Guidance on the use of Stainless Steel in construction

Dr. Bassam Burgan, The Steel Construction Institute, Ascot, U.K. Paper presented on the occasion of the Symposium Structural Applications of Stainless Steel in Building and Architecture on 24th February 2000 in Brussels organised by Euro Inox, Brussels

GUIDANCE ON THE USE OF STAINLESS STEEL IN CONSTRUCTION

Introduction
Stainless steel is synonymous with modern construction. Since the early part of this century it has provided opportunity and inspiration for generations of designers. Today, in an era of architectural pluralism, and of engineering innovation, its use is being taken to new levels of expression and technical sophistication. This is in part attributable to the strides that have been made in the metallurgy and structural understanding of the material, and in production engineering; but perhaps more fundamentally it is testament to the continuing commitment and fascination of architects and engineers with the outstanding design opportunities offered by stainless steel. Stainless steel also has many structural and architectural qualities. The opportunity to develop structures in which the cross-section of the members is an accurate reflection of the forces prevalent in them can give rise to a natural vocabulary that is clearer in stainless steel structures than in those constructed from other materials. As a result, carefully engineered stainless steel structures often have uncommon degrees of legibility and profound structural expression. For the structural engineer, stainless steel offers strength, ductility and fire resistance that are unparalleled in common construction materials. The mechanical behaviour of stainless steel differs from carbon steel in that the stress-strain curve departs from linearity at much lower stress than that for carbon steel. The material has a greater capacity for work hardening and the elastic modulus of stainless steel reduces with increasing stress, unlike that of carbon steel. These factors have inspired researchers to explore the structural behaviour of the material and develop rules for design so that stainless steel can be exploited to its full potential in construction. This paper presents an overview of the design guidance which has become available as a result of this research and summarises proposed new developments, thereby providing a glimpse into the future.

Design of primary structural components

Design manual for structural stainless steel In 1988, a joint industry project was undertaken by the Steel Construction Institute (SCI) to develop design guidance for European offshore and onshore stainless steel structural applications. EURO INOX published the design recommendations arising from this project [1]. The Design manual for Structural Stainless Steel was written in limit state format and the recommendations based on the then current draft of ENV 1993-1-1 [2], the Eurocode for structural carbon steel. This approach enabled the differences between carbon and stainless steel to be highlighted. The Design manual is divided into three parts; design recommendations, a commentary explaining how the recommendations were developed and a series of design examples demonstrating the application of the recommendations. The grades covered by the Design manual were 1.4306 (304L), 1.4404 (316L) and 1.4462 (duplex 2205). These grades were selected for their corrosion resistance, mechanical properties, weldability, formability and availability in a wide range of product forms. However, the recommendations for member and connection resistances are also applicable to other austenitic grades.

GUIDANCE ON THE USE OF STAINLESS STEEL IN CONSTRUCTION

In preparing the Design manual, existing design guidance for carbon steel, stainless steel and aluminium were considered. Stainless steel experimental data from worldwide sources were also collated and reviewed. New test data were generated for material mechanical behaviour, welded and bolted connections, tension members containing holes, beams, columns and bolts in tension, shear and combined tension and shear. The research carried out showed that the verification of a stainless steel structure requires the same type of checks as a carbon steel structure. However, the differences in material characteristics give rise to differences in design curves and formulations.

European design standard for structural stainless steel Eurocode 3 deals with the design of steel structures. Part 1.1, containing general rules and rules for buildings, was issued by CEN as ENV 1993-1-1 in 1992 [2]. Around this time work started on preparing a Eurocode covering design of structural stainless steel and this was later designated ENV 1993-1-4 (Part 1.4 of Eurocode 3) [3]. The Design manual was used as a starting point for ENV 1993-1-4, with modifications and additions made to reflect the results of ongoing research and the new European material standard for stainless steel, EN 10088 [4]. ENV 1993-1-4 was published by CEN in 1996 and gives supplementary provisions for the design of buildings and civil engineering works that extend the application of ENV 1993-1-1 to austenitic and duplex stainless steels. ENV 1993-1-4 also permits increased nominal values of yield strength and ultimate tensile strength to be used in designing members made from material supplied in the cold worked condition. An upper limit on nominal yield strength of 480N/mm2 is stated. Furthermore, an interim design approach for ferritic stainless steels is given in an annex.

Concise guide to the strucural design of stainless steel Towards the end of the project described above, SCI embarked on a further initiative to produce a concise design guide for stainless steel aimed primarily at the UK market. The project was sponsored by Avesta Sheffield and the guide was published jointly by SCI and the Stainless Steel Advisory Centre [5]. The document provided concise guidance for engineers who are experienced in the design of carbon steel structural steelwork but not necessarily in stainless steel structures. Since the Concise guide was aimed at the UK market, it was based on BS 5950: Part 1 [6], drafted in the same format and using the same notation as BS 5950: Part 1. Recognising that material properties specified in national and European standards are minimum guaranteed values that are often exceeded by a sizeable margin, the Concise guide permits the use of modified material factors in combination with data available to the designer either from testing or mill/release certificates.

GUIDANCE ON THE USE OF STAINLESS STEEL IN CONSTRUCTION

Figure 1 The first two-storey building in Japan to use austenitic stainless steel for structural purposes was built in 1992 to demonstrate the materials ability to comply with proposed standards for the building industry. (Photo: Nisshin Steel)

Stainless steel design tables To supplement the Concise guide and improve the efficiency of the design process, SCI published design tables giving section properties and member capacities for stainless steel cold formed structural forms, including rectangular and square hollow sections, channels, double channels back-to-back, equal angles and double equal angles back-to-back [7].

Guidance for architects An architects guide to the design of stainless steel was published by SCI in 1997 giving guidance on the design, specification, manufacture and maintenance of stainless steel architectural components. The first part of the guide includes structural and performance information on stainless steel and reviews production and finishing processes. It focuses on those grades of stainless steel and techniques that are commonly used in relation to architectural components. The second section provides an overview of the contemporary use of stainless steel in architecture. It comprises a broad and representative selection of building projects by leading architects and engineers. Case studies include the use of chemically coloured stainless steel at The Museum of Science and Industry at Tampa, the broad range of applications at Waterloo International Terminal and the varied finishes on the cladding on the Petronas Towers in Kuala Lumpur.

GUIDANCE ON THE USE OF STAINLESS STEEL IN CONSTRUCTION

Figure 2 The European Court of Human Rights is cladd in 5000 m2 of 1.4401 (316) patterned finish 2 mm thick stainless steel panels (Architect: Richard Rogers Partnership, Photo: Avesta Sheffield Ltd)

Design of secondary structural components

Fixings and ancillary components Stainless steel fixings such as anchors, hangers and ties are very widely used throughout the construction industry because of their durability, particularly for applications which are inaccessible or where replacement or repair is difficult or expensive. In 1993, SCI published a design guide for stainless steel fixings and ancillary components [8] that gives designers information on material selection, mechanical properties and design strengths for fixings and fasteners. Guidance on detailing, fabrication and site practice is also given.

Angles for masonry support Stainless steel cold-formed angles are used to support the outer leaf of masonry cladding in buildings. Because of their widespre use and their complex structural behaviour under these loading conditions, a joint industry project was undertaken to develop a simple yet accurate design method for predicting their behaviour. An experimental programme comprised 12 full-scale load tests on angles of different spans and geometries representing a wide range of practical angle sizes. The tests monitored both deflection and strain. The experimental programme was supplemented by a numerical study using finite element analysis, the aim of which was to develop numerical models fully calibrated against experimental results which are capable of adequately predicting the behaviour of stainless steel angles used for masonry support. A three-step simple design method was developed which predicts maximum vertical deflections at the toe of the angle and maximum stresses at the heel of the angle; this was later published as a design leaflet [9].

GUIDANCE ON THE USE OF STAINLESS STEEL IN CONSTRUCTION

Figure 3 Continuous stainless steel angle attached to edge channel beam supports the external leaf of masonary

Stainless steel handrails and balustrades Stainless steel has become a very popular choice for handrails and balustrade due to the structural and architectural design possibilities offered by the material. A design leaflet [10] published by SCI in 1999 covers relevant design codes and statutory requirements, design loads, structural design, material selection and sources of supply. The design principles are illustrated by examples.

Figure 4 The Sackler Galleries staircase has a 40 mm stainless steel handrail fixed to the top edge of the glass balustrade by means of a rebate. The handrail has a bead blasted finish that is tactile and avoids fingerprints. It is bent to a radius of 200 mm on the inside and 1400 mm on the outside of the semi-circular half landings. (Architect: Foster and Partners, Photo: Dennis Gilbert)

GUIDANCE ON THE USE OF STAINLESS STEEL IN CONSTRUCTION

Further development and updating of design guidance The basic approach followed during the preparation of early design guidance [1,3,5] was to adopt the rules for carbon steel, making modifications as necessary where stainless steel test data indicated different behaviour. In the cases where no data were available, the rules for carbon steel were generally suggested. Although this approach led to safe designs, the complex material behaviour of stainless steel was not being taken into account and its desirable properties not fully exploited. In January 1997, a major European project started which is concerned with the further development and refinement of structural design guidance. The European Coal and Steel Community, the Nickel Development Institute and stainless steel producers in the UK, Sweden, Finland, France, Germany and Italy supported the project. Both experimental and modern numerical methods (including non-linear finite element analyses) were used to produce the data that is required to develop a structurally efficient design method for stainless steel structures. The tests measure actual resistance that includes strain hardening and residual stresses. Numerical methods are used for describing the effects of different material stress-strain curves, for simulating the experimental tests and for analysing the effects of a wider range of parameters than those tested. Design rules will be developed which will be suitable for updating ENV 1993-1-4 [3] before it is converted to an EN (European Standard). The scope of work covers static loading on members and connections, cyclic loading on welded connections and the behaviour of stainless steel members in fire.

Figure 5 The Bilbao Metropolitan Railway is part of an urban regeneration programme. The mezzanine support structure uses a special heat-resisting grade, 1.4845 (310) that gives the required fire resistance without the need to protect the structure. (Architect: Foster and Partners, Photo: Alfredo Aldai).

The results impinge on all areas of the design process and will lead to both revision and addition to the existing guidance. Many of the findings of the project indicate that the carbon steel rules are excessively conservative when applied to stainless steel; it is therefore particularly important that the new research findings are rapidly disseminated. 6

GUIDANCE ON THE USE OF STAINLESS STEEL IN CONSTRUCTION

Dissemination will be achieved through the following approach: Production of a European Design Manual. This publication will be a revision of the Design Manual for Structural Stainless Steel published by Euro Inox. The document will be extensively revised and extended to incorporate the new design guidance developed by the project. Design examples will be prepared to illustrate the principles within each chapter of the Design Manual. The document will be available in 7 European languages. Development of an interactive multimedia site on the World-Wide-Web. This will provide the full content of the European Design Manual with the additional functionality of hyper-linked cross referencing and real-time design facilities. Organisation of national workshops in each partnering country (UK, France, Germany, Netherlands, Finland, Sweden, Italy). National workshops will be necessary to publicise the existence and content of the European Design Manual and the Web-Site. The importance of this project is reinforced by the support of the European Coal and Steel Community and Euro Inox, and the participation of seven organisations representing most of the major European stainless steel producers. The project will commence in July 2000 and be completed by June 2002.

Figure 6 An online version of the design manual will be available in 2001.

GUIDANCE ON THE USE OF STAINLESS STEEL IN CONSTRUCTION

References 1. A. F. DIER, Design manual for structural stainless steel, Euro Inox, (1994). 2. ENV 1993-1-1, Eurocode 3 Design of Steel Structures; Part 1.1 General Rules and Rules for Buildings, CEN (1992). 3. ENV 1993-1-4 Eurocode 3 Design of Steel Structures; Part 1.4 General Rules Supplementary Rules for Stainless Steels, CEN (1996). 4. EN 10088, Stainless Steels, CEN (1995). 5. B. A. BURGAN, Concise Guide to the Structural Design of Stainless Steel (Second Edition), The Steel Construction Institute (1993). 6. BS 5950 The Structural Use of Steelwork in Building; Part 1: Code of Practice for Design in Simple and Continuous Construction, BSI (1990). 7. K. F. CHUNG, N. R. BADDOO, B. A. BURGAN, Section property and member capacity tables for cold formed stainless steel, The Steel Construction Institute (1995). 8. N. R. BADDOO, Design of stainless steel fixings and ancillary components, The Steel Construction Institute, (1993). 9. Stainless steel angles for masonry support, The Steel Construction Institute, 1995. 10. Stainless steel tubular handrails and balustrades, The Steel Construction Institute, SCI-P-274, 1999.