the periods 16232005[140] and 19622005.[141]

Apart from meteors within the atmosphere and low-orbiting satellites, the main apparent motion of celestial bodies in the Earth's sky is to the west at a rate of 15/h = 15'/min. For bodies near the celestial equator, this is equivalent to an apparent diameter of the Sun or Moon every two minutes; from the planet's surface, the apparent sizes of the Sun and the Moon are approximately the same.[142][143]

Orbit
Main article: Earth's orbit Earth orbits the Sun at an average distance of about 150 million kilometers every 365.2564 mean solar days, or one sidereal year. From Earth, this gives an apparent movement of the Sun eastward with respect to the stars at a rate of about 1/day, which is one apparent Sun or Moon diameter every 12 hours. Due to this motion, on average it takes 24 hoursa solar dayfor Earth to complete a full rotation about its axis so that the Sun returns to the meridian. The orbital speed of the Earth averages about 29.8 km/s (107,000 km/h), which is fast enough to travel a distance equal to the planet's diameter, about 12,742 km, in seven minutes, and the distance to the Moon, 384,000 km, in about 3.5 hours.[3] The Moon revolves with the Earth around a common barycenter every 27.32 days relative to the background stars. When combined with the EarthMoon system's common revolution around the Sun, the period of the synodic month, from new moon to new moon, is 29.53 days. Viewed from the celestial north pole, the motion of Earth, the Moon and their axial rotations are all counterclockwise. Viewed from a vantage point above the north poles of both the Sun and the Earth, the Earth revolves in a counterclockwise direction about the Sun. The orbital and axial planes are not precisely aligned: Earth's axis is tilted some 23.4 degrees from the perpendicular to the EarthSun plane (the ecliptic), and the EarthMoon plane is tilted up to 5.1 degrees against the EarthSun plane. Without this tilt, there would be an eclipse every two weeks, alternating between lunar eclipses and solar eclipses.[3][144] The Hill sphere, or gravitational sphere of influence, of the Earth is about 1.5 Gm or 1,500,000 km in radius.[145][note 14] This is the maximum distance at which the Earth's gravitational influence is stronger than the more distant Sun and planets. Objects must orbit the Earth within this radius, or they can become unbound by the gravitational perturbation of the Sun. Earth, along with the Solar System, is situated in the Milky Way galaxy and orbits about 28,000 light years from the center of the galaxy. It is currently about 20 light years above the galactic plane in the Orion spiral arm.[146]

Axial tilt and seasons

Earth and Moon from Mars, imaged by Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. From space, the Earth can be seen to go through phases similar to the phases of the Moon. Main article: Axial tilt Due to the axial tilt of the Earth, the amount of sunlight reaching any given point on the surface varies over the course of the year. This causes seasonal change in climate, with summer in the northern hemisphere occurring when the North Pole is pointing toward the Sun, and winter taking place when the pole is pointed away. During the summer, the day lasts longer and the Sun climbs higher in the sky. In winter, the climate becomes generally cooler and the days shorter. Above the Arctic Circle, an extreme case is reached where there is no daylight at all for part of the yeara polar night. In the southern hemisphere the situation is exactly reversed, with the South Pole oriented opposite the direction of the North Pole. By astronomical convention, the four seasons are determined by the solsticesthe point in the orbit of maximum axial tilt toward or away from the Sunand the equinoxes, when the direction of the tilt and the direction to the Sun are perpendicular. In the northern hemisphere, Winter Solstice occurs on about December 21, Summer Solstice is near June 21, Spring Equinox is around March 20 and Autumnal Equinox is about September 23. In the Southern hemisphere, the situation is reversed, with the Summer and Winter Solstices exchanged and the Spring and Autumnal Equinox dates switched.[147] The angle of the Earth's tilt is relatively stable over long periods of time. The tilt does undergo nutation; a slight, irregular motion with a main period of 18.6 years.[148] The orientation (rather than the angle) of the Earth's axis also changes over time, precessing around in a complete circle over each 25,800 year cycle; this precession is the reason for the difference between a sidereal year and a tropical year. Both of these motions are caused by the varying attraction of the Sun and Moon on the Earth's equatorial bulge. From the perspective of the Earth, the poles also migrate a few meters across the surface. This polar motion has multiple, cyclical components, which collectively are termed quasiperiodic motion. In addition to an annual component to this motion, there is a 14-month cycle called the Chandler wobble. The rotational velocity of the Earth also varies in a phenomenon known as length of day variation.[149]

In modern times, Earth's perihelion occurs around January 3, and the aphelion around July 4. These dates change over time due to precession and other orbital factors, which follow cyclical patterns known as Milankovitch cycles. The changing EarthSun distance causes an increase of about 6.9%[note 15] in solar energy reaching the Earth at perihelion relative to aphelion. Since the southern hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun at about the same time that the Earth reaches the closest approach to the Sun, the southern hemisphere receives slightly more energy from the Sun than does the northern over the course of a year. This effect is much less significant than the total energy change due to the axial tilt, and most of the excess energy is absorbed by the higher proportion of water in the southern hemisphere.[150]

Moon
Characteristics 3,474.8 km Diameter 7.3491022 kg Mass Semi-major axis 384,400 km Orbital period 27 d 7 h 43.7 m

Details of the EarthMoon system. Besides the radius of each object, the radius to the Earth Moon barycenter is shown. Photos from NASA. Data from NASA. The Moon's axis is located by Cassini's third law. Main article: Moon The Moon is a relatively large, terrestrial, planet-like satellite, with a diameter about one-quarter of the Earth's. It is the largest moon in the Solar System relative to the size of its planet, although Charon is larger relative to the dwarf planet Pluto. The natural satellites orbiting other planets are called "moons" after Earth's Moon. The gravitational attraction between the Earth and Moon causes tides on Earth. The same effect on the Moon has led to its tidal locking: its rotation period is the same as the time it takes to orbit the Earth. As a result, it always presents the same face to the planet. As the Moon orbits Earth, different parts of its face are illuminated by the Sun, leading to the lunar phases; the dark part of the face is separated from the light part by the solar terminator. Due to their tidal interaction, the Moon recedes from Earth at the rate of approximately 38 mm a year. Over millions of years, these tiny modificationsand the lengthening of Earth's day by

about 23 s a yearadd up to significant changes.[151] During the Devonian period, for example, (approximately 410 mya) there were 400 days in a year, with each day lasting 21.8 hours.[152] The Moon may have dramatically affected the development of life by moderating the planet's climate. Paleontological evidence and computer simulations show that Earth's axial tilt is stabilized by tidal interactions with the Moon.[153] Some theorists believe that without this stabilization against the torques applied by the Sun and planets to the Earth's equatorial bulge, the rotational axis might be chaotically unstable, exhibiting chaotic changes over millions of years, as appears to be the case for Mars.[154] Viewed from Earth, the Moon is just far enough away to have almost the same apparent-sized disk as the Sun. The angular size (or solid angle) of these two bodies match because, although the Sun's diameter is about 400 times as large as the Moon's, it is also 400 times more distant.[143] This allows total and annular solar eclipses to occur on Earth. The most widely accepted theory of the Moon's origin, the giant impact theory, states that it formed from the collision of a Mars-size protoplanet called Theia with the early Earth. This hypothesis explains (among other things) the Moon's relative lack of iron and volatile elements, and the fact that its composition is nearly identical to that of the Earth's crust.[155]

A scale representation of the relative sizes of, and average distance between, Earth and Moon

Asteroids and artificial satellites

The International Space Station is an artificial satellite that orbits Earth. Earth has at least five co-orbital asteroids, including 3753 Cruithne and 2002 AA29.[156][157] On July 27, 2011, astronomers reported a trojan asteroid companion, 2010 TK7, librating around the leading Lagrange triangular point, L4, of Earth in Earth's orbit around the Sun.[158][159] As of 2011, there are 931 operational, man-made satellites orbiting the Earth.[160] There are also inoperative satellites and over 300,000 pieces of space debris. Earth's largest artificial satellite is the International Space Station.

Habitability
See also: Planetary habitability A planet that can sustain life is termed habitable, even if life did not originate there. The Earth provides liquid wateran environment where complex organic molecules can assemble and interact, and sufficient energy to sustain metabolism.[161] The distance of the Earth from the Sun, as well as its orbital eccentricity, rate of rotation, axial tilt, geological history, sustaining atmosphere and protective magnetic field all contribute to the current climatic conditions at the surface.[162]

Biosphere
Main article: Biosphere A planet's life forms are sometimes said to form a "biosphere". The Earth's biosphere is generally believed to have begun evolving about 3.5 bya. The biosphere is divided into a number of biomes, inhabited by broadly similar plants and animals. On land, biomes are separated primarily by differences in latitude, height above sea level and humidity. Terrestrial biomes lying within the Arctic or Antarctic Circles, at high altitudes or in extremely arid areas are relatively barren of plant and animal life; species diversity reaches a peak in humid lowlands at equatorial latitudes.[163]

Natural resources and land use


Main articles: Natural resource and Land use Estimated human land use, 2000[164] Land use Mha Cropland 1,5101,611 Pastures 2,5003,410 Natural forests 3,1433,871 Planted forests 126215 Urban areas 66351 Unused, productive land 356445 The Earth provides resources that are exploitable by humans for useful purposes. Some of these are non-renewable resources, such as mineral fuels, that are difficult to replenish on a short time scale. Large deposits of fossil fuels are obtained from the Earth's crust, consisting of coal, petroleum, natural gas and methane clathrate. These deposits are used by humans both for energy production and as feedstock for chemical production. Mineral ore bodies have also been formed in Earth's crust through a process of Ore genesis, resulting from actions of erosion and plate tectonics.[165] These bodies form concentrated sources for many metals and other useful elements.

The Earth's biosphere produces many useful biological products for humans, including (but far from limited to) food, wood, pharmaceuticals, oxygen, and the recycling of many organic wastes. The land-based ecosystem depends upon topsoil and fresh water, and the oceanic ecosystem depends upon dissolved nutrients washed down from the land.[166] In 1980, 5,053 Mha of the Earth's land surface consisted of forest and woodlands, 6,788 Mha were grasslands and pasture, and 1,501 Mha was cultivated as croplands.[167] The estimated amount of irrigated land in 1993 was 2,481,250 square kilometres (958,020 sq mi).[14] Humans also live on the land by using building materials to construct shelters.

Natural and environmental hazards


Large areas of the Earth's surface are subject to extreme weather such as tropical cyclones, hurricanes, or typhoons that dominate life in those areas. From 1980 to 2000, these events caused an average of 11,800 deaths per year.[168] Many places are subject to earthquakes, landslides, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, tornadoes, sinkholes, blizzards, floods, droughts, wildfires, and other calamities and disasters. Many localized areas are subject to human-made pollution of the air and water, acid rain and toxic substances, loss of vegetation (overgrazing, deforestation, desertification), loss of wildlife, species extinction, soil degradation, soil depletion, erosion, and introduction of invasive species. According to the United Nations, a scientific consensus exists linking human activities to global warming due to industrial carbon dioxide emissions. This is predicted to produce changes such as the melting of glaciers and ice sheets, more extreme temperature ranges, significant changes in weather and a global rise in average sea levels.[169]

Human geography
Main articles: Human geography and World

The 7 continents of Earth:[170] Europe, Asia, Australia

North America,

South America,

Antarctica,

Africa,

The Earth at night in 2000, a composite of DMSP/OLS ground illumination data on a simulated night-time image of the world Cartography, the study and practice of map making, and vicariously geography, have historically been the disciplines devoted to depicting the Earth. Surveying, the determination of locations and distances, and to a lesser extent navigation, the determination of position and direction, have developed alongside cartography and geography, providing and suitably quantifying the requisite information. Earth has reached approximately seven billion human inhabitants as of October 31, 2011.[171] Projections indicate that the world's human population will reach 9.2 billion in 2050.[172] Most of the growth is expected to take place in developing nations. Human population density varies widely around the world, but a majority live in Asia. By 2020, 60% of the world's population is expected to be living in urban, rather than rural, areas.[173] It is estimated that only one-eighth of the surface of the Earth is suitable for humans to live on three-quarters is covered by oceans, and half of the land area is either desert (14%),[174] high mountains (27%),[175] or other less suitable terrain. The northernmost permanent settlement in the world is Alert, on Ellesmere Island in Nunavut, Canada.[176] (8228N) The southernmost is the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station, in Antarctica, almost exactly at the South Pole. (90S) Independent sovereign nations claim the planet's entire land surface, except for some parts of Antarctica and the odd unclaimed area of Bir Tawil between Egypt and Sudan. As of 2013, there are 206 sovereign states, including the 193 United Nations member states. In addition, there are 59 dependent territories, and a number of autonomous areas, territories under dispute and other entities.[14] Historically, Earth has never had a sovereign government with authority over the entire globe, although a number of nation-states have striven for world domination and failed.[177] The United Nations is a worldwide intergovernmental organization that was created with the goal of intervening in the disputes between nations, thereby avoiding armed conflict.[178] The U.N. serves primarily as a forum for international diplomacy and international law. When the consensus of the membership permits, it provides a mechanism for armed intervention.[179] The first human to orbit the Earth was Yuri Gagarin on April 12, 1961.[180] In total, about 487 people have visited outer space and reached Earth orbit as of July 30, 2010, and, of these, twelve have walked on the Moon.[181][182][183] Normally the only humans in space are those on the International Space Station. The station's crew, currently six people, is usually replaced every six

months.[184] The furthest humans have travelled from Earth is 400,171 km, achieved during the 1970 Apollo 13 mission.[185]

Cultural and historical viewpoint


Main article: Earth in culture

The first photograph ever taken by astronauts of an "Earthrise", from Apollo 8 The standard astronomical symbol of the Earth consists of a cross circumscribed by a circle.[186] Unlike the rest of the planets in the Solar System, humankind did not begin to view the Earth as a moving object in orbit around the Sun until the 16th century.[187] Earth has often been personified as a deity, in particular a goddess. In many cultures a mother goddess is also portrayed as a fertility deity. Creation myths in many religions recall a story involving the creation of the Earth by a supernatural deity or deities. A variety of religious groups, often associated with fundamentalist branches of Protestantism[188] or Islam,[189] assert that their interpretations of these creation myths in sacred texts are literal truth and should be considered alongside or replace conventional scientific accounts of the formation of the Earth and the origin and development of life.[190] Such assertions are opposed by the scientific community[191][192] and by other religious groups.[193][194][195] A prominent example is the creationevolution controversy. In the past, there were varying levels of belief in a flat Earth,[196] but this was displaced by spherical Earth, a concept that has been credited to Pythagoras (6th century BC).[197] The human perspective regarding the Earth has changed following the advent of spaceflight, and the biosphere is now widely viewed from a globally integrated perspective.[198][199] This is reflected in a growing environmental movement that is concerned about humankind's effects on the planet.[200]

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