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The cyclic changes in the ovary and uterus are under the control of estrogen and progesterone hormones

whose secretion is under the control of gonadotropic hormones secreted by anterior pituitary.

Hormonal Control of Menstrual Cycle in Human Female

During menstrual phase the levels of estrogen and progesterone falls considerably. This induces adenohypophysis to secrete FSH and LH. Increased levels of FSH stimulates the graafian follicle to mature and secrete estrogens. The rising level of estrogen, causes the endometrium to become thicker and more richly supplied with blood vessels. The level of estrogens in blood increases gradually for a few days and is at the peak on the 12th day of the cycle. The estrogen surge reduces FSH secretion and this in turn introduces LH surge within 12 hours i.e., on the 13th day of the cycle. LH causes ovulation and formation of corpus luteum. During post ovulatory phase corpus luteum secretes progesterone. Corpus luteum secretes progesterone, which performs the following functions:

a) It facilitates the preparation of the endometrium of the uterus for receiving the blastocyst and its implantation. (whether fertilisation occurs or not) b) It inhibits the contraction of the uterus and any further development of a new follicle. c) If fertilisation does not occur, the rising progesterone level inhibits the release of Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH), which inturn inhibits the production of FSH, LH and progesterone. d) Once the progesterone level drops, the corpus luteum begins to degenerate resulting in its transformation into a white body called the corpus albicans. e) These hormonal changes, further, cause the breakdown of the endometrium, inhibition of uterine contraction ceases and the menstrual bleeding begins.

The low level of estrogens and progesterone stimulates secretion of FSH and LH from anterior pituitary initiating the next ovarian cycle. If fertilisation occurs, corpus luteum persists and secretes progesterone and estrogens during pregnancy. Fertilised egg starts developing and simultaneously travels down and gets implanted in the uterus. Ovarian cycle comes to a temporary halt.

Oestrous Cycle

Most mammals are seasonal breeders. The female becomes sexually responsive only in a particular season. This period of sexual responsiveness in female is called Oestrous Cycle or heat period. It is followed by anaestrous or quiescence during which the female does not copulate with male. Example: Breeding season is autumn for sheep and spring and autumn for bitches. Cleavage is an unique embryological process which transforms the single fertilised egg cell into a sphere of closely aggregated multitude of cells. Immediately after fertilisation the fertilised ovum (egg cell) undergoes a series of cell divisions. These divisions are called cleavage divisions, which are all mitotic divisions.

Cleavage in Mammalian Ovum The development in mammals occurs inside the body of the female. The eggs are small with very little or practically no yolk. So they are called microlecithal and isolecithal. Segmentation starts at about 14 - 15 hours after fertilisation as the egg moves down through the fallopian tube. Mammalian zygote undergoes holoblastic and equal cleavage. This means that the egg is completely divided. Cleavage division in humans, result in the complete division of the zygote and the subsequent cells, the blastomers. This type of cleavage is known as holoblastic cleavage. The first cleavage furrow is vertical passing through the imaginary axis that runs through the animal and vegetal pole. The 2 daughter cells which are thus formed are called as blastomeres. The second cleavage is also vertical but at right angles to the first one forming 4 blastomeres of equal size. Subsequent divisions occur one after the other in an orderly fashion. The divisions are rapid and the blastomeres become progressively smaller. During cleavage, the number of cells in the embryo increases but the size of the embryo remains unchanged.

Morula
After repeated cleavages, the embryo takes the form of a solid ball of cells and looks like a mulberry. This embryonic stage is called morula (a little mulberry). The embryo is now at the 16-celled stage.

Blastula
As the cells of the morula continue to divide, a cavity appears inside the morula. It forms the blastocoel. It separates a surface layer of blastomeres from an inner cell mass. The blastomeres on the surface of the embryo become flattened and form the trophoectoderm or trophoblast. This layer on further development produces extra embryonic membranes and the placenta which help in nourishing the embryo.

Implantation
The process of attachment of the blastocyst (blastula) on the endometrium of the uterus is called implantation. It generally occurs on the seventh day after fertilisation, thus establishing pregnancy. After implantation, the endometrium undergoes profound changes and is called the decidua. The decidua tissue can be distinguished into three layers: a) decidua basalis - situated between the embryo and the myometrium b) decidua capsularis - situated between the embryo and the human of the uterus c) decidua parietalis - includes the rest of the decidua. The inner cell mass is destined to form the embryo proper. The sphere of cells with the cavity located at the centre is called the blastodermic vesicle.

Two Stages in the Development of Blastodermic Vesicle or Blastocyst The large sized blastocoel of a mammalian embryo at this phase of development signifies 2 things.

yolk.

The blastocoel is the site where embryos of ancestral forms lodged food material in the form of The blastocoel in the embryo increased in size due to accumulation of more and more fluid. This increases the outer layer of the blastodermic vesicle or blastocyst for drawing food for the yolkless embryo from the uterine circulation of the mother.

Man has a pair of ears that function as the organs of hearing and the organs for equilibrium. It has two different structures for each of these functions. Both these structures have receptors that convert the vibrations into nervous impulses that are transmitted via the auditory nerve to the brain.

Structure

Internal Structure of a Human Ear

Each ear has three parts - outer, middle and inner ear.

Outer ear
The outer ear has three parts. They are:

Pinna (Auricle)
It is a cartilagenous structure that is formed of skin and elastic cartilage. In other animals, it functions as structures that collect sound waves and direct them into the auditory canal. However, in man, the pinnae do not move and are vestigial organs.

Auditory canal
It is an oblique, narrow canal that is also called the external auditory meatus. The outer portion of the canal is lined by fine hairs and the inner portion is lined by wax glands (cerumenous glands) that secrete ear wax. The auditory canal collects and concentrates the sound waves.

Tympanum
The external ear is separated from the middle ear by a membranous structure called the ear drum or the tympanum. The sound waves striking on the tympanum produce vibrations that are transmitted to the inner parts of the ear.

Middle ear
The middle ear consists of

Tympanic cavity
It is the air-filled cavity inner to the ear drum, tympanum. It is separated from the inner ear by a partition with two membrane-bound apertures. The upper aperture is oval and is called fenestra ovalis (oval window). The lower one is round and called the fenestra rotunda (round window).

Auditory ossicles
In the tympanic cavity are three small bones called the auditory ossicles. They are all movably joined to each other. The three ossicles are

Malleus
- It is the largest and hammer-shaped. It is in contact with the tympanum and the next ossicle, incus.

Incus
- It is anvil-shaped and joined to the next ossicle, stapes.

Stapes
- It is the smallest and stirrup-shaped. One end is joined to the incus and the other touches the fenestra ovalis.

Eustachian tube
It is the narrow canal connecting the tympanic cavity to the pharynx. It maintains the air pressure in the tympanic cavity. Its opening into the pharynx is guarded by a valve.

Inner ear

It is the innermost part of the ear within the skull. It is surrounded by the periotic bone of the skull. Within the inner ear are canals and cavities. They are formed by membranes and bones. The structures formed by the bones and the membranes are similar. Within the cavities formed by the bones are the canals formed by the membranes. the space between the bone and the membrane is filled with the watery fluid called the perilymph and the membranous canals are filled with a similar watery fluid called the endolymph. The inner ear has two parts carrying out two distinct functions. Both are essentially a system of canals. They are

Vestibular apparatus
It is the organ of equilibrium. The entire apparatus consists of a bony cavity called the vestibule and three semi-circular bony canals. Within the bony part is the membranous part with two sac-like structures in the vestibule and three semi-circular canals within the bony ones. The three membranous structures are

Utricule (sing. Utriculus)


It is a larger sac-like structure containing the sensory macula (pl. maculae).

Saccule (sing. Sacculus)


It is a smaller sac-like structure present below the utricule, also containing a sensory macula.

Structure of maculae

Each macula has a set of sensory hair cells embedded in a gelatinous mass. At one end the tuft of hairs can come in contact with calcareous ear stones or otoliths, that are embedded in the gelatinous layer. At the other end, the cells synapse with the neurones of the vestibular branch of the auditory nerve.

Functioning of maculae
Macula detects the vertical and lateral movements of the head. With the movement of the head, the endolymph causes the otoliths to displace which are brought in touch with the sensory hairs. This disturbance is then transmitted to the nerve endings.

Semi-circular canals

There are three semi-circular canals, oriented perpendicular to each other (i.e., along the three axes- x, y and z). Each canal begins with a swollen portion called the ampulla. Each ampulla contains the sensory structure called the crista.

Structure of cristae

Cristae are similar to maculae except that they do not contain the ear stones. The sensory hair cells are arranged in a cone-like manner. The sensory hairs are embedded in the cone-shaped gelatinous material. They are sensitive to the direction (rotational movement) and the rate of change of position of the head.

Functioning of cristae
With each movement the endolymph in the semi-circular canals also moves and strikes against the gelatinous material. This moves the hairs which transmit the sensation to the neurones.

(i) Semicircular duct showing position of a cristae with head in still position and [ ii ] position of cristae when head moves

Cochlea
It is the organ of hearing. It is a coiled bony structure called the cochlear duct that has three canals running parallel to each other.

Inside view of Cochlea They are:

Median canal
(Scala media) It is the central canal formed by longitudinal membranes present along the length of the cochlea. It is filled with endolymph. The dorsal membrane is called the Reissner's membrane and the ventral membrane is called the basilar membrane. The median canal has the organ of Corti where the sound waves are transformed into action potentials. Organ of Corti - Along the basilar membrane are arranged the longitudinal rows of sensory hair cells.

The rows of hair cells are overlapped by the tectorial membrane in such a manner that the hairs can come in contact with it. At the other end, the sensory hair cells are in touch with the neurons of the auditory nerve.

Stages of axon membrane during resting, depolarisation, action potential and repolarisation, showing changes in membrane potentials and molecular events. (a) Resting state: voltage-gated Na + channels are in resting state and voltage-gated K+ channels are closed. (b) When stimulated, depolaristion opens Na+ channel activation gates, K+ channels still closed. (c) Action potential peaks and repolarisation begins, K + channels open and Na+ channel gates close. (d) Repolarisation complete, K + ions exit and Na+ channels begin to open again

Vestibular canal
It is the dorsal canal formed by the cavity between the periotic skull bone and the upper membrane of the median canal. It is filled with perilymph.

Tympanic canal
It is the ventral canal formed in a similar manner as the vestibular canal. It is also filled with perilymph. It is connected to the vestibular canal at the end of the cochlear duct Nose is the sense organ for the sense of olfaction or smell. The receptor cells for olfaction are chemoreceptors, stimulated by chemicals. The receptor cells along with other cells form the olfactory epithelium.

Structure
Olfactory epithelium

It is a modified pseudostratified epithelium occupying a small area of about 5cm2 in the roof of the nasal cavity. It forms the surface layer in the nasal mucosa near the nasal septum.

Human nose showing olfactory bulb. Inset: Magnified view of the olfactory epithelium In man, this area is very small and thus the sense of smell in man is not as developed as some other animals. In animals like the dog, cat, rat, rabbit, etc., the olfactory epithelium occupies a large area and these animals are very sensitive to a wide range of smells. Man is also sensitive to thousands of types of smells but animals like dogs can differentiate between the smells of two people. The olfactory epithelium is made up of three types of cells

Olfactory receptor cells

They are neurosensory cells that are spindle-shaped. On one end they have sensitive hairs and at the other end they have the nerve fibres. Their life span is two months.

Basal cells
They are the cells that give rise to new olfactory receptor cells.

Supporting cells
They are columnar epithelial cells occurring between the receptor cells and providing support

Tongue is a muscular structure that has the organs of taste reception. The organs for sense of taste are the taste buds.

Taste buds
are structures located on the surface of the tongue. They are embedded in the mucosa of the papillae of the tongue. The papillae are projections on the upper surface of the tongue. Each papillae may contain from few to a hundred taste buds and the surface of the tongue may have up to 10,000 taste buds.

Structure of Taste Buds


Each taste bud is a bulbous sac-like structure having a small pore-like opening on the surface of the tongue - Taste pore.

The bulbous portion of the taste bud consists of two types of cells

Taste receptor cells or gustatory receptors


They are spindle-shaped cells that are neurosensory. They have hairs on their free ends and on the other end, they have nerve fibres. They number 5-15 in each taste bud.

Supporting cells
They are columnar cells, numbering about 40 found between the taste receptor cells, supporting them.

Arrangement of Taste Buds

The tongue is sensitive to and can perceive four different types of tastes - sweet, sour, salty and bitter. The four different tastes are perceived by four different sets of taste buds that are situated at specific locations on the tongue.

Salty taste is perceived by the taste buds that are located on the tip and sides of the tongue, sweet tasting buds are present only on the tip, sour tasting buds are present on the lateral sides of the tongue and the taste buds for bitter taste are present at the back of the tongue. However, the structures of all the taste buds are identical. All these tastes are combinations of these four, modified by accompanying olfactory sensations When the stimulation of a receptor results in a spontaneous, involuntary reaction, it is called reflex action or simply reflex. These are described as involuntary actions as no conscious awareness, throught or decision is required for their operation. Reflexes are of two types

Simple or Unconditioned or Natural Reflex


In this type of reflex, the brain is not involved. The receptor is stimulated which is conducted to the spinal cord by the affector. The effector neuron from the spinal cord conducts a response to the muscle or the gland. This causes an immediate reaction. It does not involve any thinking or reasoning. It is a natural response and will occur even in new-born babies. For e.g., blinking of eyes when strong light falls on the eyes. Simple reflex is also of two types. In the first type, only the sensory and motor neurons of the spinal nerves are involved.

Jerking of knee when tapped below the kneecap is an example. In the second type, the interneuron present in the spinal cord is also involved.

The moving away of hand in response to pin-prick or heat is an example of this type. In the above diagrams, it can be seen that the pathway of conduction is in the form of an arc. Thus, these pathways are also called the reflex arcs. Impulses can flow only in a single direction in a reflex arc. The taste buds are stimulated by certain ions and compounds present in the food. Cations like Na + present in the inorganic salts evoke the salty taste and those like H+ present in the acids evoke a sour taste. Organic compounds like sugars, dextrins, glycerol, saccharine, etc. result in sweet taste and those like nicotine, morphine, caffeine, quinine, etc. result in bitter taste. The chemicals present in food dissolve in the saliva and enter the taste buds through the pores. Once inside, they stimulate the taste receptor cells. This stimulation is transmitted through the nerve fibres as electrical impulses. The nerve fibres of the taste receptor cells become part of the facial, the glossopharyngeal and the vagus nerves. These nerves pass through the brain stem. The sense of taste is perceived in the taste centre of the cerebral cortex of the parietal lobe of cerebral hemisphere.

This type of reflex involves the brain but it is also as fast as the simple reflex. Salivation on smelling one's favourite food is an example of conditional reflex. The individual recognisesrecognizes the smell and based on a previous experience, the response (salivation) occurs. The recognition of the previous experience involves the association centres of the brain. A series of experiments were conducted by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian biologist which demonstrated conditioned reflex. He found that when a bell was rung every time a dog was given food, the dog showed salivation only at the sound of the bell. The ringing of the bell is called the conditioned stimulus. The dog had, thus, 'learnt' to associate the sound of the bell to food and this made it salivate at the sound of the bell. It can be represented as follows

Conditioning is the basis for learning. Learning to cycle or swim can be called a conditional response The peripheral nervous system consists of the nerves originating from the ganglia of the nerve ring and the ventral nerve cord. Nerves originating from the supra-oesophageal ganglion- optic (to the compound eyes), antennary (to the antenna) and the labro-frontal (to the labrum and the sympathetic nervous system). Nerves originating from the sub-oesophageal ganlion - mandibular (to the mandibles), maxillary (to the maxillae), labial (to the labium) and cervical (to the neck region). Nerves originating from the segmental ganglia - Each segmental ganglion has a pair of nerves arising from it. These nerves innervate all the thoracic and abdominal segments

chemical
The thymus gland is situated in the upper chest near the front side of the heart. It is pinkish-grey in colour and consists of two lobes. At birth the gland is quite small, weighting about 10 grams, and increases in size in the adult. It is composed of tiny lobules held together by connective tissue. It is also called as "the throne of immunity" or traning school of T-lymphocyte.

Hormone
Thymus secretes a hormone named thymosin. It accelerates cell division, thus influencing the rate of growth during early life. It stimulates the proliferation and maturation of T-lymphocytes, increasing resistance to infection. It also hastens attainment of sexual maturity. Its production decreases with advancing age and entirely cases by about 50 years. The gonads include the testes in males and ovaries in females. They are mixed organs. They produce reproductive cells and secrete hormones, which control reproductive organs. These hormones are

collectively called sex hormones. They are secreted from the age of puberty or sexual maturity. The testes and ovaries secrete different hormones.

Testes
The testes are the male organs of reproduction where sperms are formed and the male sex hormonetestosterone, produced. These are secreted from groups of interstitial cells, or Leydig cells, present in the connective tissue between the sperm-producing seminiferous tubules, under the stimulation of the luteinising hormone of the pituitary. The secretion of testosterone increases markedly at puberty and is responsible for various functions such as i) It stimulates the male reproductive system to grow to full size and become functional ii) It stimulates the formation of sperms in the seminiferous tubules. iii) It stimulates the development of the secondary sexual characteristics, like growth of the beard, deepening of the voice, enlargement of the genitalia, broadening of shoulders, enlarged and stronger bones and muscles iv) It also determines the male sexual behavior. Failure of testosterone secretion causes eunuchoidism. A eunuch has under developed and nonfunctional secondary sex organs and does not produce sperms. Administration of testosterone to a eunuch stimulates development of accessory sex characters and secondary sex organs.

Ovaries
The ovaries lie in the abdomen and are the female reproductive organ. They secrete three steroid female sex hormones Oestrogens, progesterone and relaxin. Ovaries are two almond-shaped glands placed one on each side of the uterus, below the uterine tubes attached to the back of the broad ligament of the uterus. They contain a large number of immature ova, called primary oocytes. Each one of which is surrounded by a cluster of nutritive follicle cells. At each menstrual cycle, one of these primitive ova begins to mature and quickly develops into a vesicular ovarian follicle or Graafian follicle. Cell of maturing follicle or the Graafian follicle secrete Oestrogen. Maturation of Graafian follicle and secretion of Oestrogen from it are stimulated by the follicle-stimulating hormone of the anterior pituitary. The luteinising hormone of anterior pituitary brings about a rupture of the Graafian follicle to release the ovum.

Oestrogens
i) Stimulate the female reproductive tract to grow to full size and become functional. ii) They also stimulate the differentiation of ova in the ovary. iii) They stimulate the development of accessory sex characters such as enlargement of breasts, broadening of pelvis, growth of pubic and axillary hair, deposition of fat in the thighs, and onset of menstrual cycle.

Progesterone
Progesterone is secreted by the corpus luteum which is a yellowish body formed in the empty graafian follicle after the release of the ovum. Ovulation, formation of corpus luteum and secretion of progesterone are stimulated by the luteinising hormone from the anterior pitutary. The main functions of progesterone are:

i) to suspend the ovulation during pregnancy ii) to fix the foetus to the uterine wall iii) to form placenta and to control the development of the foetus in the uterus.

Relaxin
Relaxin is produced by the corpus luteum at the end of the gestation period. It relaxes the cervix of the uterus and ligaments of the pelvic girdle for easy birth of the young ones.

Human Chorionic Gonadotropin


Stimulates progesterone release from corpus luteum and maintains it. It is secreted by the placenta. Disorders:

Hypogonadism
Defects in or injury to the hypothalamus, the pituitary, or the testes or ovary, result in hypogonadism. Male hypogonadism can consist of deficient androgen production (hypofunction of Leydig cell), deficient sperm formation (hypofunction of Sertoli cell), or both, before puberty. It results in the lack of development of secondary sexual characteristics and male musculature. Female hypogonadism results form hyposecretion of estrogen, resulting in cessation of reproductive cycles. Such hypogonadism can result from a shortage of pituitary gonadotropins (LH, FSH, or both) or can represent primary testicular/ovary failure.

Precocious puberty
True sexual precocity, i.e., early maturation of ovaries and testes with the production of ova before the age of 9 years in girls, or sperm before 10 years in boys, occurs without evident cause. Sexual pseudoprecocity results fro, excesses of sex hormones fro, the adrenal cortex, testis, ovary or from other sources, including extragonadal tumours. Sexual pseudoprecocity in boys occurs as a consequence of excess of testosterone produced by tumours of the testis or adrenals. In such cases, enlargement of the penis, accelerated appearance of sexual characteristics, such as, public and axillary hair, masculinisation, faster body growth and ultimate stunting are present. Sexual pseudoprecocity in girls arises fro, increased sipply of estrogen secreted by tumours of the ovaries or adrenals. The external manifestations of sexual maturation, for example, breast formation and appearance of public hair, appear early, but the maturation and discharge of ova do not occur.

Eunuchoidism
This results from the failure of testosterone secretion. For this disorder, secondary sex organs, such as prostate gland, seminal vesicles and penis, remain infantile and small in size and fail to function. Spermatozoa fail to be produce. External sex characters like beards, moustaches and low pitch male voice fail to develop.

Gynaecomastia

It is the development of breast tissue in males, and is usually due 5o perturbation of estrogen to androgen ratio. In the neonatal period and during puberty, gynaecomastia is due to temporary increase in circulating estrogen. Decreased testosterone in later life may also lead to gynaecomastia

The thyroid gland is butterfly-shaped gland and surrounds the front of the larynx and upper part of the trachea in the neck. The thyroid is the largest endocrine gland. The right and the left lobes are connected by a mass of tissue called isthmus. It is composed of number of vesicles or thyroid follicles lined with cuboidal epithelium abundantly supplied with blood and held together by connective tissue. These cells secrete a sticky fluid called the colloid of the thyroid compored of the glycoprotein, thyroglobulin.

Hormone
The thyroid gland secretes three hormones Thyroxine or tetraiodothyroxine, triiodothyronine and calcitonin. Thyroxine and triiodothyronine are iodinated forms of the aminoacid tyrosine. They are stored in the colloid that fills the vesicles and are released to the blood when needed. Thyroid is the only endocrine gland whose product is stored in such a large quantity. The storage occurs in an unusual place- the extra cellular colloid. The hormones of the colloid have four functions. i) They control the general metabolism of the body by regulating the rate of oxidation and production of energy. They maintain the basal metabolic rate of the body and normal body temperature. ii) They promote growth of body tissues and development of mental faculties. iii) They stimulate tissue differentiation. Example: Metamorphosis in a frog. iv) Thyroxin also controls the working of kidneys. Its deficiency results in decreased urine output and vice versa. v) It enhances some action of neurotransmitters : adrenaline and non adrenaline. The special cells called the C-cells secrete calcitonin. It regulates the concentration of calcium and phosphorus in the blood.

Improper secretion of the above thyroid hormones causes the following disorders.

Hyposecretion (Hypothyroidism)
Cretinism
Deficiency of the secretion of the gland at birth produces this condition in infants. A cretin has markedly reduced metabolic rate and oxidation. This leads to slow heart beat, lower blood pressure, decrease in body temperature, stunted growth, mental retardation, awkward body with pot belly, protruding tongue and pigeon chest and retarded sexual development. The disorder can be treated by an early administration of thyroid hormone.

Myxoedema
It is caused by deficiency of thyroid hormones in adults. It is more common in women than in men. It is characterised by puffy appearance due to accumulation of fat in the subcutaneous tissue because of low metabolic rate and retarded oxidation. The patient lacks alertness, intelligence and becomes lethargic. The skin becomes thickened and dry and the hair falls out or gets thin.

Iodine deficiency Goitre


It is caused by deficiency of iodine in the diet. Iodine is needed for the synthesis of thyroid hormone. The disease is common in hilly areas and causes enlargement of thyroid gland

Hypersecretion (Hyperthyroidism)
Grave's disease (Exophthalmic Goitre)
It is autoimmune disorder in which the person produces antibodies that mimic that action of TSH, but not regulated by normal negative feedback controls. It is caused due to over secretion of thyroid hormones due to enlargement of the thyroid. This increases metabolic rate and accelerates oxidation, thus resulting in quick consumption of food, leaving nothing for storage and causing excessive leanness. Increased oxidation leads to quick heartbeat, rise in blood pressure, higher body temperature, nervousness, trembling, bulging of eyeballs. The disorder can be rectified by removal of a part of the gland. The adrenal or suprarenal glands are paired glands placed on the upper part of each kidney. The adrenal glands consist of an outer yellowish part, the cortex and inner adrenal medulla. The gland is shaped like a tricorn hat.

Adrenal Gland

Adrenal cortex
Adrenal cortex is a pale yellowish pink tissue, which shows three concentric regions outer, middle and inner. Each region produces its own set of hormones. It secrets a number of steroid hormones which are broadly classified into three groups such as:

Mineralocorticoids
The outer region of the adrenal cortex secretes these. They regulate mineral metabolism and control the sodium and potassium ratio in the extracellular and intracellular fluids. Their secretion is stimulated by the decrease in the Na+ concentration in plasma or increase in the K+ concentration in the plasma. The major mineralocorticoid is aldosterone, which tends to increase the reabsorption of sodium from urine, saliva, bile and sweat to reduce its loss from the body. It also increases the elimination of potassium in these fluids in exchange of the reabsorbed sodium. Aldosterone also increases the reabsorption of water from the urine by raising the osmotic pressure of the blood through reabsorption of Na+ in to it. Thus mineralocorticoid maintains water and electrolyte balance and volume of the blood in the body. The target tissue is kidney.

Glucocorticoids
Glucocorticoids are hormones that regulate the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and fats. They have anti-inflamatory and antiallergic effects. They increase the blood-glucose level by converting proteins and fats into carbohydrrates, which in turn is converted to glucose. In case of excessive bleeding, glucocorticoids constrict blood vessels to offset the drop in blood pressure due to blood loss. The most important glucocorticoid is cortisol. Cortisone is also a glucocorticoid. The target tissue is liver.

Sexcorticoids or Gonadocorticoids
These are secreted by both middle and inner layers of the adrenal cortex. Their secretion is believed to be stimulated by corticotropin of the anterior pituitary. They include steroids, which stimulate the development of external sexual characters or secondary sexual characters. They contain small amounts of both male and female sex hormones. However, more male sex hormone is produced than female sex hormones. The male sex hormone stimulates the development of male secondary sexual characters such as distribution of body hair, deepening of voice. Female sex hormone stimulates the appearance of female secondary sexual characters such as enlargement of breasts etc.

Adrenal medulla
Adrenal Medulla is an internal soft dark reddish brown tissue, which helps the body to combat against stress or emergency situations. Its main function is to augment that of the sympathetic nervous system. It is not vital for survival and may be removed without causing death. It secretes two similar hormones adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline (norepinephrine). The secretion of these hormones is stimulated when nerve impulses reach the adrenal medulla through sympathetic nerve fibres. These hormones act on organs and tissues supplied by sympathetic stimulation. Thus adrenal medulla and sympathetic nervous system function as a closely integrated system, which can be called sympathetico-adrenal system.

Both sympathetic nerves and adrenal medulla are stimulated in physical stress like fall in blood pressure or blood sugar, pain, cold or injury. Both are also stimulated in emotional stress such as anger, fear and grief. These conditions require more energy which is provided by increasing heart beat, blood pressure, respiratory rate, sugar level of blood, blood supply of heart and skeletal muscles and brain through dilation of their small arteries, and oxidative metabolism. The hormones also causes contraction of spleen to squeeze out the reserve supply of blood, contraction of small arteries of skin and viscera to divert blood to muscles, dilation of pupil, contraction of arrector pili muscles to form goose flesh. Adrenaline also stimulates the breakdown of liver and muscle glycogen to provide glucose for respiration. This is often called fight or flight reaction. It prepares the body to face stress or danger. A warm red face, cold perspiring hands and a rapidly beating heart. Thus because of the above reasons the adrenaline is known as the emergency hormone. The hormone cortisol prepares the body for after effect of danger. It controls the pumping action of heart, reduces pain, mobilises aminoacids to prepare the damaged cells. Improper functioning of adrenal cortex produces many disorders, though the adrenal medulla is not known to cause any disorder.

Addisons disease
This is caused by deficiency of mineralocorticoids. It is characterised by ion imbalance, which lowers water retention. Therefore, the person has low blood sugar, low Na+ concentration and high K+ concentration in the plasma. The symptoms include weight loss, weakness, nausea, vomiting and diarrhea.

Cushings syndrome
It is caused by excess of cortisol. It is characterised by high blood sugar, excretion of sugar in urine, obesity, wasting of limb muscles.

Aldosteronism
It is caused by excess of aldosterone, and the symptoms include high Na + concentration and low K+ concentration in the plasma, rise in blood volume and blood pressure.

Adrenal virilism
It is caused by excess of sex corticoids in female. She develops male secondary sexual characters such as beard, moustaches and hoarse voice. The hypothalamus is a part of the brain, situated at the base of the fore brain. It consists of several masses of the grey matter called hypothalamic nuclei, scattered in the white matter. It is connected to the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland by hypophysal portal blood vessels and with the posterior lobe of pitutary gland by axons of its neurons. The portal vessels and axons pass through a stalk to the pitutary lobes thus forming a hypothalamo-hypophysial axis. This is most important for homeostatsis as it regulates the most major physiological activities in the body. It also indicates a close connection and co-ordination between the hormonal and nervous systems.

The Pituitary Gland and the Hypothalamo-Hypophysial Axis The hormones secreted by the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland are actually synthesised by the neurons in the hypothalamus and stored in their axon ends, and released by the posterior lobe when required.

Hormones
The cells of the hypothalamus secrete hormones called neurohormones. Their axon terminals synapse on to the capillaries into which the neuro hormones are released when stimulated by nerve impulses passing down the axons. The neurohormones are carried by the portal blood to the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland and stimulate the latter to release its hormones. Thus the hypothalamic hormones are also called releaser hormones. Some of the hypothalamic hormones inhibit the secretion of some pituitary hormones. These are termed as inhibitory hormones

Hormones of Hypothalamus
Thyrotrophin-releasing hormone TRH
stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete its thyroid-stimulating hormone or thyrotropin.

Adrenocorticotrophin-Releasing Hormone
it excites the anterior pituitary to produce its adrenocorticotrophic hormone or adrenocorticotropin.

Follicle-stimulating hormone
Releasing hormone :It stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete its follicle-stimulating hormone.

Luteinising hormone releasing hormone

It stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete its luteinsing hormone.

Growth hormone (somatotrophin) releasing hormone


It stimulates the anterior pituitary to release its growth hormone or somatotrophin. Melanocyte stimulating hormone releasing hormone (MRH) - Stimulate anterior pituitary to release MSH.

Prolactin releasing hormone


It stimulates the anterior pituitaary to secrete its prolactin or luteotrophic hormone. Growth hormone inhibiting hormone (GHIH) - inhibits growth hormone release Prolactin inhibiting hormone - inhibits prolactin release Melanocyte stimulating hormone inhibiting hormone (MIH) - inhibits melanocyte stimulating hormone release

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Pancreas is a mixed gland as it performs both endocrine and exocrine functions. Pancreas is an elongated, yellowish gland. It consists of lobules that secrete pancreatic juice. Interspersed at random among the lobules are Islets of langerhans, which produce hormones.

Hormones
The Islands of langerhans secrete four hormones insulin, glucagon, somatostatin and pancreatic polypetide. Insulin and glucagon have antagonistic effects on the blood glucose level.

Insulin
They are secreted by the betacells of the Islets of langerhans Its secretion is stimulated by the rise in blood-glucose level, such as after a meal. It has many functions such as i) It enables the liver and muscles to store glucose as glycogen and enables the tissues to take up and use glucose as a source of energy. This lowers the blood-glucose level. ii) It promotes synthesis of proteins from amino acids in the tissues. iii) It reduces breakdown of proteins to maintain the tissues. iv) It reduces respiratory breakdown of fats in the body. Deficiency of insulin causes Diabetes mellitus. The patient cannot use or store glucose. Thus glucose accumulates in the blood and is also excreted along with urine. Degradation of fats increases producing ketone bodies such as acetoacetate and acetone. Blood cholesterol rises, healing power is impaired so that injuries may change into gangrenes. The diabetic person has blurred vision and is weak, tired, irritable, nauseated and underweight. Administration of insulin gives relief by lowering blood-glucose level.

Distinguish between Diabetes mellitus and Diabetes insipidus:

Distinguish between Hyperglycaemia and Hypoglycaemia:

Glucogon
It is secreted in response to a fall in the blood glucose level by the alphacell of the Islets of langerhans Its action is opposite to that of insulin. It brings about change of liver glycogen to blood glucose, to provide energy between meals.

Somatostatin
It is secreted by the delta cells of the islets of langerhans. It decreases the rate of nutrient absorption into the blood stream from the gastrointestinal tract and inhibits the secretion of insulin and glucagon.

Pancreatic poly peptide


It inhibits the release of pancreatic juice.

Pineal Gland
The endocrine gland attached to the roof of third ventricle in the rear portion of brain, is known as the pineal gland, named for its resemblance to a pine cone. It has no direct connection with central nervous system. It is variable in size and weighs about 150 mg, but it is richly vascularised and secretes several hormones, including melatonin. In humans, it has no lightsensitive cells, like lower vertebrates, where pineal is eye-like and responds to light. Pineal gland functions as a biological clock and a neurosecretory transducer, converting neural information. More melatonin is produced during darkness. Its formation is interrupted when light enters the eyes and stimulates the retinal neurons. They transmit impulses to the hypothalamus, and finally to the pineal gland. The result is inhibition of melatonin secretion. In this way, the release of melatonin is governed by the diurnal darkness cycle. Hormones are informational molecules. They are secreted in response to changes in the environment inside or outside the body. These are released into the extracellular fluid, where they are diffused into the blood stream. The latter carries them from the site of production to the site of action. They act on specific organs called target organs. The blood contains all the hormones but the cells of a target organ can pick up the specific required hormone only and ignore all others. It has been found that the target cell has on its surface or in its cytoplasm a specific protein molecule, called a receptor, which can recognise and pick out the specific hormone capable of action in that cell. The hormone delivers its message to the target cell by changing the shape of the receptor cell and binds to it. The receptors new shape sets up certain changes in the cell such as alteration in permeability, enzyme activity or gene transcription. Hormones may stimulate or inhibit specific biological processes in the target organs to modify their activities thus acting as regulators. There is considerable co-ordination between nerves and hormones. Nerves regulate synthesis and release of some hormones. Some times hormones may also influence nerve activities. Thus, hormonal co-ordination plays an important role in regulating body functions. Calcitonin secreted by thyroid gland regulates the concentration of calcium and phosphorus in the blood. When the concentration of calcium rises in the blood, the secretion of calcitonin is seen which lowers the concentration of calcium and phosphorus in the plasma by decreasing the release for the bones.

Feedback controls
Maintenance of internal chemical environment of the body to a constant is called homeostasis. Hormones play a major role in maintaining homeostasis by their intergrated action and feed back controls. Feedback control is mostlly negative, rarely positive. In a negative feedback control, synthesis of a hormone slows or halts when its level in the blood rises above normal. Some of examples of feedback control is given below.

Rise of testosterone level in the blood above normal inhibits ICSH secretion by the anterior pituitary lobe. This negative feedback checks oversecretion of testosterone Hypothalamus in response to some external stimulus, produces a thyrotrophin-releasing hormone for the secretion of thyrotrophic hormone. The thyrotrophin-releasing hormone (TRH) stimulates the anterior pituitary lobe to secrete thyrotrophic hormone. The latter in turn stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroxine. If thyroxine is in excess, it exerts an influence on the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary lobe, which then secrete less releasing hormone and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) respectively. A rise in the TSH level in the blood may also exert negative feed back effect on the hypothalmus and retard the secretion of TRH. This restores the normal blood-thyroxine level. Sometimes, accumulation of a biochemical increases its own production. For example uterine contraction at the onset of labour stimulates the release of the hormone oxytocin, which intensifies uterine contractions. The contractions futher stimulate the production of oxytocin. The cycle of increase stops suddenly after the birth of the baby. This is a positive feedback control

Molecular Mechanism of Hormone Action


How does the neuroendocrine control work? The hormones are released in very small quantities, yet they can cause widespread dresponses in cells or tissues all over the body. These responses in cells or tissues all over the body. These responses can be quite specific and selective in different cells. All vertebrate hormones belong to one of four chemical groups. Some hormones, such hormone, such as adrenaline and thyroid hormone, are small molecules derived from the amino acid tyrosine, others such as vasopressin and oxytocin, are short peptides, still other hormones, like insulin and glucagons, are longer polypeptide chains. Testosterone and estrogen are steroid hormones. Catecholamines, peptide and protein hormones are not lipid-soluble, and so, cannot enter their target cells through the bilipid layer of plasma membrane. Instead, these water-soluble hormones interact with a surface receptor, usually a glycoprotein, and thus, initiate a chain of events within it. The hormone insulin provides a well-studied example of how this happens.

Extracellular Receptor
The membrane bound receptors of insulin is a heterotetrameric protein consisting of four subunits, two -subunits protrude out from surface of the ell and bind insulin, and two -subunits that span the membrane and protrude into the cytoplasm.

Insulin Hormone Binding to its Receptor Such receptors range from fewer than 100 in most cells in our body to more than 1,00,000 in some liver cells. Let us now consider the mechanisms whereby hormones induce their actions at the cellular and molecular levels.

i) Binding to the receptor


Binding of insulin to the outer subunits of the receptor causes a conformational change in the membrane spanning -subunits, which is also an enzyme, a tyrosine kinase. The activated -subunits add phosphate groups of specific tyrosine residues located in cytoplasmic domain of the receptor, as well as a variety of insulin receptor substrates.

ii) Second messengers the mediator


As a result of -subunit activity, a transducer G protein activates enzyme phosphodiesterase. This enzyme makes phosphatidylinositol 4,5-biphosphate (PIP2) into a pair of mediators inositoltriphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol (DG). In turn, IP3, which is water-soluble, and so diffuses into cytoplasm triggers the release of another messenger Ca2+ ions from intracellular endoplasmic reticulum activating many calcium-mediated processes. While DG remains in the membrane where it activates an enzyme called protein kinase C, which in turn, activates many other enzymes, such as pyruvate dehydrogenase, and so brings about the physiological effects.

iii) Amplification of signal


Mediators amplify the signal in an expanding cascade of response. A single -subunit of insulin receptor, for example, activates many molecules of DG, and each protein kinase C molecule activated by DG will, in turn,

activate many other enzyme molecules. DG and IP3 are examples of second messengers, intermediary compounds that amplify a hormonal signal and so set into action a variety of events within the affected cell. A variety of events within the affected cell. A variety of hormones use another second messenger, the cyclic form of adenosine monophosphate , (cAMP). The enzyme adenylate cyclase converts adenosine triphosphate (ATP) into cAMP. Because an enzyme can be used over and over again, a single molecule of active adenylate cyclase can catalyse production of about 100 molecules of cAMP. In muscle or liver cells, when hormones, such as, adrenaline bind receptors, the receptors change shape and bind to G protein, causing it, in turn, to bind the nucleotide guanosine triphosphate (GTP) and activate another protein adenylate cyclase. The result of this complex cascade of interactions is the production of large amounts of cAMP.

Mode of Hormone Action through the Extracellular Receptor and its Application cAMP activates the enzyme protein kinase A, which, in turn, activates the enzyme phosphorylate kinase. Each molecule of protein kinase A activates roughly 100 molecules of enzyme, phosphorylate kinase and so on. The net result is that a single molecule of adrenaline may lead to release of as many as 100 million molecules of glucose within only 1 or 2 minutes. No wonder only very small quantities of hormone are needed.

iv) Antagonistic effect


Many cells use more than one second messenger. In heart cells, cAMP serves as a second messenger, speeding up muscle cell contraction in response to adrenaline, while cyclic guanosine monophosphate

(cGMP) serves as another second messenger, slowing muscle contraction in response to acetylcholone. It is in this way that the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems achieve antagonistic effect on heartbeat. Another example of antagonistic effect is insulin, which lowers blood sugar level, and glucagons, which raises it.

v) Synergistic effect
Another type of hormonal interaction is known as synergistic effect. Here, two or more hormones complement each others actions and both are needed for full expression of the hormone effects. For example, the production, secretion and ejection of milk by mammary glands require the synergistic effects of estrogens, progesterone, prolactin and oxytocin.

Intracellular Receptors
We have discussed many dramatic effects of hormone, for instance, testosterone. Yet, its concentration in the plasma of adult human male is only 30 to 100 ng per ml. How can hormones in such tiny quantities have such widespread and selective actions? Unlike catecholamine and peptide hormones, steroid and thyroid hormones are lipid-soluble hormones and readily pass through the plasma membrane of a target cell into the cytoplasm. There they bind to specific intracellular receptor proteins, forming a complex that enters the nucleus and bind to specific regulatory sites on chromosomes. The binding alters the pattern of gene expression, initiating the transcription of some genes (DNA), while repressing the transcription of others. This results in the production of specific mRNA translation products, proteins and usually enzymes. The actions of lipid-soluble hormones are slower and last longer than the actions of water-soluble hormones. These cause physiological responses that are characteristic of the steroid hormones.

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