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(0

MENTAL

TESTS

MENTAL

TESTS

BY

PHILIP
"

BOSWOOD
M.A.,
D.Lit.
REMINISCENCE,"

BALLARD
"HANDWORK

AUTHOR

OF

OBLIVISCENCE
AS
AN

AND EDUCATIONAL

AND
"

MEDIUM

HODDER
LONDON

AND
NEW

STOUGHTON,
YORK
1920

LTD.
TORONTO

Ms%

'n

PREFACE
book (its achievement is of this little is to make the teacher his own another matter) ing a just critic, and the teacher'scritic and discriminatthe judge.By the teacher's critic I mean

The

aim

head

whoever, in fact, passes an authoritative judgmenton his work. The teacher and his judgedo not always
"

master,

the inspector or the examiner

see

eye

to

eye ; and the

holding judge,

as

he does

the position of authority, is prone to press his point of view. If he cannot convince he commands. And, indeed, if he is to justify his post what else

difference of opinion about the temperature of the classroom may be composed by an appeal to the thermometer ; a difference of opinion about the average height of the pupils may be settled by resort to the foot-rule. But in the
can

he

do ?

meters realm of mind there are, it is thought, no thermoand foot-rules: and we sorely need them. We measurements need recognised by

objective

finaland unassailable. Indeed, we shallhave benefited but little from the new psychology if we are not, criticand teacher alike, of our made aware our own whims and grooves and fads complexes
all as
"

"

vi
our

PREFACE masquerading prejudices laying

as

principles,and

our

personal standards Even if we cannot know

claim to universality. identify these complexes, to

that they are there is something : it makes us rigorous in judging ourselves, cautious in judging others, grateful for a means precariousness of individual few such avenues of the book.
a

of escape from the judgment. To provide of the purposes

of escape is one

A
women

common

teachers, especially among malady teachers, is over-anxiety about their work.

They
are

about the progress of their pupils, and peculiarly sensitive to the opinion of those in
worry

authority.

of ledge the pupils, their aptitudes and attainments ; knowof the best means of measuring progress and be done assessing results; knowledge of what can by other children, and other teachers. And it is hoped that a little wholesome medicine of this kind will be found in these pages. The solution offered depends ultimately on There are some instinctively measurement. who dislike the idea of bringing measurement They urge that the highest into education. products
of

those who for this infirmity is knowledge cure

those who worry the most have the leastcause for worry.

And

often The best

are

; knowledge

are education, being spiritual, outside the realm of time and space to which measurements properly belong. A partial reply to this argument will be found in Chapter I. Here I will merely observe

PREFACE

vii

ment that it is possible to extend the notion of measurebeyond the physical realm ; and that the fact that some of the products of education cannot

be measured is no reason We do, in fact, none.

whenever
measure we

why
measure,

we

should
at

measure or

either well
examine examine

ill,

examine.

If

we

should examine

well ; and

to

all we well is to

accurately. claim of novelty is made is treated. Much

for the way in which space is devoted to

No
the

subject

putting England

before the reader the attempts

made

in

and abroad to arrive at a scientific system of testing. The author's own modest contributions to the science are to be found mainly in the chapters
on

Reading In
a

and

Arithmetic.

have

slightly different form some of the chapters already appeared in the Times Educational
in

Supplement and
Pedagogy
;

the

Journalof Experimental
to

reprint them I indebted to the courtesy and kindness of the two am The chapter on the Development editors concerned. tional of Mental Tests was read before the Educaand
for permission

Section of the British Psychological Society, Practical Ability before the and the chapter on Educational Handwork Association.
To many. personal obligations are teachers who have so ungrudgingly helped me standardise the tests ; to Professor T. Percy Nunn
My the
to

for

his valuable criticism of the chapter on Distribution for correcting and Dispersion ; to Dr. Emrys Jones

viti
"

PREFACE

deeply grateful. But the proofs to all these I am of all my debts of gratitude by far the biggest is due friend Mr. Cyril Burt, who has not only let to my
me
use

his revision of Binet's Tests, and include his and of Spelling,but has carefully

tests

of Reasoning

read through the whole of the manuscript and given me the benefit of abundant criticisms and suggestions. all this did he do spontaneously : he he heard that I was volunteered his help when an act of generosity made writing on Mental Tests
"

And

all the is about

more

to

striking by the fact that he himself bring out an important book on the same
P. B. Ballard.

subject.
Chiswick, 1920.

CONTENTS
CHAP.

PAGE

PREFACE

I.

THE

DEVELOPMENT

OF

MENTAL

TESTS

II.

INTELLIGENCE

AND

KNOWLEDGE OF INTELLIGENCE

22

III.
IV.

THE

MEASUREMENT

29
48

BINET'S

TESTS

OF

INTELLIGENCE
TESTS

V.

BURT'S

REASONING MEASUREMENT

90
KNOWLEDGE
.

VI.
VII.

THE

OF

I06

DISTRIBUTION READING

AND

DISPERSION

115

VIII.

"

(a)AS AS (/;)
IX.
SPELLING

A A

MECHANICAL MEANS OF

ART

134
IDEAS

ACQUIRING

145

.....

155

X.

ARITHMETIC

"

(a)THE

FUNDAMENTAL

PROCESSES
ARITHMETIC

l6o

ORAL {b)SIMPLE ARITHMETICAL (f)

186 I90
.

DEVICES

(d)APPLIED
XI. PRACTICAL

ARITHMETIC

191

ABILITY

196
2IO

XII.

COMPOSITION
APPENDIX.

SOCRATES

ON

INTELLIGENCE

221

INDEX

......

233

IX

MENTAL

TESTS

CHAPTER
THE DEVELOPMENT
OF

I
MENTAL TESTS

say that advance in any branch ment of physical science is largely dependent on improveAs the science develops in its mathematics. it gets more precise. It begins by being and more It is a truism
to

qualitative only : it ends by being quantitative as ating well. Indeed, no generalising idea, however illuminit may can seem, establish its validity and become recognised as a law of nature, unless it can be proved by the exact measurement of the facts it is designed to unify and explain. Jevons, in his Science, points out that Newton held back his theory of Gravitation for fifteen years because he found that it did not fit the accepted facts about the orbit of the moon. When it was

Principles

of

the orbit more possible to measure exactly it was found that the revised figures, instead of refuting his theory, confirmed it to the full. Wisely or foolishlyhe the undulatory theory of light rejected in favour of the corpuscular because he had no

with sufficient precision the to which, a ray of way in which, and the extent light is bent out of its course by the edge of an
of measuring
B

means

MENTAL

TESTS

A still more opaque body. striking instance of the importance is afforded by of precise measurement the recent of Einstein. Everybody, achievements indeed, admits the importance in of measurement to mental things physical things, but when it comes ing people become sceptical. They admit that measurwould be admirable if it could be done ; but it be done. We can measure cannot sticksand stones, but we cannot ideas. We can fathom the measure depth of a well, but we cannot fathom the depth of

That is the opinion of the frank emotion. The measurements. opponents of mental other " Thorndike by Everything is : that side concisely put
an

and if it existsin some Here we be measured." have the creed of the mental tester : the belief that in some time or other, the most way or other, at some
some

existsexists in it can amount

amount,

subtle mental processes and the" most elusive mental products will be made amenable to measurement. It is not the test itselfthat is so difficult : it is the evaluating of the product, giving to the result a definiteposition in a graduated scale,assigning to it, in fact, a number, a mark or a score ; and so assigning it that it has value. It must
not at

be a guess, but a genuine measurement arrived by means of a technique which would in everybody's hands yield,within assignable limits of error,
score.

objective

the same Mental

A race. old as the human man never thing consciously and deliberately learns anywithout testing himself ; he never effectively his teaches anything without testing pupils. All
tests
are

as

competitive
are

examinations seriesof mental

and
tests.

tions all school examinaAnd we know that

DEVELOPMENT

OF

MENTAL

TESTS

competitive examinations began in China nearly 4000 years ago, and that school examinations are Then there are the mental tests as old as schools. that figure so largely in legend and story, the riddles that baffle the learning of the learned and are solved by the wisdom of the simple. (Edipus and the Sphinx, Samson and the lion, are types of stories where the test is of mental prowess as distinct from bodily prowess. tests : they were
But
not

these were designed

mere

to

pass-or-fail graduate, but

merely to select or sift. The earliest attempts at real mental measurements were Just of indirect measurements. of the nature measure we as cannot electricity directly, but by measuring
can

comitant size varies consomething else whose with the strength of the electric current

as our purpose just result which serves kind of vicarious thought that some well, so it was And measurement might be found for the mind. was the head. the most plausible concomitant This was the idea of Gall, the father of Phrenology.

get

At the close of the eighteenth century he and disciple, Spurzheim, taught that the head was index of the brain, and the brain an index of They did not go so far as to say that a mind. but they did assert that head meant a big mind,

his
an

the big the

tion relative proportions of the skull and the configuraof its surface, would, when exactly measured, indication of the mental powers. exact yield an The days of phrenology were the early palmy Nearly everydecades of the nineteenth century. body My believed bumps. in then readers will dinner-party where recall an account of a certain
an

unaccustomed

guest solemnly asked the company

MENTAL

TESTS

whether they did not think Milton a great poet ; and Charles Lamb, who was present, said he wanted bumps. Indeed, most to feel the gentleman's of day household us can the remember when the cultured was prone to lay great store by a china head longer display in plots. But we no out mapped these things in the home, nor use them in the study. Phrenology has, in fact, failed to establishits claims. If it is science at allit differsfrom allother sciences by standing still. The charts that we see to-day in O'Dell's window in Ludgate Circus are to all intents and purposes the charts used by Gall and Spurzheim a hundred years ago. Older even is physiognomy. than phrenology Nearly thirty years before Gall expounded his theory of the skull Lavater put forward his theory Gall was a of the face. In the year 1772, when boy of fourteen, Lavater published his celebrated His doctrine was that the essay on Physiognomy.
face,
not

A man's his nose.

a was

Roman

the cranium, was the index of the mind. fighting qualities,for instance, resided in A nose that protruded near the root like an nose meant aggressive disposition. It
nose

If it protruded in the a middle it meant propensity to fight for others. If it protruded at the point it meant an aptitude for self-defence. The was nose retrousse neither inquisitive nor self-assertive, but merely selfdefensive. he Shrewd as some of Lavater's observations were, the
of attack.

the fundamental made mistake of confusing the bony structure of the face with its fleshy covering. He regarded the contours as of the cheek-bone much an expression of character as the lines round

DEVELOPMENT

OF

MENTAL

TESTS

Many the mouth. years later, after the science from the eclipse into which had emerged somewhat it had been thrown by phrenology, the study of the face was taken up afresh by scientistslike Bell and They, however, definitely discarded the Darwin. osteology of the face in favour of its sarcology, and devoted their attention to the mobile and plastic covering, the changes in which seemed to betoken feeling. the prevailing modes of thought and became, in fact, the science of expresPhysiognomy sion,

and only indirectly and suggestively the science for instance, of character and intellect. If a man, has crow's-feet round his eyes before he is forty, it seems to assume no that he very wild conjecture smiles much and is of an amiable disposition. But cause as weak eyes, as well as a kind heart, may crow's-feet, the inference becomes somewhat carious preDarwin Indeed, never that pretended
cannot science. We look of surprise. measure or a a smile or a sneer Heine in his Florentine Nights that he states does not know the mouths whether of Parisian large or small, because one women are can never

physiognomy

was

an

exact

leaves off and the smile tell where the mouth begins. The next attempt to physiologise the mind was Lombroso's. He was a criminologist who tried to find the bodily peculiarities that went with confirmed evil-doing. He searched for certain marks he called stigmata, and or malformations which which he thought would distinguish the criminal for instance, in form type. A lack of symmetry, feature was or of the common supposed to be one We admit its commonness, signs of degeneration.

MENTAL

TESTS

degree branded for we are all in some with it. This line of research, however, has fallen into discredit. It is now-a-days believed that if there is a criminal type we must seek its characteristics in the mind and its behaviour, rather than in the body and its anatomy. The man who gave the greatest impetus to mental Sir Francis Galton. in England was measurement But he was anthropologist, with a primarily an
comand parative physical measurements He was imbued with a belief anatomy. sort that some of correspondence could be found between intelligence and certain bodily traits,such finger,the character of as the length of the middle as the finger-prints, and the span of the open arms And researches in this with stature. compared direction have not proved altogether fruitless. If they did nothing else they gave us the Bertillon system of identification by finger-prints. But they did not bring us appreciably nearer the object of our quest. The physical correlate of intelligence left to Professor It was was stillundiscovered. Karl Pearson to deliver the most crushing blow to find a physical scale for can the belief that we mental facts. In 1906 he published the result of an elaborate investigation into the relationship between intelligence and the size and shape of the his verdict was that the connection skull. And between them, if it existed at all,was so slight as be of no use for purposes of inference. Here to

bias

towards

the first phase of the search for a scale to The conclusion reached was definite measure mind. but entirely negative. We cannot tell enough, cannot a criminal by looking at him ; we tella genius ends

DEVELOPMENT

OF

MENTAL

TESTS

by the shape of his skull; and we cannot tell a fool by the length of his ears. But this does not dispose of physical measurements. For it was next cannot argued that although we measure the mind by measuring the body, we may be able/ to do so by measuring the powers of the body. /A static measurement failed,but a dynamic For as soon as measurement the might succeed.
is unless that something something, purely automatic, the mind co-operates in the work. Volition, at least, is brought into play. This view

body

does

led to experiments with the various instruments for measuring muscular strength and skill. The for instance, measures dynamometer, the strength of one's grip, and the ergograph the strength and of the middle finger. But valuable as endurance for testing fatigue, they were these instruments revealed no sort of relationship between mental and muscular traits. The tapping test was more ing. promisIn its simplest form it consists in seeing how can taps per second the subject many make with a It is found that one can tap paper. pencil on
faster with the right hand than with the left, and it is a conceivable hypothesis that a very stupid person is,if I may use an Irishism, left-handed all his body. But although tapping afforded some over indication of motor ability it did not signify the presence of any form of intellectual ability. Reaction-time experiments ran on the same line. It was found that people differed considerably in to a the rapidity with which they responded devised to stimulus ; and a delicate apparatus was
measure

of

the time that elapsed between the hearing sound and the pressing of a button ; or between

8
some

MENTAL

TESTS

other motor response. other signal and some Rapid This test is an test. excellent vocational reaction is important to the boxer, whose aim is to get his fistin first,and to the airman who needs, at the sight of danger, to press the right lever at the right time in response to the right signal. It will be observed that the quest begins to lose The measurements began its singleness of purpose.

by being physical, then they became psycho physical, almost purely psychical. ultimately they became As soon in at all, as the psychical element came that was achieved was to a certain any measurement But to measure a extent psychical measurement. a sake is one particular mental function for its own it in the hope of finding it an thing : to measure index of general mental abilityis quite another thing. The latter has always been the bigger problem ; but the former is by no means devoid of purpose and any mental function value. To be able to measure whatever, however limited its operation, is no mean achievement, and in the types of experiments to be now have been recounted definite measurements ing attained which have proved valuable in developpsychological theory, and serviceable in their application to various pursuits in life. It is only in the larger quest that they have comparatively failed. In the nineteenth century attempts were made to measure sensations. Weber brated put forward his celelaw, which was afterwards interpreted and It was supposed to establish elaborated by Fechner. a relationship between the physical stimulus and the sensation it produced, or, rather, between the way in which an increase in the intensity of the stimulus

DEVELOPMENT
was

OF

MENTAL

TESTS

by an increase in the intensity accompanied of the sensation. In the sixties and seventies of law gave rise to last century the Weber-Fechner discussions. While some numerous thought that it between mind and revealed the connecting-link body and was metaphysical import, of immense merely an instance of the others held that it was general law of relativity: it merely illustrated the fact that we judge things not absolutely but law relatively. But although the Weber-Fechner
is regarded as of littleimportance now-a-days of little importance to the educationist at least the researches to which itled have considerably advanced Means were the science of mental measurements.
"

"

devised, for instance, for measuring the acuity of the various forms of sense-perception, particularly it led of seeing and hearing. More important still,
to

the measurement of sensory discrimination of detect differences fineness can the with which we in things. For it was suspected that here lurked
"

the

clue for which the intelligence-hunters were Indeed, the comparison of lines and the searching. of weights are widely used to-day as comparison tests of intelligence. It was sensory discrimination

in the skin, however, that gave rise to the most Early in this century an eminent sanguine hopes. psychologist expressed the belief that he had found instrument for measuring a trustworthy general intelligence. That instrument was the Eesthesiosesthesiometer consists of a pair of sharp points, like the points of a pair of compasses, be shifted back and fore on one a of which can graduated scale. When the points are applied to the
meter.

The

skin of

blindfolded

they subject

are

felt

as

one

io

MENTAL

TESTS

point unless they stand a certain distance apart. The least distance apart at which they are felt as two points is the discrimination threshold. It was believed that the sensitivityof the skin, as indicated by this threshold, was a key to the acuteness of the was thick-skinned he was mind ; that if a man But when the supporters of thick-headed as well.

this theory tried to It could not do so.

prove it they found they found that if sensory discrimina was index of anything at an of the skin was justas likely to be of stupidity as of all,it was intelligence; for McDougall and Rivers were able to show that the savages on the shores of the Torres discriminative skinsthan Europeans. had more Straits

So

the

sesthesiometer

was,

sesthesiometer and not a but not sensibleness. sensitivity, The began with scientific study of memory Ebbinghaus, who was the firstto measure memory in the form of retaining and in its simplest form nonsense syllables sounds devoid of reproducing allsense and allassociations. He laid the foundation laboratory methods of testing memory, of modern and of the distinction made in all pedagogical tests between rote memory and substance memory. Galton devised rough-and-ready means of estimating Later psychologists the vividness of visual imagery. have used ink-blots for measuring the rapidity with A seriesof blots which images emerge in the mind.
"
"

after all, merely an phrenometer : it measured

shown the time he takes

are

and subject,
to
name

record made of the the object suggested by

a

each. It were

both tedious and superfluous to take the that have been reader through the various means

DEVELOPMENT

OF

MENTAL

TESTS

invented for measuring the different mental faculties processes which, in fact, are neither simple nor
"

separate

"

processes

apperception, And whenever isused for any of these purposes itis always impossible to and tests one simple claim that it singles out One of the most and unitary mental function.

such as attention, perception, imagination and reasoning. memory, instrument or an piece of apparatus

useful pieces of apparatus, for instance, in the dotting psychological laboratory is McDougall's A strip of paper marked with an irregular machine.
of small circlespasses at a rate regulated zig-zag row by clock-work behind a slot which enables only a of circles to be exposed at a time. small number

The

with a pencil the centre This machine of each circle as it passes before him. is used to test fatigue, to test attention and to test accuracy of aim ; and there may be other kinds of abilitythat it tests as well. being In the meantime, while specific tests were

subject

has

to

mark

rapidly devised and improved, what progress took place in the measurement of general intelligence ? This can be best illustrated by reference to the experiments of Mr. Cyril Burt, who has done more
to

than any other solve this particular problem British psychologist. Mr. Burt began his investigations

among school-children in Oxford about the time that Binet published his firstseries of tests in was to 1905. His method of select the group

fell within certain age children in a school who from twelve and a half to thirteen and a limits (say half years and to get the head teacher and class old), ligence, teachers to arrange these children in order of intel-

relying partly

on

their empirical

judgment,

12

MENTAL

TESTS

the results of the school examinapartly on tions. Then the children were given individually from twelve psychological tests, ranging simple and
tion, of voluntary attenextent the calculated to what and it was results talliedwith the teachers' empirical estimate. The higher the correlation between the two orders,
sensory and
motor tests to tests

the more the test regarded as an satisfactory was index of intelligence. Some fiveyears laterMr. Burt further investigation at Liverpool, using a made tests of a higher and more complex kind extending in fact, include various types of so to as them, He was thus able to range in a sort of reasoning. hierarchy, on the basis of their value as criteriaof intelligence,a large series of tests involving mental the conprocesses of widely varying levels. And clusion he arrived at was that when we have arranged them in the order of their complexity we have already roughly arranged them in their order as intelligenceAnd of all the tests of intelligence those measurers. that measure the power of thinking, that is, the are the best. power to understand and to reason, Thus iscommon sense vindicated by the psychologistThus we have arrived at the conviction that if we test it directly must wish to test intelligence we
"

test those very mental and not indirectly : we must regards as intelligent. processes which the plain man is " quick in the We must note whether the subject " " " nous or gumption," uptake," whether he has " beyond his nose." And it see whether he can will be observed, too, that instruments and machines have been relegated to the psychological laboratory, where they are of inestimable value both to pure and to certain branches of applied psychology

DEVELOPMENT

OF

MENTAL

TESTS

13

For educational purposes they are of psychology. At any rate, it is certain that no machine little use. gence intellihas yet been invented which will measure
; and faith in the possibilityof such
a

machine
"

is growing laboratory

We now regard tests and school tests as distinct things a taken up from the very first position which was by that pioneer of educational experiments, Mr. Winch. At this stage we have abandoned certain specious by-paths which seemed to lead to the desired goal, and we have found the true path, which has, after high road which the all,proved to be the common has been treading all along. But mass of humanity We in one sense we are as far from the goal as ever. know the kind of test to be applied, but we have no It but we measure. can test, cannot scale. We left for Binet to discover the scale. And the was
fainter every day.

full significance of his discovery is rarely realised. His critics and they are very numerous have bee a so concerned in pointing out what he has not done that they have neglected to give him credit for what Binet's crowning And he has done. glory is, not
" "

that he got together a medley of heterogeneous tests for the detection of the feeble-minded, but that he invented a scale. In this he resembles Saul, the

Son of Kish, who set out to look for asses and found Binet's scale is his kingdom ; not the a kingdom. individual tests these may so change that there is the scale itself. nothing recognisable left but Its principle is age-performance. He took a certain test, such as, say, counting backwards from twenty to nought, applied it to a large number of children, found the lowest age at which between 60 and 70 per
" "

14

MENTAL

TESTS

of the children passed, and allocated the test Thus he has a series of about five to that age. tests for each age ; and if a child of five passes the
cent,

his mental age is recorded as two years in advance of his chronological age. Thus the unit It was a one year of mental age. of his scale was plan so simple and obvious that one wonders that it was never used before. But it is certain that it We came it in the old Standards near never was. issued by the Board of that were of Examination by results. But Education in the days of payment they just missed it through being an arbitrary scale,
tests

for

seven,

based on opinion and not on actual age-performance. And in modern standardised tests the standard is always actually, or ideally, an age-performance. Binet regarded intelligence as a complex process threefold : its main whose characteristics were purposefulness, its capacity for making adaptation, and its power of self-criticism. He therefore made his tests as heterogeneous as possible. He looked sagacity in everywhere for tests, and showed much finding those that were simple, practicaland effective. They involve such ordinary questions as : " Are you little boy or a little girl? " and such unusual a problems as : Put the following words in such order that they make sense
"

To Asked Spelling My I Master Correct My. The only material apparatus. used no in is beyond found an ordinary schoolroom, what required, is a series of five pill-boxes similar in size loaded. and appearance, but differently

And

he

DEVELOPMENT

OF

MENTAL

TESTS

15

Binet's scheme led to abundant controversy. a Indeed, the literature of the controversy would fill body small library. Everybody abused Binet, and everyThey his him. were tests very bad, said used but they were the best we had. If Binet had lived he would have improved his tests, for he was continually He, issued indeed, three revising them.
"

the 1905,the 1908 and the 191 1 series each series" improvement on an the previous one ; and just before he died in 1913 he was engaged in making ^' enthusiastica another revision. His line of research was America, in taken up where three important revisions were issued, the Goddard the the Yerkes point-scalerevision(where revision, finally was the method of marking and changed), revisionthat should be best known in this country, The the Stanford revision, carriedout by Terman. basis in each case was Binet, and the alterations matter of detailrather than of and extensionswere principle. The tests applied to the recruits for the American Army were partly based on Binet ; versity the tests used for Matriculants at Columbia Uniinspired by Binet's,and the tests used were in Berlinto select supernormal children are imitative of Binet's. The only extension of principleis the vidual, addition of group-tests. Binet's tests are indiand it takes from half-an-hour to an hour A large number of to examine a single subject. new tests have been devised,which may be applied simultaneously to a large number of pupils; but they agree with Binet's in being age-performance tests, and in being tests of intelligence rather than knowledge. of acquired The latestdevelopment of the Binet system is

16

MENTAL

TESTS

be found in Burt's system of Reasoning Tests ; or rather, it is the logical outcome of Burt's own theories, for the only part of Binet's system that he basis of selection. retains is the age-performance The tests themselves he If intelligence, rejects. Burt defines as " inborn all-round mental which " is mainly manifested in the higher efficiency mental processes, the best intelligence tests would various forms of reasoning, and would omit embody allreference or appeal to the lower mental processes. Burt has, accordingly, recently published a seriesof fiftyreasoning tests, which are the best of an initial list of 250 that were tried on miscellaneous groups of children and adults. The questions are not the usual syllogisticquestions of traditional logic, but involve the application of thought to the ordinary the purpose of the test is to affairsof life. Where pick out the brightest children rather than to pick out the blockheads, these tests will, in my opinion, satisfactory than Binet's. They are prove far more been extensively used ; as new yet and have not but I believe there is a great future for them. They display much ingenuity, and the more difficult likely to pick out what Terman far more tests are tests. own callsthe superior adult than Ter man's But this is only for intelligence tests. So much one of the fieldsin which the technique of mental testing has been improved, and in which it has been Laboratory apparatus put to practical purposes. been rapidly improving and laboratory methods have years, and psychological tests have within recent in the realms of been applied with great success medicine, business and industry. To describe these here is outside my scope ; I must developments
to

DEVELOPMENT

OF

MENTAL

TESTS

17

limit myself to mental tests in the educational ment realm, and so far I have not touched the measureof school attainments. in securing standardised tests and Our success depends mainly upon standardised measurements discoveries. One three mathematical of these I have already dealt with that of age-performance. Before Binet's day we tried to measure one unknown We by another unknown. tried to test mental
"

difficulty was of tests whose processes by means We knew neither of guess-work. merely a matter their relative difficulty. Binet their absolute nor gave us a method by which the difficulty of the tests could be graded and standardised. But he himself
seems

the

of the other two mathematical have largely advanced conceptions which the theory science of mental measurements
no
use
"

to

have made

of normal It

distribution, and
was

who showed distribution, what of normal

the theory of correlation. Quetelet,the Belgian mathematician, how the law widely applicable was
a

large number of found to follow were socialand physical phenomena the normal curve, and how the form of distribution could be deduced from the laws of probability. But it was Galton who suggested that mental traits generally, and intelligence in particular, would be law. And found to follow the same to-day this is universally used to test tests and to certify curve If the results do not conform to the normal them. they at Terman have
curve once

become

amply tests triumphantly stand this criterion of validity. To Galton, too, we are mainly indebted for the doctrine of correlation,which has proved so valuable
c

suspect. demonstrated

Goddard and that Binet's

MENTAL
instrument

TESTS

to which the extent two tally with each other orders of measurements functions or, in to which two other words, the extent The doctrine of Correlation vary concomitantly. developed and elaborated by Professor Karl was Pearson, to whom we owe comthe formula most monly discovered a used. Professor Spearman formula so of correlation which, although not Karl Pearson's, is much as strictlyaccurate simpler to use, and is quite satisfactorywhen the rank only This correlation formula is known. of the subjects was extensively used by Burt, and has figured largely in the exposition and proof of the doctrine of Intelligence as conceived by Spearman and his
an
"

in determining

school. Another device which has proved of great service is that of " equal grasps," invented by Mr. Winch. Each child in one group is paired with another Such an child of equal merit in the other group. arrangement enables the experimenter to estimate the efficacy of a new method of teaching, or to compare the efficacyof two rival methods ; for one be taught by one group may method and the other group by the other method. It remains for me to deal with the development of mental tests in the realm of school studies a realm where mental tests in the form of examinations
"

regarded But as an essential part of the school machinery. the newer system of school tests differs essentially from examinations. An examination, however carefully it is conducted, is a test of comparative ability. It enables the examiner to arrange his examinees in order of proficiency. But it does not enable

have

from

time

immemorial

been

DEVELOPMENT
him
to

OF

MENTAL

TESTS

19

the proficiency of the group as a compare whole with the proficiency of any other group as a of yet with the normal achievement whole, nor other pupils under similar conditions of age and is like a schooling. For a public examination It measures, it be used but once. rocket : it can is true ; but it measures the individuals of a group one them by against the other : it does not measure newer tests, reference to a standard scale. The

the other hand, are standardised tests : they are difficultyis already known in terms tests whose of The separate tests, of which an age-achievement. examination consists,are either regarded as carrying equal marks, or as carrying marks which vary in accordance with the examiner's opinion of their Standardised tests, difficultyor their importance. on the other hand, do not depend for the marks they carry on anybody's mere opinion, but rather
on

their difficulty as experimentally determined. The tests are tested and standardised by a mathematical analysis of the results obtained by applying the tests to a large number of children. The subon

element

is reduced

jectiv
the

to

minimum,

and

raised to a maximum. The to tests extent which of school objective the study studies are possible depends partly on itself, and partly on what aspect of the study it is desired to test. Proficiency in arithmetic, for instance, is easier to test than proficiency

element objective

in English composition ; and proficiency in the fundamental processes of arithmetic easier than proficiency in the capacity to apply these processes. This difference in the degrees of is still objectivity in the attempts that have been more readily seen

objectively

2o

MENTAL

TESTS

to measure the various aspects of reading. made For proficiency in reading depends upon at least three distinct types of ability ability to translate symbols into sounds, ability to absorb meaning,
"

and ability to read aloud so as to make the meaning intelligibleto others. These are concerned with the mechanical aspect, the intellectual aspect and first the elocutionary aspect respectively. The the second difficult, the ability is easy to measure, third almost impossible. Apart from a few abortive

with the dictaphone nobody has ever invent standardised tests of elocuto tionary power. In America alone have educational tests received the attention they deserve. There a number of been devised and norms tests have established in geometry arithmetic, reading, spelling, grammar, basic the same and algebra. All these rest on principle as Binet's Intelligence tests, except that is substituted for age-performance. grade-performance The standardised tests in composition, and drawing, however, involve an handwriting and
experiments attempted

entirely new principle a principle which, though is mainly invented by Professor Thorndike, not It consists in devising associated with his name. a scale of typical specimens, a scale arrived at by of independent collating the opinions of a number judges.When it is wished to mark a particular with the specimens of the paper, it is compared standard scale with a view to discovering to which it is most nearly equal in merit. If the variabilityin set of papers by a number the marking of the same teachers is less when the scale is of independent used than when it is not used, it is claimed that
"

DEVELOPMENT

OF

MENTAL

TESTS

21

As a matter the use of the scale is justified. of fact it is found that after some practice in the use of the scale the variability is less; but not so much less as to give this type of measurement any very high degree of validity. Even in America objective In England they are the scales are not used much. not used at all. But the other scalesare to a certain

We have not, in this country, gone far in the invention of tests and the establishments of have begun the work, and we norms are ; but we slowly but steadily forging ahead.
extent.

CHAPTER
INTELLIGENCE AND

II
KNOWLEDGE

All who have given serious thought to education have been wont to exalt intelligence at the expense " Wisdom," knowledge. an of says ancient writer, " is the principal thing ; therefore get wisdom ; And and with all thy getting get understanding." although by wisdom he doubtless meant something he at leastmeant intelligence. more than intelligence, " On the other hand, he that increaseth knowledge Here in these far-off times we increaseth sorrow." see exerrecognised a distinction which has much cised
the mind of the modern educationist the distinction between gence wisdom and learning, intelliand mental and knowledge, mental power
"

content.

cry for intelligence was acutely clamant first The decade in the of the twentieth century. recovered from the cramping primary schools had just had begun to effect of annual examinations and breathe more freely. Intelligence became a cult

The

Teachers aimed at it ; and a quest and a watchword. inspectors looked for it ; administrators encouraged " " in it. There was a slump accuracy and " " And boom in intelligence. a the educational psychologist, seeing herein a promising fieldfor his

labours, began

to

investigate intelligence and

to

INTELLIGENCE
cast

AND
means

KNOWLEDGE
measure

23

it. Although was alone prominent before the public, by no he was means the only investigator ; nor, he original. Still, the work perhaps, the most achieved was great. He had a genius for discerning worthy in the work of others ; he cast his what was so net wide that nothing valuable escaped him ; important point of all he kept a steady most and
about Binet's name
for
to
"
"

practicability. gence, while the teacher tried to cultivate intellitellig inand the psychologist tried to measure nobody seemed to know precisely what It was intelligence was. certain that the term at a recent meeting covered a wide field. When
a member asserted that of an education committee highly trained and intelligent, teachers as a body were an

eye on But

opponent
was

diaboli) (advocatus retorted

that

the

Clearly there was of elephants. It is not need to sharpen and define the term. ability as distinct from enough to say that it means knowledge, capacity as distinct from content, power
same

true

For how can we gauge a product. mind's capacity except by finding out what it can And contain ? But what it contains is knowledge. how measure we a can mind's power without measuring its product ? But its product is, again, Binet saw in part at least, knowledge. culty, this diffiand frankly accepted knowledge as one of the of his earlier marks of intelligence. One many intelligence tests, for instance, for a child of nine He would in order the days of the week. is : name
as

distinct from

course probably argue that a child of nine who in his interwith his fellow-creatures had not picked up was these names necessarily somewhat stupid,

24
Binet
was

MENTAL
inclined
to

TESTS

adopt the easy-going attitude does not mind a notion being of the artist, who nebulous so long as it is workable, rather than that sistency of the scientist,who strives for precision and conall costs. There are who other psychologists, however, have taken up the question in a different spirit; in England and most notably Professor Spearman Their mode Professor Thorndike in America. of They submitted specific research was mathematical.
mental abilities the ability to add numbers, to memorise words, to discriminate lengths, to sort fully cards, and so forth to certain rigid tests, and careThen they compared the marked the results. various scorings and found the correlation between
" "

at

them ; that is,the degree of concomitant variation, or to which the compared tend the extent abilities And from similar statistics to rise and falltogether. investigators arrived at entirely different the two vidual concluded that the indiconclusions. Thorndike abilities were entirely independent ; that in fact, no such thing as general intelligence, there was, but only particular intelligences. For may be intelligent at geometry and stupid at history, or brilliantas a poet and hopelessly bad Spearman, on at figures? the other hand, concluded factor a that there was certain dominant to common a all the specificabilities, central fund of intellective energy, to which the term general intelligence or general abilitymight fitlybe applied. To put it in another way, Thorndike held that a
not
a

man

intellectual wealth that coupons ; Spearman

man's

coupons, each of which

consisted entirely of it consisted partly of may be expended in one

INTELLIGENCE

AND

KNOWLEDGE

25

direction only, and partly of cash, which could be expended in any direction. Both views nised recogthe obvious fact that individuals varied widely in intellectual wealth ; the views clashed on the question of the availabilityof that wealth. Let us examine the ground of the belief in of common general intelligence. It is a matter
thing is who is good at one observation that a man good at most other things. At leastit is so as a rule ; Generally cases of one-sided ability are very rare. is wise in all things, a fool is speaking, a wise man Indeed, it can be proved mathea fool all round. matically that there is a positive correlation between

all forms of native ability; they always tend to hang together ; the odds are always in favour of high ability in any given function being accompanied by high ability in any other function. Why should mathematical should this be ? Why ability be positively correlated, as it is, with linguistic if we make every allowance for ability? Even such operations as might be conceived to be fail to account to the two we still abilities, whole relationship. There still remains
nexus. a common

for the
an unassume

explain

We

are

forced, in fact,
to
a own

to

general factor common operations of the mind, specificability is, in its common energised. This

all the multifarious factor with which each measure, charged and factor is intelligence.

Such hard

reasoning ; and its cogency is But he further arrives at the concert disto dispute. conclusion that this central factor cannot be cultivated. It is born with one, and can neither

is Spearman's

be improved

by

schooling

nor

dulled by
mother

Intelligence is mother

wit, and

neglect. wit is a

26
matter

MENTAL

TESTS

of heredity. The ancient writer already holds He believes in hopeful a more quoted view. But even he the possibilityof cultivating wisdom. " Though thou : admits that it is sometimes difficult among shouldest bray a fool in a mortar wheat, his foolishness depart with a pestle, yet will not from him." It follows from this that the only practical thing do with general intelligence, if a psychologist can it. Hence the there is such a thing, is to measure It is clear that assiduous pursuit of mental tests. be directly tested, for general intelligence cannot be found alone : it is always embedded, it can never in specificabilities. But can it not be it were, as have in the thermometer tested indirectly ? We
of indirect measurement. excellent example There are no known means of measuring temperature directly ; we have to make use of the fact that the of mercury is almost expansion of a thin column So instead perfectly correlated with temperature.
an

of
not

measuring
some

mercury when

we measure the temperature, the is there ; which does quite as well. Now simple function of mind or body which

way an exact measured will give us in the same valuation of intelligence ? The quest of this keyability resembled the quest of the philosopher's It sometimes led to the discovery of unstone. expecte led discovery it to the treasure ; of often far it mare's as the essential nests ; search always, as Every disappointment. in was concerned, ended device failed that assumed an spondence essential correto measure sense of soul with and sought mind through matter. There was no help for it. The hope of finding

INTELLIGENCE
a

AND

KNOWLEDGE

27

simple key-ability had to be investigators had to fall back

abandoned ; and on the laborious

as possible and, expedient of testing as many abilities by a process of mathematical analysis, extracting Among intellective element. the the common pioneers in this particular field of research, Mr. Cyril Burt takes the foremost place. After years of patient labour he proved that while almost any kind of abilitywas a presumptive sign of intelligence,

much safer signs than others. abilitieswere " Of To use his own all the tests proposed, words : those involving higher mental processes, such as closely with intelligence." reasoning, vary most There are no tests of intelligence that are more Binet's tests are widely used than Binet's. And based on the principles I have justexpounded.
some

ments, and Burt, he discarded brass instruon the higher mental proand relied more cesses than on the lower/ His tests measure general a large number ability simply because they measure

Like Spearman

of specific abilities. So far as he is concerned, it does not in the least matter whether Spearman is right or Thorndike ; on either theory his tests are
a

real, though

rough,

measure

of individual mental

endowment. William

his pragmatic advocating method, contends that the best way to discover the essentialdifference between two conflicting theories is to find out the practical difference in the consequences
that flow from them. they affect practice ? We have

James, in

How,
seen

in fact, do

of the rival theories of Spearman be accepted, it makes no difference in the mode of to the teacher ? testing ; does it make any difference

that, whichever and Thorndike

28

MENTAL
the
answer

TESTS
"

No." On either view the only cultivable thing is the multifarious group of not, however, be thought special abilities. It must that all this theorising and researching has had no distinctly has. school practice. It most effect on Its effect has been to broaden the outlook, to multiply the school pursuits, to vary and amplify the methods of study.

Again

is

CHAPTER
THE

III
OF

MEASUREMENT

INTELLIGENCE

British Press refers to mental tests as though In new they were things invented by Americans. American. nor point of fact they are neither new They have been the common property of the race
since the mysterious

The

dawn

children at merely questions or tasks that invite a trial of intelligence. What is new is not selves, the tests thembut the aptness with which they are chosen and the scientificprecision with which they are applied. A tacit distinction

more no are of history. They that delight than the conundrums Christmas party. They are, in fact, a

between be made This distinction tests. examinations and mental is illegitimate; for an examination is nothing but
seems

to

logical mental or psychobeen devised. They as ever are not non-mental tests, but simply a special kind The of mental test. real distinction lies between tests of knowledge and tests of ability; tests of

seriesof

which are any that have

tests,

as just

school attainments and tests of natural intelligence ; tests a of book-learning and tests of mother-wit distinction which is easy to make but difficultto For it is impossible to devise a test of maintain. does not ability which and also test knowledge,
"

29

30
impossible
not to

MENTAL
devise
a

TESTS
test

also test of the most The child is asked to say what is absurd in tests. " If I should ever the following : grow desperate and kill myself, I will not choose Friday, because Friday is an To ness." unlucky day and will bring me unhappiknow, answer this correctly he must of the words, other things, the meanings among know that a dead man is,in this world and he must If the quesnor at least, neither happy tion unhappy.
were

of knowledge which does ability. Let us, for example, take one characteristic of Binet's intelligence

put in these words

he could never answer he might be ; and to a race Now let us consider this pedabe meaningless. gogical Which four largest in test : towns are the Scotland ? A correct answer would at least involve
it,to underability to grasp a fact and to remember stand The ence differit. a question and to respond to between the two types is one of proportion. To answer the second we must acquire a special bit of knowledge casual experience will not which us ; to answer the first necessarily force upon involves the application of such knowledge no as fail to pick up in the ordinary sane mortal can course of life.

man unilingual Chinait, however intelligent of immortals it would

to
a

it goes, is perfectly sound, and indeed is constantly cropping The up in the folk-lore and legends of all races. point of the old English ballad of King Johnand the Abbot depends entirely on this distinction. The At the king sets the abbot three mental tests. risk of forfeiting his lifein case of failure,the abbot long it has to say what the king is worth, how
distinction, however,
so

The

far

as

MEASUREMENT

OF

INTELLIGENCE

31

would take him to ride round the world, and what he is thinking of. A respite of three weeks is given. The abbot cudgels his poor brains in vain. He rides " Cambridge and Oxenford, but never a doctor to so there was wise that could with his learning an
answer
rescue

shepherd, a man write. The who could neither read nor in shepherd, who happened to resemble his master sented appearance, disguised himself as the abbot, prehimself before the king, and spoke thus : " How are much pieces you worth ? Twenty-nine of silver,for you are worth at least one piece less long will it take you to Saviour. How than our must ride round the world ? You rise with the sun, and ride with the sun, until he riseshere again day ; then the journey next will take you" exactly do you think ? You hours. What twenty-four think I'm the abbot ; but I'm not : I'm his shepherd." Here we have three tests, which all the learning in the land could not satisfy, triumphantly And, indeed, all solved by simple mother-wit. do through the records of folk-lore and mythology find the learning of the learned put to confusion we by the wisdom of the simple. The supreme ordeal
which reveals the native nobility of the hero is just likely to be the solution of an enigma or the as interpretation of a dream as the slaying of a dragon While the dragon is the test of physical or a giant. is the test of intellectual prowess, the enigma Perseus by his courage rescued Andromeda, prowess. but (Edipus by his intelligence rescued the As the reader will remember, whole of Thebes. the riddle of the Sphinx ("What animal walks in

devise." him from

In fact, the only man his plight was his own

who

could

32

MENTAL

TESTS

on two, the morning on four legs, at noon and in the evening on three ? ") was solved by OEdipus in whom alone, a king's son reared by peasants, a man nature triumphed over nurture. The whole family of riddles, puzzles, charades belongs to a larger group of ability and conundrums They tests. require for their solution no special

knowledge,

general aptitude for applying for the discernment of subtle analogies knowledge We however, fall into must not, and contrasts.
a
"

but

of thinking that the modern application in the mere of mental tests consists asking of riddles. The tests are, in a sense, riddles,but they are riddles

the

error

have diagnostic value. of a special kind : they must Let me illustrateby comparing an old riddle with a The riddle is : What test. new relation does a loaf of bread bear to a steam-engine ? And the test : Complete the analogy : As a loaf of bread
is

The is eating to so glass of water, " " to the riddle is answer ; for a loaf of mother bread is a necessity, a steam-engine an invention, This is and necessity is the mother of invention. but of a perverted ingenuity. not a test of intelligence,
to
a
.

intended to gauge one's reasoning powers, but to raise a laugh. As a means of diagnosis it is gives the result a quite useless,unless, indeed, one in its solution negative interpretation ; for success is, as a mark of sanity, no more significant than failure. It is sophistry rather than logic, a jest Very different is the analogies rather than a test. Failure to answer test given above. this would, in a an serious defect of intellect. For adult, mean
in some its solution lies not the great sophistry, but on

It is not

crooked highway

by-path of of human

MEASUREMENT
thought.

OF

INTELLIGENCE

33

is why it serves for a diagnosis of For there is mental endowment and unfoldment. development below which a certain stage of mental be answered, and above which it cannot it cannot Although, therefore, the enigmas be mis-answered. of the ancients and the catch-questions of to-day in the broad sense are, of the term, mental tests, they lack the special characteristics of those tests which are now-a-days called mental or psychological. The whole point and pungency of the riddle or the catch liesin its being exceptional. To repeat it in For its another form is to thwart its purpose. the trick of it is purpose is to trip us up ; and once After we have got known it ceases to trip us up. " Pas de l'yeux Rhone as the hang of such a sentence
it is quite easy to read " Guy n'a beau que nous," When dit qui sabot dit nid a beau dit-elle? " CEdipus, in pondering over the riddle of the Sphinx,
"
" "

That

meant the morning the morning guessed that was of life," the enigma virtually solved ; and all The riddle, metaphor. others based on the same The nut to in fact, needs novelty for its success. be cracked may be any nut but a chestnut. As distinct from this spurious mental test, the

mental test depends for its value upon its of a family, universality. It is always a member and the larger the family the better. The analogies be multiplied indefinitely; test given above may indeed, as many as a hundred have been set at one sitting. For example : As cat is to kitten, so is ? dog to ? As sheep is to ox, so is flock to ? In As Paris is to France, so is London to testing ability,as in testing knowledge, it is always best to set a fair number of questions. To base a
genuine

34

MENTAL
one

TESTS
however

judgmenton

good that test may be, is extremely precarious ; when the test itself Each be reached. is suspect, no verdict at all can preted itself be tested, and the results intertest must in accordance with the laws of probability.
test,

I have, for instance, tried the following test on young and old : If you are given a corked bottle half full

can you get the wine out without of wine, how taking out the cork or breaking either the cork or possibl the bottle ? Most adults proclaim the task im-

but many a small boy, who has solved with his bottle of ginger-beer certain difficulties can or liquorice water, answer the question promptly. The test, in fact, proves to be too dependent on an accident of experience to be a real gauge of practical ability. Nor is it necessary to fall back have so many we on such doubtful tests when that are of demonstrable validity. Another element of prime importance in scientific an testing is speed emplif element which is clearly exThe is in the cancellation test.
"

subject

required or all the

to

cancel
rs,

concurrently, limited time rating the resultsthe marker has to take into account the number of letters rightly erased, the number wrongly erased, and the omissions. It is obvious that with unlimited time all who could distinguish To ignore full marks. the letters at allwould score the time element is to nullify the test. If, however, there is one single feature which from the test essentially distinguishes the modern gncient, it is that the modern test h standardised,
"

rapidly possible all the ah or any other letters, separately or A in a page of printed matter. In is allowed minutes. say, two
as as

MEASUREMENT The
man

OF

INTELLIGENCE

35

first convinced the world of the who necessity for standardised tests, as distinct from Alfred Binet. And casual and haphazard tests, was he really was he achieved it incidentally. What to find out which children in the schools after was mentally defective. To do this he of Paris were devised
to scales, one measure the other to first measured measure exactly ; the firstsifted roughly, the second more out the the suspects, the second found from among The blockheads. assumption was suspects the real that all fools are dunces, but all dunces are not fools an quite in accordance assumption with This flaws sense. common general scheme, full of has given birth to the whole modern as it isin detail, testing. He has not only shown system of scientific how to discover intellectualand moral weaklings, us but he has led us into a fertile land which it is duty to explore and subdue. our Binet avoided the mistake of trying to deduce a scale from firstprinciples. He based his scale on fact. Before asserting what degree of intelligence a child of ten ought to possess,he took the trouble degree of intelligence a child of to ascertain what ten actually does possess. Before testing children with a test, he firsttested the test with children. By applying it to a large number of children of different ages he was able to fix the lowest age at were which the majority able to pass it. Let me illustrate this with reference to a type of test which was evidently a favourite of Binet's, for in his scale of fifty-fourintelligence tests it appears four times frequently, in fact? than any other. It more
two

carefully graduated and school attainments general intelligence. The

"

"

36

MENTAL

TESTS

consists in the repetition of a series of digits. The " I am going to say x numbers. says : examiner Listen and repeat them : 5, 8, 2, after me The numbers are uttered steadilv at intervals etc." Binet found that at three years of half a second.
.

ably of age few could repeat three digits, but considerThus he more than half could repeat two. digits as a three-yearfixed the repetition of two
the same principle he old test ; and acting on digits to the ages of assigned three, five and seven four, eight and fifteen respectively. This innocent littletest is not, in its implications, so simple as it It measures seems. the span of primary memory
"

the number of things one can hold in the conscious It depends on the fact at the same time. memory that consciousness is not a point but a patch ; and the assumption is, the bigger the patch the bigger When to attend to A the mind ceases the mind. and passes on to B, A does not suddenly vanish from consciousness leaving B in sole possession, but fades gradually away, forming in the process what If by the William James calls a " fringe " to B. time the last digit is uttered by the examiner the firsthas quite disappeared from the child's mind, His psychic fringe is the child will failin the test.
too

small. The is more importance memory of primary apparent in dealing with words than in dealing with figures. For if all the essential parts of a do not in some sense reverberate spoken sentence has no chance together in the mind, the sentence Fortunately the words in of being understood. connected discourse have greater cohesion than a

string of digits,and the number

that of syllables

MEASUREMENT
can,

OF

INTELLIGENCE

37

according to Binet, be repeated at the ages to of three, five and fifteen amount six, ten and twenty-six respectively. Roughly speaking, a child should be able to repeat twice as many syllablesas the number of years he has lived. Binet's typical " The other day I saw in example for fifteen is : Little Maurice a the street pretty yellow dog.
Binet's third test for children of twelve years of age : " I am going to allow you three minutes, and I want you to say as many words as you can think of. Some children hear have said more hundred ; let me than two how can many you say. Ready ? Start." In say at least sixty words. order to pass the child must This is an ingenious way of finding the child's the time it takes one word to call association time The laboratory method is to deal up another.
"

has stained his nice new apron." Much interest is attached to

separately with each word and to measure precisely by means of a speciallyconstructed clock the interval that elapses between the hearing of the word and the emergence of an associated idea. And, indeed, investigations some such plan is necessary in scientific of the association process itself. But for measuring mental activity in children, for finding roughly the rate at which ideas march through the mind, Binet's method is equally effective and much this test once simpler. Although he uses only, it has been found that the number of words a child in the given time increases steadily with his age ; that norms or averages could consequently be fixed, and the test used to mark different levels
can

utter

of intelligence. It has also been found that one as trustworthy as three minute will give results just

38
minutes.
tests
are

MENTAL All this

serves

TESTS
to

illustrate how

Binet's

constantly being criticised and refined upon ; how tests themselves are not exempt from the testing of time and experience. Interesting, however, as these tests are, they are probably inferiorin diagnostic value to the absurdity

And although which I have already referred Binet sets them one ten at years of point only they are appropriate to all ages except the age very lowest. The following test, which I devised
tests to
.
"
"

years ago to arrange rapidly (and of course in roughly) order of intelligence a group of children found to be suitable for was of eleven years or over, all children who could read fluently and were
some

advanced

enough

to

express their ideas in writing

"

lived in a small cottage which stood From on the top of a barren hilland faced the east. the foot of the hilla grassy plain stretched in every direction as far as the eye could see. On the evening thirtieth birthday, while he was sitting of John's on the front door-step looking towards the setting his shortening shadow on sun the and watching aware that a gravel path, he suddenly became horseman was to the cottage. The riding down it difficultfor intervening trees and foliage made him to see clearly, but he was able to perceive When, had only one arm. that the horseman however, he got a closer view he recognised that the his son William who had left home to visitor was jointhe army twenty years before and had not been heard of since. On seeing his father William dismounted, immediately ran towards him, threw his arms round his neck, and burst into tears.

JohnCarew

MEASUREMENT
Each

OF

INTELLIGENCE

39

given this passage in child in the class was print, and was allowed a quarter of an hour to read it and to write out any absurdities he could find therein. It contains about seven absurdities, and it was found that it did actually differentiate the children in close accordance with the teacher's rating of their general intelligence. Elementary school children of eleven years of age who discovered as a at least five absurdities were, rule, those who

been selected as worthy of a secondary school training. It has been complained that most absurdity tests too are easy for the older pupils. Given, however, limit, it would not be difficultto devise a a time floor the test of adults. which would majority Let the reader, for instance, try to find within fifteen seconds the absurdity (there is but in one) " the following : John Jones, who had married his had a bad widow's sister,used to say that if a man sisterit was his misfortune, but if he had a bad wife
on

other grounds

had

it was his fault." When Binet published his scalein 1908 he regarded it as tentative. Indeed, he revised it himself three a years later ; and since his death many patient further experimenter has laboured at separating still the gold from the dross. It has been found that while some of the tests are almost worthless, others are of no small value : they are reliable in practice tests new and suggestive in theory. Moreover, daily being devised and put to the trialof rigid are
are experiment, so that we gradually accumulating body strated bear a the hall-mark of demonof tests which success.

One

of the

main

defects of Binet's scale is its

4o
bias in favour

MENTAL
"

TESTS

of words rather than of language things ; another defect is the paucity of tests (there but five) are therefore prescribed for adults. When

tested for intelligence and plentiful in adults as were especially such illiterate Army has to be had to recourse the American tests of a new type. One of the most useful of adults have
to
" "

be

these is the

construction board," a variation of are the jig-saw sections, however, puzzle. The generally rectangular, and the time always restricted. A test has gained considerable vogue which

"

during recent years consists merely in the giving of These instructions to be obeyed by the subject. instructions may possess any degree of complexity and may be used to mark the rapidity with which For instance : " Print is grasped. the meaning (or names) in small letters your Christian name in capitals unless there are more and your surname in which case you than six lettersin your surname, in small letters and your should print your surname Christian name (ornames)in capitals." It is quite be indefinitely how these tests may easy to see the provisos more complicated either by making puzzling or by simply increasing their number. As a sample : " If your grandfather's only child was your uncle draw a square ; if not, draw a circle." Here, as always, a time limit is essential. Binet's other for intelligence tests. So much barerne d'instruction) consisted of ordinary scale (his examination questions, with the difference a highly important difference that they have been carefully of this sifted and standardised. The development gence the intelliscale is quite another story. Nor must have been dealing be tests with which we
" "

MEASUREMENT

OF

INTELLIGENCE

41

confused with vocational tests, which are designed to find out what sort of work a person is best fitted for. These are just as often physical tests as mental
tests,

and frequently involve the use of delicate and complicated apparatus. Having made a distinction between the two broad types of mental tests (tests of knowledge and tests
of

having shown that these types are never quite pure, let us examine the bearing of this theoretical distinction on the practical art of There four possible methods are of examining. First, dispense we may with the ordinprocedure. ary and ability), altogether and substitute a series This is no new It has of ability tests. proposal. been made many before, but it has always a time been For it cannot And rightly so. be
examination
too

strongly insisted on that education is directly concerned not with natural ability but with culture. For natural ability,as scientifically conceived, grows

rejected.

ness with the growth of the brain, fluctuates with freshand fatigue, and varies with varying states of health and nutrition. The most that the schoolmaster

take full advantage of what happen to natural ability his pupils may possess. His business is not to train intelligence but to use it to use it himself, and to see that his pupils it. And his success is measured by the degree use But culture means knowledge. of culture he imparts. True, it means other things as well ; but it means knowledge at least. And the most tive effecby knowledge is way of testing examinations. The second possibilityis to leave things as they
can

do

is

to

"

are

"

to

rely

examinations

examinations pure and simple, But of the good old-fashioned sort.

on

42

MENTAL

TESTS

this policy implies a wilful blindness to certain grave defects which have been pointed out repeatedly and persistently for the lasthalf-century. The distinct third possibility is to hold two
a examinations, one pedagogical examination, and test a one the other a psychological examination of acquired knowledge, the other a test of natural ing aptitude. This is virtually Binet's plan for detectThe teacher siftsfirst, the feeble-minded. the
"

psychologist afterwards. It is also the scheme that is reported to have been recently adopted at Columbia University for selecting candidates for entrance. Those who pass the ordinary matriculation examinat further submitted to a series of tests for general intelligence. It is not quite clear whether any are knocked out in the second round. It is not indeed clear whether the second round is intended to knock them out at all. The probability is that the second examination is not selective but experimental. It is intended to reveal the degree of correspondence between the results of
are

Rash indeed would the two types of examination. be the examiner who would lightly brush aside the evidence of combined scholarship and intelligence a affords. which wisely conducted examination Besides, the virtue of matriculation liesin the fact that it guarantees a certain minimum of culture. The university starts no course of study from the beginning ; it takes up the tale at the point where

the secondary school left off. It demands of its of literacy, and by alumni a determinate measure it assures means of a matriculation examination And if this demand itselfthat its demand is met. is met if the candidate has sufficientintelligence
"

MEASUREMENT
to

OF

INTELLIGENCE

43

carry him successfully to that point in the road proof than our of learning it would need more strate modern mental tests can at present afford to demonthat he can go no farther. If the purpose of the second examination is to reduce the element be more for reto reason of chance, there seems
"

testing the failures than for re-testing the passes. For failures may be due to illness or excessive
nervousness,

candidate may well be certain gaps in his regarded as counterbalancing store of knowledge. The last alternative is to combine both types When this took place of test in one. examination. in the past- it was of accident; mainly a matter design. done by It it is is now the way in which the new science of testing has affected English
a

sheer bad degree of intelligence in

or

luck.

Moreover,

high

The is beginning examinations. examiner himself what it is that he is really examining.

to

ask Is it

parrot knowledge, or is it knowledge that has been be intelligently intelligently acquired can and knowledge applied ? Is it the application of common

unfamiliar field,or is it the application familiar instances ? Is it to of exotic knowledge the capacity to acquire, or the capacity to express ? In any case the wise examiner never neglects to test the capacity of the candidate to apply knowledge forms, for in so doing he and to express it in new both knowkills ledge birds with one two : he tests stone intelligence. Speaking generally, the and be to the pupil the less the importance younger distinct from as attached to school attainments native ability. In other words, if intelligence tests important anywhere, they are important at that are
in
an

44

MENTAL

TESTS

decide upon we stage in the pupil's career when the type of education for which he is best fitted. This principle is clearly observed in the selection ; of mentally defective children at the age of seven
less obviously in the selection of supernormal children at the age of eleven. It is customary at for juniorscholarships to set two examinations in English and the other in arithmetic. devised as to so the questions are be, the designs of the frustrate, as far as may That crammer. this examination will radically future is highly improbable, change in the near

papers only, And

one

present to conceive a better practical device for testing annually the intelligence of a large number of children. The fact that it is
for it is difficult at

twice a year, in the conducted every year, or even same schools renders known and standardised tests are to remove entirely the almost useless. If we of possibility of special coaching, the element And in for is the scope variety essential. novelty English is the realm of and mathematics virtually

Here intelligent anticipation on the unbounded. part of parents and teachers can readily be defeated. Again, the 8000 children who sit every six months for the London junior scholarship examination can morning with quite easily in one all be examined no superintendents besides the ordinary teachers. Under the Binet scheme, where the testing is oral take a trained examiner and individual, it would half-yearly one nearly four years to get through batch. To test the whole lot in one morning would need the services of 1400 examiners specially As a matter trained for the purpose. of fact samples of the candidates have been tested by both written

MEASUREMENT

OF

INTELLIGENCE

45

and oral methods, and the results obtained are so similar that confidence in the present system is amply justified. There are two fairlydistinct types of abilitywhich
are

tested by

these junior matical matheexaminations ability and literary ability. Proficiency in

"

poor criterion. arithmetic is in itself no problem One of the most trustworthy of Binet's tests is the second in his scale for eight-year-olds : Count backwards from twenty to nothing in twenty seconds. It is the departure from the beaten track that gives it its value. The modern tendency, however, is to
importance to the English paper than attach more Binet long ago remarked that to the arithmetic. no child who could compose was mentally defective ; and Mr. Cyril Burt, the psychologist to the London County Council, has expressed the opinion that the gence most of intelliclearly symptomatic school subject is composition, provided it is marked for its The only serious defect of the power of thought. present system is the absence of tests of the third broad type of ability manual ability. This defect by the London has been carefully considered have adopted the view that in authority, who
"

early years the ablest with their heads are also as a general rule the ablest with their hands ; that it is very difficult to discover at the age of eleven (that is, before the children have begun to attend the handicraft and domestic what practical
.

ability children actually do possess ; and, finally, that those few children who have a special aptitude for craftsmanship and escape the juniorcounty

centres)

scholarship net are captured by the trade scholarships. It were unwise to prophesy what developments

46

MENTAL

TESTS

will take place in English examinations in the near future. Already one English authority has included " instructions in its junior examination a test of the " type given above, and it is not impossible that a third paper will become the general rule a ledge paper corresponding to the obsolete general knowpaper, except that it will aim at discovering not the candidate is well-informed, but whether whether he is sharp-witted. The secondary schools
"

and universities show as yet no alarming symptoms of infection. Thoughtful people have recently been asking : Why is it that America has been moving so rapidly has in the matter of mental tests while England ? The answer is simple : Speaking almost stood still believe in psychology but generally, Americans When America Englishmen do not. entered the to mobilise war one of the firstthings she did was before her psychologists. The war was nearly over England discovered that psychologists were of any discovery And due to was use. the the partly witnessing of what was achieved in the American Army, and partly to an appreciation of the wonderful ment results that followed the psychological treatof shell-shockand war-strain by those numerous and non-medical) who volunpsychologists (medical teered The fault their services early in the war. did not lie with the British psychologists. In the tion pursuit of their particular science and in the invenin no way behind their tests they were of new And the Americans knew this ; they neighbours. consulted our professors and freely used their tests. There is no psychological instrument which is more
generally

useful than

the dotting machine,

an

MEASUREMENT

OF

INTELLIGENCE

47

invention of Mr. McDougall, of Oxford ; there is instrument more no specifically useful than the bridge. K tube, an invention of Dr. C. S. Myers, of CamThe new science of testing could never have reached its present stage but for the discovery
of that potent
"

means

as

and simplified by an Englishman. In the investigation for common use of general intelligence and in the critical examination of the methods used nobody has done Like Binet, he better work than Mr. Cyril Burt. was concerned in testing tests as well as in testing he adopted were more ability. But the methods He invented tests too ; among rigidlymathematical. Many others the analogies test mentioned above. have successfully laboured in the other Englishmen field, same such as Mr. W. H. Winch, Dr. W. Brown, Dr. E. O. Lewis, Professor J.A. Green, Dr. J. L. Dr. N. Mclntyre, Carey, Miss N. Taylor, Mr. H. B. English, Miss May Smith, Dr. Bernard Hart, and Dr. Edgar Schuster and other investigators in the psychological laboratories of University College, King's College and Oxford. Such records of their
work as have already been published may be found distributed among the pages of the British Journal ofPsychology, the Journal ofExperimental Pedagogy, and the Annual Reports of the British Association.

correlation." perfected by

of mathematical analysis known It was discovered by an Englishman,

an

Englishman,

CHAPTER
binet's tests of

IV
intelligence

translation of Binet's Tests given below was made by Mr. Cyril Burt in consultation with Dr. Simon, who Binet's collaborator in devising was tests, and standardising the scale. The originally standardised for Parisian children, have large number been tried by Mr. Burt on a of London children, and modified to suit their characterist The tests, in fact, rate of development. here rearranged in the order of their freshly are and the age-assignments are ascertained difficulty, determined given as they were afresh for children Elementary Schools. of London Each child has to be tested individually, and favourable to the removal under conditions most The must of shyness and nervousness. examiner
use

The

his discretion respecting the point of the scale he should begin : the usual rule is to at which below the child's start with the group of tests just chronological age. If, however, there is a failure in any of those tests it is expedient to go back and The extry all the tests in the previous group. aminat be should then carried up the scale until

the child fails in four

or

five consecutive

tests,

48

BINET'S

TESTS

OF

INTELLIGENCE

49
limit of the year with the
estimate

gives as the lowest permissible a starts at thoroughness range which failure, and ends which yields only one To success. year which yields only one

Terman

the child's mental age the examiner should regard the age at which all tests are passed as the base age, and shouldadd one-fifth of a year for every additional test belonging to any of the higher ages ; or, where in the following revision there are less than five tests in the higher year, the more or corresponding reciprocal fraction. It is now to state the final result in customary the form of an Intelligence Quotient, a method firstsuggested by the German psychologist, Stern. The Intelligence Quotient is found by dividing the mental age by the real age. If, for instance, a child's real age is eight and his mental age six, his intelligence quotient is '75. If his mental be his intelligence quotient would ten age were

1-25.
child as he is under nine, and three years years when Stated in he is past his ninth birthday. when terms of the intelligence quotient the border-line between normality and deficiency is somewhere about '75. No cases, however, where the intelligence quotient fallsbetween "j and *8 are quite free from doubt.
Binet lays it down that determines that the
a

amount

of retardation defective is two

50

MENTAL

TESTS

BINET

TESTS AND

(BURT'S TRANSLATION REVISION)

Age Three

1.

Understanding
"
"

Simple Commands.
Show
me

Instructions. finger

(pointto,

put

your

on)
"

(i)your (2)your (3)your

nose.

eyes. mouth."
"

Evaluation. All should be correctly performed but free encouragement may firstbe given.

2.

Repeating Numbers.
"
"

going to say some numbers. " Will you listen,and say them after me ?
am

Instructions.

(Foruse
5 37 714
3681
8

only after failurein first set.)

64 286 5749 63852 573916 4829653

9 72 539 8526 973i8 495827 5928136

52947 250634 9647518

(Age 3) (Age 4) (Age 5) (Age 6) (Age 9) (Age 11)

Note

Do

ance per second ; uttershould be two flecti should be without rhythm, emphasis or inDo not tell the child if he is wrong. not series. Merely give him repeat the same
:

rate

BINET'S

TESTS

OF

INTELLIGENCE

51

another chance with another series. Failure owing interruption does not to count. (While uttering or or the numbers syllables,hold up the hand finger to prevent the child starting to repeat before been completed. Drop entire phrase or list has the hand as a signal to child that you have finished and he is to

repeat.)
"

Evaluation.

One

correct

be repeated is given in the last column above. The repetition of figures in their natural order, e. g. 9645678, should be noted instance of automatism. as an
can

as success. trialscounts the child can number series of different lengths

repetition out of three Note, therefore, the largest repeat. The age at which

3. Naming

Own
"
"

Sex.

Instructions.
"

Are
"

(fora boy). girl ? littleboy ? " (for a

you Are

littleboy or a little you a little girl or a

girl).
or

If child says " yes " or " no " part of the phrase, ask the two " " Are you a little : girl? boy ? "

"

echoes questions separately Are you a little

merely

4. Giving Surname.
Instructions. " What is your name merely gives Christian name, ask " Tommy what ? else?
"

?
"

"

If child

And

what

If child gives surname he has sometimes been known by e.g. stepfather, or mother (whenillegitimate) record it as correct.
"

Evaluation.

52
5. Naming
Materials.
"

MENTAL

TESTS

Simple
A

Objects.
a

common

penny, kind of key.

"
"

closed

knife, and
"

Instructions.
this called ?
"

What

is that ? "

or

What

is

showing
"

each
must

successively. object be named, but slight " " a pennies," for

Evaluation.
errors,

All three
"

such
are

as

money,"

penny,"

allowable.

6. Describing Pictures.
Binet's three pictures chosen as containing having a people, and suggesting story, and certain standardised difficulty.
" "

Materials.

There can, I think, be littledoubt that pictures (1)better printed, (2)larger, (3)coloured, (4)represen in progress, (5)showing children, actions be much more appropriate than Binet's would But these alone have been original engravings. standardised. Instructions. " Look at this picture and tell me " What is all about it." Binet's instructions are : " " " Tell this ? and if the child says, A picture," It is better, however, to what you see there." " What can you see in avoid leading phrases like
"

it ? " " What

and rather suggests enumeration) " are (which suggests interthey doing ? pretati Repeat instruction once for each picture, Words if there is no answer. of praise or " Isn't it a alone may be added : encouragement Do you like it ? " Or even pretty picture ?
.
.

(which

BINET'S
"

TESTS

OF

INTELLIGENCE

53

That's

" right !

saying something

if the child is on the point of but is withheld by shyness.

"

Evaluation Record

of replies.

the type of response given to the first picture ; if doubtful, use the second and third and frequently given, record the type of response most for two i.e. employed of the three. pictures out

Binet distinguishes three types of response corresponding development. to three stages of A. Enumeration

(E.). (Age 3.)

E.g.

"

boy." i. " A man, " ii. There's an old man etc. (merelistof
iii.
"

and

lady,"

or details) objects

can

see a

table,and
a man

with a chair, a looking-glass,and there's

a

room

and

sofa."

Two items at least should be enumerated. If the child only gives one, do not ask, " " but Anything ? to proceed else another picture.
B. Description

ing indicat(D.). (Age 6.) (Phrases actions or characteristics.)

"

They're pulling a cart." ii. "A man a and a woman sitting on " An old man seat." asleep." iii." A man bed standing on a and trying " A to look out of the window." looking at himself in the man glass."
i.

54

MENTAL

TESTS

yond C. Interpretation (I.). (Age 12.) (Goes bewhat is actually visible in the picture
and mentions i.
"

the situation

or

emotion

it

suggests.)'
They're moving," " they've a heavy load," " they can't pay their rent." ii. "Miserable," "poor," "have no " home," is saying his the man " daughter " his or prayers,"
" "

wife

(looking after
"

him,

iii.

"

A prisoner," he wants to get out," " he's trying to see what's in the " he is lonely " or " thinking," yard," " " in a man a rag-picker," " board ship." on a man trouble," Age Four

etc.).

7. Repeating Syllables.
Listen again, and say this after ately me." (The phrases should be pronounced deliberiii. ; and with expression. Begin with no. but if the child remains silent the examiner may or a shorter sentence (i. ii.), and then give him first apparently try iii. Instructions.
"

"

again.) Father." i. (2 syllables). My hat and shoes." ii. (4 syllables). I am iii.(6 cold and hungry." syllables). (Age 4.) iv. (8 "Here is the cloth ; my hands syllables).
" "

"

"

are v.

clean."
"

His (10 syllables).

name

such

naughty

dog."

: Jack (Age 5.)

is

he's

BINET'S
vi.

TESTS

OF
"

INTELLIGENCE

5$

It (12 syllables).
we

can

vii. (14 syllables). lessons, I caught a littlemouse." "We are going for viii.(16 syllables). Mary, let me see your pretty hat."

is raining outside ; but stay indoors." " While Jackwas doing his
a

walk:

(Age7.)

" I saw The other morning xiii.(26syllables). Little in the street a littleyellow dog. Maurice has spoilt his new apron."

(Age 14.)
Evaluation.
"

Allow due
to

no

error

at

speech been deliberately comhave sentences posed appear of two unfortunate, as clauses. This seems In transintelligentchild may forget one. even an lating them I have endeavoured to keep the general
sense more

to

pronunci all, except misdefects. (Binet's

of the original, while making natural for a

the phraseology

child.)

8. Repeating Numbers.

Instructions.
"

"

Listen.
(For use

Say these numbers

after

me""

only after failure in firstset.)

714

286
"

539

Evaluation.

(SeeTest 2.)

9. Counting Pennies.
A. Four Materials.
"

Pennies.

(Age 4.)

pennies placed in a row. Instructions. " Do see these you pennies ? how many there are." Count them, and tell me
"

Four

56

MENTAL

TESTS

If the child at first answers at random, add : Count them aloud, and point to each penny as it " ; but do not demonstrate. (Itmay you count be of interest to see if the child can do it when " " Count like this : one, two touching shown :
"

the first two with But do not use his Evaluation.

count.
"

the finger as each for strict answer first random

answer

is counted. does

comparisons.)
not

The

B. Thirteen Pennies.

(Age 6.)

Instructions, etc.,
10.

as

before.

Comparing Two Lines.

"

Materials. Two parallel horizontal lines, 5 cm. respectively, previously drawn in ink on and 6 cm. below the shorter, a card or paper, the longer 3 cm. with its centre under that of the other.
Instructions.
"

me

which

Do you is the longer ? "

"

"

see

these lines?

Tell

No Evaluation. hesitation is allowed. (Some struct investigators allow the examiner to repeat the inEnglish children will often respond : " Put your finger : more readily to the injunction But Binet insiststhat the child on the long one." only perceive the difference, but also shall not

any further help, that the understand, without " " implies making a the longer phrase comparison.)
11.

Comparing Faces.
"

Materials.
a

Binet's six faces.

Show

only

two

at

time.

BINET'S

TESTS

OF

INTELLIGENCE

57

-O
r%

(Lo 705 Us "^

%"

58
Instructions.
"

MENTAL
"

TESTS
is the
"

prettier of these two (If prettier seems not to be understood, "prettiest" or "Which do you like the best " ladies ? is the nice one ? " "Which of these two But these should not answers. may evoke correct be counted for purposes of strict
faces ?
"

Which

"

comparisons.)

the lower pairs pair while dealing with the firstor second.
"

Method.

It is better

to

cover

or

Evaluation.

"

made.

All three comparisons Repeat the questions once

must

be correctly if necessary.

Age
12.

Five

Three Performing
"

Commissions.
etc.

Materials.

Key,

book,

Arrange
one

while the child is carrying or writing tests.

"

out

the room of the drawing

Go and Instructions. "Do you see this key? the table there. Then shut the door. put it on And after that bring me the book on the chair near Do the door. you understand ? First, put the key on the table, then shut the door, then bring me (Note repetition of instructions. the book." Do not let the child commence until this is completed
Evaluation.
or

All three commissions must be performed further tion instrucspontaneously without any ? " " What have you hint ("Well, and now
"

forgotten ? ").

BINET'S 13. Draws A. A

TESTS

OF

INTELLIGENCE

59

from Copy.
(Age 5.)

Square.
"

A square, each side measuring about drawn beforehand in ink, preferably on 3 to 4 cm., a card. Plain paper. Pen and ink (deliberatel difficult. the task more advised by Binet, making Most American adapters recommend
Materials.

pencil.)

Instructions.
"

"

I want
"

to (pointing square). is needed pen and paper).(If encouragement is ? See What do you think this shape (picture)
"

you Draw

to

" copy this for me it here " (handing

if
"

you

can

draw it."

Do

"

not

use

the word

square

yourself.)
Evaluation. attempt at a if the lines cross

Passes if it square. If one

"

round without size does not matter. Should take about one

be recognised as an side is twice the other, bend or considerably at the corners any angles, the drawing fails. The
can

(Allowonly
minute. Diamond.

one

attempt.)

B. A

Rhombus
"

or

(Age 6.)

" diamond," Materials. A long 7 cm. about high, with sides 4 cm. long, drawn as and 4 cm. before on a card. Paper, pen and ink.

Evaluation. As before. Binet pair of opposite apparently requires at least one be fairlyequal, at least one pair of angles to adjacent fairly be diameter to to the equal, and sides vertical be long. Absolute parallelism of the opposite sides The pass-standard is thus conis not insisted upon. siderabl below what an uninstructed teacher would
Instructions and
"

6o
be
apt
to

MENTAL

TESTS

accept as a satisfactory reproduction. (Reference should be made to his samples.)

14. Repeating Syllables.

naughty dog." Instructions and Evaluation. His (10 syllables.)
"

name

is

: Jack

he's such

"

Test (See

7, no.

v.)

15. Giving Age.

" you ? Evaluation. Child should give his age in years, last birthday. Note : children very often say " " " mean seven getting on for seven." when they Hence, if the firstanswer is wrong, ask specifically " " Parents also How old were you last birthday ? often give an infant and a child about to leave school an age above the true one : and dull children an (except age below the real when about to leave) The child's answer one. should be accepted if it or recently corresponds with what it has commonly been told. Do not, therefore, insisttoo rigidly on or the register. the age given by the birth certificate

Instruction.
" "

"

How

old

are

16. Distinguishing Morning

Instructions.
"

and

Afternoon.

"

the morning). (in ? now the afternoon). (in

"

Is it morning or afternoon now ?" Or, " Is it afternoon or morning

the question if there is any possibilityof the child having merely echoed one " of the words thoughtlessly. (Asking Have you had your dinner yet ? " elicitsanswers interesting
"

Evaluation.

Repeat

to

compare

with the

above.)

BINET'S

TESTS

OF

INTELLIGENCE
Colours.

61

17. Naming
Materials.
"

Four Primary

Four oblong pieces of paper, 2x6 cm., coloured bright red, yellow, blue and green, beneath one and gummed another on a card. Instructions.
"

"

What

colour is this ?

"

pointing

to

each in

turn.
"

Evaluation.

No

about 6 seconds. to be strictlyenforced.

Should take is allowed. But the time limit does not appear
error

18. Repeating Numbers.

Instructions.
"

"

Listen.

Say these numbers

after

me."

(Foruse
3681

only after failurein firstset.)

5749
"

8526

Evaluation.

(SeeTest 2.)
Weights.
small

19. Comparing Two

Materials.
"

1*5 x 2*5 x

(about similar boxes 3*5 cm.)weighing 3, 12, 6 and 15 grammes.

"

Four

Instructions. " You see these boxes (showing first the pair weighing 3 and 12 grammes placed 5 or 6 cm. Tell me which is the heavier." apart). If the child merely points, add, without any " Take them in your hands and weigh gesture : (English them." children respond better to the " " instruction Lift them " or " Feel them." And But do not use the heavy one." the give me modification if strict comparability is required. Kuhlman stration and the Stanford Revision allow a demonBinet and Yerkes prohibit it.) In any :

62
case

MENTAL

TESTS

If he merely put them in his hands. liftsone, both together, do not correct him. If or there is any doubt with the firstpair, repeat the ; experiment with the second pair (6and 15 grammes) and then with the first pair again. (Ifthe child fails to understand, it is interesting to put them " successively into his hand, and ask, Which is the But his response in this case does not heavier ? " For the second and third trialsuse the 6 count.) pair again. weights and then the first and 15 gramme

do

not

Evaluation. All three trialsmust any doubt continue repetitions.

"

be

correct

if

20.

Giving Number
"
"

of

Fingers.

Instructions.

How
"

your right hand ? How hand ?"..." hands altogether ? "

fingers have you on many " And how many on your left many does that make on both
must

Evaluation.

"

The

: stopping to count correctly answered.

be made without be and all three questions must

replies

Age
21.

Six

Counting Pennies. A. Thirteen Pennies.

Materials.
"

Thirteen pennies placed in a row. Instructions and Evaluation. (SeeTest 9,

"

B.)

22.

Drawing B. A

from Copy.
or

Rhombus

Diamond.
"

Instructions and

Evaluation.

(SeeTest

13,

B.)

BINET'S

TESTS

OF

INTELLIGENCE

63

23. Transcription.

Materials. " See littlePaul " written in a bold, copy-book handwriting on a card or sheet of paper. Paper, pen and ink.
"

Will you copy that for me ? " The Evaluation. is passed if the copy is test legible to be read by a person who did sufficiently know what was to be written. not
Instructions.
"
"

"

Days 24. Naming of the Week. Instructions. " Can you tell days of the week ? "
"

me

what

are

the

Evaluation.
without
error

"

The days must be named in order hesitation,in 10 seconds. or

Coins.
Nine

25. Naming
Materials.
"

on the coins, allplaced in a row table with the head upwards : similar coins should be Order upon table : is., id., 6d., not adjacent. 2s., \d., : id., Id., "1,2s. 6d., 10s. Order of difficulty is., 6d., 2s., "l, 10s., 2S. 6d. (3^., Id., \d., 5^., 4J.). be (One pound and ten-shillingnotes must

allowed.)

Instructions. Ask " What is this ? " pointing to nor each in succession. Neither examiner child handle them or turn them over. should
"

Evaluation. A. Four Commonest Coins.

error

(Age 6.)
allowed.

6d., id., (is.,

B. Nine

r^d.)

No

Commonest

Coins.

(Age 9.)

All should be named correctlyin 40 seconds. If an is attributable to passing confusion, Binet error

64

MENTAL

TESTS

allows a second trial of the whole seriesafter a few (An interesting variant is to ask what minutes. before passing coins there are larger than a shilling,
to

B.)
26. Reconstructing Divided
Materials.
"

Oblong.

Two tact, inx 7*5 one cards (4*5 cm.), the other divided along one diagonal into two equal triangles. Place the triangles so that the longest sides are at right angles, but do not face
towards each other. cards has been cut in two ; can you put the pieces together again, to " make a whole one, like this ? If the child merely looks at the cards without " Move them about and see touching them, say : if you can fitthem together," and, if necessary, place in his hand. one See that the child does not turn one triangle over. (Before side all over. cutting the card, black one This does not appear to alter the difficultyof the but prevents turning test, over.) If the child ment, makes a wrong combination and appeals for judgRemain say opinion. silent, or give no Instructions.
"

"

One

of my

"

merely,

What

do you think ? "

Terms. is
"

27.

Concrete Defining
"
"

Instructions.

What

(1)a (2)a (3)a (4)a (5)a

fork ?

table ?
chair ? horse ?
mother
?
"

BINET'S

TESTS

OF
used
"

INTELLIGENCE
by

65

(A
is
a
"

word commonly kitten," or " cat

"

difficult word to begin with.) " You know what a fork is, don't you ? children : " " Well, tell me You what it is what is a fork ? Tell me have seen a horse, haven't you ? what a horse is." The instructions may be repeated, but
"

other investigators fork " is unfortunately For shy or silent

use

no

minute

other form of words. to reply in.)

"

(Give the

child

of Replies. The character of three replies out of five determines the value of the test. The variations in the age assignments of definition

Evaluation

superior to use depend largely on the inclusion of (3), (4) and (7) under i. such replies as ii., (1), rather than under ii. Note " U " or " G " according as child defines
"

i. In

terms

of Use.

(Age 6.)
eat
to

(1)What you (2)Something

with. have your

dinner

on

where the plates are put. (3)It draws a cart. (4)She takes care of the babies.

ii. In

terms

superiorto Use (by Genus

Differentia,
or

with

or

without

by

Description).

(Age 10.)

(1)A

thing to sit on : something that you " " someeat with. ("Thing thing," and however, are not accepted for " horse " or " mother.") (2)An instrument. (3)It has four legs : it's silver.

66

MENTAL

TESTS
part of the furniture.

(4) A piece of wood, (5) An animal. (6)A lady. (7)One who cooks

our
"

dinners.
" "

or something child uses thing " " " " for mother chair," I then give and bright child, having "horse," a otherwise even for "chair," "table" given "thing" and "fork" without correction is apt from sheer inertia to " " " as horse.") thing the genus of offer a

(Note:

if

iii. Merely the

object (apparently) giving

chance.
28. Repeating Numbers.

repeating the word, or pointing to is marked a failure, without

the child

further

Instructions.
"

"

Listen.
(Foruse

Say these numbers

after

me."

only after failurein first set.)

52947

63852
"

973

18

Evaluation.

(SeeTest 2.)

29. Describing Pictures.

indicating actions and (D.) (Phrases characteristics.) Instructions and Evaluation. (SeeTest 6, B.)
"

Description

30. Distinguishing Right and

"

Left.
" right hand ?

Instructions. " Which is your Which is your left ear ? " ..." Evaluation.
"

The
any

without

child must rectly perform both corkind of help. Hesitation and

BINET'S

TESTS

OF

INTELLIGENCE

67

are any hint) allowed : if self-correction (without by a slip the child shows his left hand or right ear, for a spontaneous the experimenter waits a moment correction, which is allowed to pass, but his manner

of waiting should
was

not

suggest that the firstaction

wrong.

Age 31. Recognising Missing

Materials.
"

Seven
Features.

Binet's four pictures of faces without mouth, nose, eye, and of body without arms. Instructions. " Look at this lady's face. Can
"

68

MENTAL

TESTS

" (Begin you tellme what has been left out ? with face without mouth.) If the child says, " Her body," reply, " Oh, I was I put in only trying to draw her face. What must " to finish the drawing ("What have of her face ? I forgotten in drawing her face ? ")

Evaluation.
are

"

Three

correct

answers

out

of four

required. 32. Adding

Three Pennies and Three

Halfpennies.

(Concrete.)
Materials. Three pennies and three halfpennies investigators commonly set out in a row. (American use stamps, but to many children the value of these is
"

unfamiliar.)
Instructions.
"

me,

and tellme
"

for Will you count this money how much there is altogether ? "

"

Evaluation. No error instruction is allowed. in 8 to 10 seconds.

seconds."

"

and no repetition of the The test should be done It is useless to wait 15

33. Stating

between Differences
"

Concrete

Objects.
.

Instructions. " You know what wood is, don't They And you know what glass is ? you ? In what way are are are not the same, they ? ?" they not the same (I would add, if child hesitates: " They different, are are they not ? Well, do you think you can tell me ference what the dif' ' How is ? can you tell glass from
. .

...

"

'

wood

? ")

BINET'S
The

TESTS

OF
are

INTELLIGENCE
suggested by Binet
"

69

following words

i. fly, butterfly; ii. wood, glass ; iii.paper, cardboard. Evaluation. Two out must of three statements Any true difference will pass, though be correct. ence, differtrivial. But if the child repeats the same " It is larger," it is insufficient. (Ask, e. g. " In what other way are they not the same ? ") Often a child takes a minute : but if he takes longer than 2 minutes for all he fails.
"

34. Repeating Syllables.

let me "We (16syllables.)
see

going for your pretty hat."

are

walk: Mary,

Instructions and

Evaluation.

"

(SeeTest

7,

no.

viii.)
35. Writing
Materials.
"

from Dictation.
Pen, ink, paper.
"
"

Instructions.
on
"

Will you write this down " this piece of paper ?

The
pretty littlegirls."
"

for

me

The writing ( ? and must spelling) be sufficiently legible and accurate to be read by a person who did not know what was to be written. Evaluation.

jo

MENTAL

TESTS

Age

Eight

36. Reading and Reproduction. Translation of Binet's passage, printed or typed, with English place-names and moneyvalues substituted for the French.
Material.
"

/Houses /on Fire./ London, /September 5th. /A huge fire/last night/ burnt down /three houses in the middle of the city./Seventeen families /now have no homes. /The loss is more than 15,000 pounds. /A young barber,/ who saved /a baby /in its cradle,/was badly /hurt/ about the hands./
this for me, seconds after reading is finished, " Tell me remove the passage, and say : what you have been reading about." Evaluation. Each as correct phrase or word
"

Three

Instructions. " Two please ?

"

Will

you

read

"

indicated above
A. Recalls

constituted
two

one

item.

items.

B. Recalls six items.

(Age 8.) (Age 9.)

37. Answering
Instructions.
"

Easy
"

Questions.
me

Tell
are

this
"

(1)Suppose

you

What must (2)Suppose one by accident

by train. going somewhere you do if you miss your train ? hit you of the other boys (girls)
"

What to. without meaning should you do ? (3)Tell me what you ought to do if you broke " something that belonged to somebody elseI

BINET'S
If no
answer

TESTS

OF

INTELLIGENCE

71

is given, repeat the question as usual, " Did you not sternly, but pleasantly, prefixing : " Do not vary the wording. catch what I said ?

Evaluation.

"

Two

out

of three

must

be answered
"
"

satisfactorily.
answers. (1)Satisfactory
"
"
"

Wait
"

for another

Take
"

the

next."
" Go home again " Try not to miss it." " " Do nothing " give For" "

answers. Unsatisfactory
"

Run

" after it
"

"

answers. (2)Satisfactory

him."
answers. Unsatisfactory
"
"
"

Tell teacher
"
"

"
"

back." " Answers. Pay for it " (3)Satisfactory "" " " Buy another " Ask to up " " Say I was sorry." " I should answers. Unsatisfactory " Hide it."
"
" "

Hit him

Own be forgiven
"

"

cry

"

38. Counting Backwards

"

20-0.

Instructions. "You 1, 2, can can't count, you do you think you could count 3, and so on ? Now backwards ? Start at 20, and go on tillyou reach " I." (Ifthe child does not understand :) Count like this : 20, 19, 18 " (proceed no further).
"

(Yerkes suggests
count to

that

from

25

to 21,

the experimenter always and then pause for the examinee

continue.)
Evaluation.
"

One error (either of omission or inversion) only ispermitted (Binet allows 20 seconds). The child who thinks out the numbers by counting up from 1 each time fails.

72

MENTAL

TESTS

39. Giving Full Date.

Instructions. " What is the date to-day ? " (If " " is not understood, ask in detail : date the word " " What day of the week is it to-day ? " What " " Do you know what day of the is it ? month
"

[ist, 2nd, 3rd, or] "what month?" number?" " And what is the year nineteen what ? ") Evaluation. All four items must be correctly given : but an error of three days either way is (unless that allowable for the day of the month
" "

involves

an

error

in naming

the

month).

40. Giving Change.

Materials. The current \d., id., 6d., coins \d., 2s., 2s. 6d., ios., "1 and is.,and in addition three five the three halfpennies. The pennies and boxes used for the weights. The shillingis kept by the experimenter to pay for the box. The rest, with the boxes, are placed near the child.
"

Instructions. " Now, shall we play shop for a Here are change ? You shall be the shopkeeper. boxes for you to sell some ; and here is your money. See how rich you are ! Now, will you sell me one of How boxes, ? are they each ? your much please Twopence, say ? Well, here is a shilling. shall we Can you give me the right change, please ? " (The examiner holds out his hand for the
"

money.)

actually hand over the right amount (sixpence and fourpence in pennies or : halfpennies) merely stating it correctly does
"

Evaluation.

The

child

must

not

count.

BINET'S

TESTS

OF

INTELLIGENCE
Nine

73

Age

41. Repeating Numbers.

Instructions.
"

"

Listen.

Say these numbers

after

me"-

(Foruse
250634

only after failurein firstset.)

!

5 7 3 9
"

495827

Evaluation.

(SeeTest 2.)
Months.
"
"

42. Naming

Instructions. months

Can
"

you

tell

me

what

are

the

of the year ?
"

Evaluation.
error.

Binet

allows

15 seconds, and

one

43. Naming
Nine

Coins.
Coins.
"

Commonest

Instructions and Evaluation.

(SeeTest 25, B.)

44. Reading and Reproduction.

Recalls Six Items. Instructions and Evaluation.
"

(SeeTest

36,

B.)

45.

Concrete Terms. Defining Superiorto Use (G.).

Instructions and Evaluation.
"

Test (See

27,no.

ii.).

46. Arranging
Materials.
"

Five Weights in Order.

Five boxes, identical in colour, shape and loaded and size (about1*5 x 2*5 x 3*5 cm.), with shot and cotton wool to weigh 3, 6, 9 and

74

MENTAL

TESTS

B, I, 15 grammes, without rattling. The key letters, N, E, T, may be written in order on the bottom of the boxes. Instructions. " Do you see these boxes ? They don't they ? But they don't all look the same, Some are heavy, and some are weigh the same. light. I want you to find the heaviest of all,and find the one put it here. Then which is nearly heavy, and place it next. Then the one which as is still lessheavy ; then the one which is lighter still ; here." the one which is lightestof all, and, last of all, Allow three trialsif necessary, mixing the boxes up first.
"

The be absomust arrangement lutely in two correct out of three trials, and the It is of special whole accomplished in 3 minutes. interest to record the actual arrangement.
Evaluation.
"

subject's

47. Sentence Building with Three Words.

Materials. Paper, pen ink: and a card and " London, river, money " written on it. with
"

Instructions.
"

"

want

you

to

for

me

with these three words

make up a sentence in : London, river,

money." Instead of " London " it is often customary to that is on a river. (Most employ the nearest town American investigators, following Goddard, conduct

this test

orally.)
distinct ideas
or

Evaluation.

A. Two

sentences
"

mental age of money and rivers."

10).

cates given (indihas London

BINET'S
B. One

TESTS
idea
or

OF
sentence

INTELLIGENCE

75

mental given (indicates In the river at London e. g. age of 1 1), A set of senI found some tences money." in which is well the thought into a unitary story or co-ordinated description passes. C. Three distinct ideas or sentences tuted consti" E. London is a failure. a g. There isa big river. Some people town. have money."
"

according to number of sentences given, and note time. At least threequarters of the test should be written within a Binet states that this is one minute. of the rare in which a child may succeed by having heard cases of the test from another child. If there is any likelihood of this, ask at the outset : " What do you think I have been asking the others to do with these " words ? and substitute others, if necessary. The
or

Enter

"1,"

"2"

"3"

child may

guess the

test

from

school exercises.

48. Drawing

Two

Designs
two

from Memory.

designs, drawn previously kept on a single card or out of sight sheet, until required. A pencil and plain paper.

Materials." Binet's

Binet's list No.4*S.

76
"

MENTAL

TESTS

Instructions. " I am going to show you two I want you to look at them very easy drawings. Then, after I carefully until I take them away. have turned them over, if you can draw them see both from memory on this paper. You will only for a very few seconds. Now look at see them " them both carefully firstof all. Ready ? Now ! The drawings are held steadily in front of the child, the truncated prism on the left,for 10 seconds (see that the child does not imagine he has to copy them wards. at and then taken away and turned face downonce), " Now try and draw them for me here."

The whole of one and a half of the be reproduced fairly exactly. No other must second attempt is allowed. Neatness of drawing The be careful does not must count. examiner " " fair exactness to interpret more not strictlyfor children. The standard older than for younger of this test is thus far below accepted in the case
Evaluation.
"

what

the uninstructed teacher would satisfactory reproduction.

accept

as

Age

Eleven

49. Explaining Absurdities.

Listen carefully to what I am going to say. There is something in it that is really quite sillyand impossible. See if you can tell me what is wrong."
Instructions.
"

"

i.

"

'

felloff his bicycle on to his One day, a man head and was killedinstantly. He was taken to the hospital and they say he will never in that ? " get better.' What is there silly

BINET'S
ii. "
'

TESTS

OF

INTELLIGENCE

yj

found Once the body of a poor girl was in a wood, cut into eighteen pieces. They is silly say that she killed herself.' What in that ? " iii." ' Yesterday there was a railway accident. But the newspaper says it is not a serious killed.' one, as only forty-eight people were " What is sillyin that ? " * Tom I have three brothers Jack, iv. and " (Female myself.' What is sillyin that ? " A boy preface this with, examiners must " said to me, etc.," or else substitute, I have Mary and three sisters, Jane, myself.") " " ' If I A man v. once grow should ever said, desperate and killmyself, I shall not choose do it on, for Friday is an una Friday to lucky bad luck." ' day, and would bring me " What is foolish in what the man said ?
"

Three tected absurdities should be deis out of five. If a child's first statement " " to iv.), not clear (e. g. myself is silly in answer " Explain what you mean." Otherwise, give say, him no second chance.
"

Evaluation.

He couldn't get well if he was " First you said he was already dead." dead, and then you said he wouldn't get well again." Incorrect ; " They ought to have taken him " If he fell off his to the mortuary." bicycle, he wouldn't fall on his head." Correct : " You can't cut (ii.) yourself into " If she killed herself eighteen pieces." she couldn't cut herself up."

Correct : (i.)

"

78
Correct : (iii.)

MENTAL
"

TESTS
must

It

serious only one " Fortyor two would have been killed." eight isn't serious in war-time." Incorrect : " Forty-eight people couldn't be killedin a railway accident."
wasn't

forty-eight were killed." " If it

have killed,or

been serious if if anybody was

Correct : (iv.)
not
count

"

You
own

your

have only brother."

two."
"

"

You

are

You

shouldn't

yourself." Incorrect : " You should put yourself last." Correct : " If he killed himself, the day (v.)

couldn't have " dead." If he was desperate, he wouldn't wait tillFriday." Incorrect : " He is silly to believe in bad luck." " Friday isn't different-fee any other day."
matter." wouldn't bad luck if he was

"

He

50. Answering
Instructions.
"

Questions. Difficult
"

Can

you tellme

this ?

"

What should you do if you found you were late on your way to school ? " " (2) Suppose a boy does something that is unkind do him forgive we more : why readily if he was angry than if he was not angry ? " one (3)"If some asked what you thought of a boy (or whom you did not know very

(1)

"

girl)

(4)

"

(5)

"

well, what should you say ? by what he Why a person should we judge does, and not by what he says ? " Suppose you were going to undertake something very important : what should you do firstof all? "

"

BINET'S
Repeat
a

TESTS
question

OF
once,

INTELLIGENCE
if necessary, but do

79
not

vary the wording. Evaluation. Allow each question. Three

"

20

out

seconds for reflection on be answered of five must

or

satisfactorily. "Hurry" (1) Satisfactory:

"

may straight to school plays or appears that the child sometimes carries out errands on its way). " Get the stick." " Leave : Unsatisfactory " Get up sooner next time." earlier." " " Ring the bell." Get a note to excuse By convention, anything not me." embodying the idea of hurrying. " Because he didn't know what : (2)Satisfactory " Because he'd be sorry doing." he was

"Run" ("Go be accepted if it

Anything that suggesting afterwards." however constitute an excuse, anger may badly expressed. " He oughtn't to get angry." : Unsatisfactory
suggesting disapproval of anger. " I could not : (3)Satisfactory say anything." " I could not tellhim without finding out." " I should say, ' I do not know.' "
: Unsatisfactory
" "

Anything

Say I did

not

should have know his name."

to

ask." Usually

unintelligible. " You can : (4)Satisfactory rely on his actions, but not he says." " Because on what he might not always speak the truth." " Actions speak louder than words." Usually unintelligible. " Because : Unsatisfactory " You to can't tell." you ought
speak the truth."

80

MENTAL
Think : (5)Satisfactory
"

TESTS
some

" it over." Ask " Prepare for it." one about it." : Usually Unsatisfactory unintelligible. do it."
"

"

Not

Tidy myself," " Put on a clean collar; " doing somein that case make it clear that you mean thing important, not going somewhere important.)

(Somesay

51. Repeating Numbers.

Instructions.
"

"

Listen.

Say these numbers

after

me."

(Foruse
9647518

only after failurein first set.)

4829653
"

5928136

Evaluation.

(SeeTest 2.)
in Three Minutes.

52. Giving Sixty Words

Instructions.
"

as many you to give me in 3 minutes. Keep words as you possibly can I stop you : school,teacher, saying words likethis till board, boy, girl, and so on. Some children can Are you ready ? Now start." than 200. give more When he stops encourage him immediately by saying " Very Keep on." : good.

"

want

be given, exSixty words must clusiv If the child gives sentences, of repetitions. must start him again, saying: "You give separate Be words." careful (1)to note the time, if possible the words, entering with a second hand (2)to count a stroke or other mark for each, and calculating the total. It is interesting to record the key-words of the child's various topics ; it is seldom possible to put down all words.
"

Evaluation.

BINET'S

TESTS

OF

INTELLIGENCE

81

53. Sentence Building with Three Words.

"

Materials. Paper, pen and ink, and a card with London, river, money," written on it.
"

One Idea

or

Sentence.

Evaluation.

"

(SeeTest 47, B.)

Age Twelve
to

54. Giving Three Words

Instructions.
"

Rhyme.

you know what a rhyme is ? When two way, we words end the same call them ' ' ' ' Jill rhymes with hill because they rhymes. both end in ' ill.' Do you understand ? Now can three words give me you which rhyme with " ' " ? obey

"

Do

give three genuine -The child must Binet's instrucin 1 minute. tions words that rhyme " " " to the child ask for or other words all It saves time to specify three to the the words." child. If the child gives nothing, or has not given " what (else) rhymes enough, urge him by saying " " ' " Apparently be disobey obey.' may with
"

Evaluation.

accepted

as

one

of the three.

55. Rearranging
Materials.
" "

Mixed

Sentences.

Three

cards containing the following

words i. a defends dog good his bravely master ; ii. my have teacher I the correct asked paper to ; iii.home we early our in country left visitthe to friends.
G

82
"

MENTAL

TESTS

Instructions. " Put these words in order, and find out the sentence which they make." Evaluation.
out
"

of three.

Two Only

correct
I

be given solutions must minute is allowed for each.

"

Correct solutions are bravely." i. " A good dog defends his master " A dog defends his good master bravely." ("A master defends his good dog bravely," is, according to Binet, " poor " and apparently

incorrect), ii. I have asked my (the) teacher to correct the (my) paper." (" I asked my teacher to have the paper is, presumably, incorrect.) correct"
"

iii." We

left home

early

to

visit our

friends in

the country." ("We left our friends in the country to visit home early," and other sensible variants our are presumably correct.)

56. Describing Pictures.

Interpretation. (Goes beyond what is actually visiblein the picture, and mentions the situation or emotion it
"

suggests.) (SeeTest 6, C.)

Age

Thirteen

57. Resisting Suggestion.

lines Materials. A book of six leaves with two drawn in the same one straight line on page in The lengths must be as follows opening.
" "

BINET'S

TESTS

OF

INTELLIGENCE

83

" Instructions. For the first Which three pages : " is the longer of those two lines ? for the last three, " And these ? " without changing the tone :
"

whether child's judgments in each case, are right or wrong especially with reference to the last three. The child succeeds if he judges two out of three equal lines to be
"

Evaluation.-

Note

equal.

58. Solving Circumstantial Problems.

Instructions.
"

"

Can you guess the

answer

to

this

riddle ? i. " One

day walking in Epping Forest, terribly frightened. Then she still, to the nearest police station, and had ing hangseen, just policeman she the branch of a tree, a well,
a woman,

stopped hurried told the

from

ii. "

" what do you think it was she saw ? My has had three next-door neighbour visitors. First, a doctor called ; then a lawyer ; and then a clergyman. do What

you think has been happening

" there ?

Evaluation.
answered.

"

Both

questions

must

be

correctly

84
i. Correct:

MENTAL
Replies
must

TESTS

contain the idea of If the child answers hanged. some one " " a man," a dead person," therefore, ask " How did he get up in the tree ? " Incorrect : " A bird." " Some one robbing a
nest."

ii. Correct:

is dying," "is very be inferred from ill." (Severe illness can the visit of the doctor alone. But Binet inquiring apparently accepts it, without of the whether the child knows the

"Some

one

object

other

visitors.)
Age
Fourteen

59. Repeating Syllables.

other morning I saw in the " little yellow dog." Little Maurice has a street spoilt his new apron." Evaluation.
"

The (26syllables.)

"

(SeeTest 7, no. xiii.)

Terms.
you

60.

Abstract Defining
"
"

Instructions.
meant
"

Can

tell me

this ?

What

is

i. by kindness ? ii. by justice ? iii.by charity ? "

(For
"

"

"

charity obedience

some
"

investigators have substituted but this changes the difficulty

of the

test.)

BINETS
"

TESTS

OF

INTELLIGENCE

85
out

be correctly defined Evaluation. Two must of three. Correct definitions

"

For

(i) contain

the idea of

an

instance of affection,

tenderness, politeness or consideration to " is to good others others. (" Being polite or " Being kind," " doing something good," correct.
are

idea of treating people according to their merits, or of protecting the innocent and their interests, or of punishing the guilty. E. g. " when you punish wicked people," " playing fair." For (iii) contain the ideas of (a)poor or unfortuna kindness. people, and (b)of showing " E. g. you give poor people some money," when
"

inadequate.) For (ii) contain the

giving alms."

Age

Fifteen Imagination the

61. Drawing Folded Paper.

"

from

Cuts

in

Materials. Two sheets of paper about 6 inches square. A pencil. One sheet is folded in four like In the middle of letter ready for an envelope. a the edge which presents but a single fold, a small deep, is drawn. triangular notch, about 1 cm.
is a sheet of paper that has and then folded again. Suppose here. When Icut out a notch just now the paper is unfolded again, what would it look like ? Will Instructions. been folded across
"

"

Here

you

show be cut ? "

me

on

this piece how

and where it would

86 Evaluation.
"

MENTAL

TESTS

Two diamond-shaped holes should be drawn in a line with each other, each in the middle of one half of the paper.
62. Giving between Differences
"
"

Abstract Terms.
"

Instructions.

What

is the differencebetween

i. pleasure and happiness ? ii. poverty and misery ? " iii.evolution and revolution ?

The

words baggested by Binet

are {Bulletin)
"

i. paresse, oisivete; ii. evenement, avenement iii.evolution, revolution bonheur ; iv. plaisir,
v.

;
:

and in 1908 scalealso

"

orgeuil, pretention.
"

Evaluation.
an

be correctly bring Good out replies should answered. ating opposition or antithesis between the differenti" ideas. E. g. (i) happiness " is superior to
out

Two

of

three

must

trast pleasure ; (ii) general than should conhaving littlemoney with being in misery or should contrast slow change with sudden pain ; (iii) But Binet admits mere differences; e. g. change. of troops, revolution is evolution is the movement insurrection. an
or
more

"

"

63. Drawing
Materials.
"

the Displaced Triangle.

Paper
10

and

card about
as

15 cm., used for divided card test,

A pencil for drawing. across cut the diagonal,

laid The card is first

BINET'S
on

TESTS

OF

INTELLIGENCE
the
cut

87
edges

the table before the touching.

with subject

Instructions. " Look carefully at the lower piece and lay this of this card. Suppose I turn it over
"

(A-C) along this edge (A-B of the upper (C) is placed and suppose that this corner triangle), at this point (B), just what would it all look like ? I am Now going to take the piece away (remove lower triangle from Imagine it placed as view).
edge I told you, and draw its shape in the proper position. Begin by drawing the outline of the top triangle."

Evaluation. The essential points are : (i) A C B be preserved as a right angle ; (ii) A C must must be made shorter than A B.
"

64. Summarising
Instructions.
"

Hervieifs

on Reflections Life.

Attend carefully to what I am When I have finished I shall going to read you. want you to tellme the meaning of what I read in

"

88 your
not
'

MENTAL
own

TESTS
exact

matter.

The words. Listen

"

words

that I

use

do

Many opinions have been given on the value of life. Some say it is good, others say it is bad. It For, medium. would be truer to say that it is just on the one hand, the happiness it brings us is never so ourselves should like, and, on the great as we other hand, the misfortunes it brings us are never
us to have. enemies would want It is the intermediate nature of life that makes it fair,or, at least, prevents it from being altogether so

great

as

our

if you can of what words, the sense

see

unfair.' Now

give I have

me,

in your
to

own

just read

you."

The central thought must be understood and these three ideas reproduced : (i)Life is neither good nor bad, but medium, for (2)it is so not wish, but (3)better than what good as we The terms and expressions others wish for us. little. matter
Evaluation.
"

65. Giving
King.

the

between Differences

President and

Instructions. " There are three chief differences* between a King and a President of a Republic. Can " " Can you think of what they are ? you tell me " any of them ?
"

Two of the following differences, be given. (Some consider Binet apparently, must required all of the first
Evaluation.
"

three.)
crown

i. A

King

inherits his

President is

elected.

BINET'S
ii. A King

TESTS

OF

INTELLIGENCE

89

is king for life: a President's term of officeis limited, iii.The powers of a King are greater than those of a President, directly responsible to the is not iv. A King people : a President is. (Added by Melville
in place of

iii.)
more

(Thistest
American

is obviously than
true

children difference is hardly

to

of

an

suited to French and English. The third English king.)

CHAPTER
burt's reasoning

V
tests

who has studied Binet's tests will at once perceive that they are unsuitable for the upper not devised for the discovery standards. They were of the bright children, but for the detection of the dull. If the aim is to select supernormal children to whom scholarships might be awarded, a more difficult series of tests a series that appeals more is functions the higher mental exclusively to tests necessary. The recently published by Mr. Cyril Burt and printed below were designed to meet A full description of the circumstances that need. drawn under which the tests were dardised up and stanment together with an account of the developof reasoning in school-children, will be found in an article by Mr. Burt in the Journal Experiofmental Pedagogy for June 191 9 and December 1919. " The test-questions To quote from that article: intended to be given to each child individually are and orally. In my own experiments each problem was a type-written upon separate card ; a fresh fresh line ; and by on a statement commenced
teacher
"

"

of indentation and spacing, question and distinguished from each other. A premises were to the child with the following card is handed ' instructions; Will you read this littlepuzzle ?
means

90

BURT'S

REASONING

TESTS

91

When There is an easy question at the end. you have read the question, read carefully again what is printed above, and try whether you can think of The the answer.' younger and duller children should read the test-questions aloud ; and with the youngest and dullest of all,the examiner should read the questions with or to the child. Children of higher levels (StandardIII) need only read is aloud the first few questions. Any child who unable to read a particular word or to comprehend its meaning should be freely helped. The graver difficulty of phrase and incongruities between difficultyof logic have been eliminated. In a perfectly A list bright occur. they should never revised young child is occasionally puzzled by such words
'

'

as

petent emotion,' although comsub-tropical,' and When it is follow to the reasoning. clear his he task, that the child understands should be left quietly with the card, forgetful, if possible, of the examiner's presence. The emotional confusion,
'

the

paralysis,' that so commonly embarrasses an oral interview is by this means When largely avoided. the child gives an answer, it is invariably received with a word of praise, whether right or wrong ; and the child is asked to give his reason. " One mark isgiven for each test correctly answered necessary, the child and correctly reasoned. When not may be given additional trials, exceeding three
examination

in all for any one But for each unsuccessful test. A fraction attempt a quarter of a mark is deducted. a as rule, a quarter, a half, or three-quarters respectively is also deducted for an ill-expressed
" "

reason,

an

inadequate

reason,

or

no

reason

at

all,

92

MENTAL

TESTS

In the cross-examination as to reasons liesthe most The examiner valuable part of the test. gleans ledge considerable information, not only about the knowand intellectual procedure of the child, but and disposition so far also about its temperament as they affect his intellectual efficiency. In the finalestimate of the child he would take into account both these broader observations, and in particular In the speed with which the child has worked. the actual marking no allowance is made for such latter factors ; nor is any time-limit assigned. be corrected on the basis of the general Could scores
impressions

incidentally gained, the correlations high as they are, would be still further with ability, raised. " For a child to work steadily through a seriesof fifty reasoning tests until he breaks down would, brighter for at any rate the and older children, be a slow and fatiguing process. A short series has therefore been constructed by selecting every third test in the full series. The short listthus contains for each age except questions, two only seventeen the first, which has three. " In the full listappended these selected questions are marked with asterisks. They have been more carefully chosen, more extensively used, and more thoroughly revised. For practical purposes, indeed, the short list will be sufficient, since this allows a of mental age. rough and rapid determination Where, however, it is required to obtain a more exact estimate of a child whose mental level is in for example, known already approximately
"

testing children within the same school standard the full list is indispensable, since with the short
"

BURT'S
listno member
to
two

REASONING

TESTS

93

be expected
one or
"

of a fairlyhomogeneous class could differ from the others by more than

marks. Children should be tested with the short listfirst. Even the oldest and brightest should begin with They should be carried through the easiest test.

the series until they have broken down with three The supplementary consecutive tests. questions be should given subsequently, and upon a different day. Here it will be expedient to start, not at the

beginning of the series,but about four tests below on the the level of the first serious failure made ; and the child should be carried through short list on at least six tests consecutively." until he breaks down

BURT'S

GRADED

REASONING
Seven Years

TESTS.

*i.

Tom

runs

than
2.

Jim.

Who

faster than Jim : Jack runs slower Tom is the slowest Jim, ? or Jack
"

All wall-flowers have four petals : this flower has three petals. Is this a wall-flower ? 3. It looks like rain : but I shall stay indoors. Shall I want an umbrella to-day ? *4. Kate is cleverer than May : May is cleverer Who isthe cleverest Jane, Kate or May ? than Jane. 5. It is Sunday ; and on a Sunday afternoon Ada usually takes the baby out, or goes by herself to the to see her aunt, or pictures, or walks over else goes by tram To-day to the cemetery. she has no money with her : and the baby is asleep upstairs. Where do you think she has probably gone ? " 6. Tom Some of my flowers : said to his sisters
"

94
are

MENTAL buttercups."

TESTS

His sistersknew that all buttercups " All your flowers are yellow. So Mary said : be yellow." Grace said : " Some must of your And Rose said : " None be yellow." flowers must Which girl was right ? of your flowers are yellow." *7. I have bought the following Christmas presents : a music, a box of pipe, a blouse, some cigarettes, a bracelet, a toy engine, a bat, a book, My doll, a walking-stick and an a umbrella. brother is eighteen : he does not smoke, nor play to give the play the piano. I want cricket, nor walking-stick to my father and the umbrella to my Which of the above shall I give to my mother. brother ? Eight
8. All great
men

Years

hard and long every day : Sir John Smith worked three hours a day. Was Sir JohnSmith a great man ? 9. Peter has a half-holiday on Wednesdays and I am Saturdays, and a whole holiday on Sunday. Wednesday, at work all day, except on Monday, Friday and Sunday. I want to take Peter to the tailor'sto buy a new suit. Which afternoon could
work
we

voyages ; and I don't like the seaside. I must spend Easter either in France, or the Scottish Hills,or on the South Coast. among Which shall it be ? Ethel has twice as many 1 1 apples as John: Lucy has half as many as John: Lucy has ten. How many has Ethel ?
sea
.

go together ? *io. I don't like

12.

Edith

than Lily.

is fairer than Olive, but she is darker Who is darker Olive or Lily ?
"

BURT'S
*I3" The

REASONING

TESTS

95

stole Brown's purse was person who The only clean-shaven. neither dark, nor tall,nor : (1)Jones, at the time were persons in the room (2) Smith, who is short, dark and clean-shaven. (3)Grant, who is who is fair, short and bearded. Who stole Brown's dark, tall, but not clean-shaven. purse ?

Nine

Years

14. C is smaller than B : B is smaller than A. Is A greater than C ? at the Hotel 15. A burglar entered my room Splendid last night. The windows were all securely fastened on the inside, and the fastenings and the The are opening window-panes up undisturbed. The door the chimney is only nine inches square. locked and the opening into the main corridor was key left on the outside. The ceilings, walls and floor have no other openings, either secret or forced, How did through which he could have entered. he get in ? Harry is *l6. Three boys are sitting in a row : to the left of Willie ; George is to the left of Harry. Which boy is in the middle ? than a shilling I shall either 17. If I have more go by taxi or by train : if it rains I shall either go by train or by 'bus. It is raining, and I have half a How do you think I shall go ? crown. 18. On one side of my street the houses all have beginning with the grocer's, which odd numbers, is No. 1. On the other side the numbers are even ; No. 2, the baker's, being opposite No. 1. My house is No. 16. Walter is my next-door neighbour his from house : you as you come the pass up

96
baker's

MENTAL
before just
you his door ? cold, damp get

TESTS
to

mine.

What

is the

climates, root crops like potatoes and turnips grow best ; in temperate climates there are abundant pastures, and oats and barley flourish; in sub-tropical climates, wheat, olives and vines flourish; in tropical climates, date palms and rice flourish. The ancient Greeks lived largely bread, with oil instead of butter : they had wine on

on number *I9" In

drink and raisins for fruit. Which you think they had ?
to

climate do

Ten
20.

Years
"

Why towns are children were asked : " unhealthy than the country ? nearly always more They gave the following replies : (i)" Some country " places are by the seaside." (2) There are more " doctors in the towns." (3) The smoke of the houses and the breath of the people prevent the " The cottages in the air from being fresh." (4) dark, tiny, and badly built." (5) are country " Disease spreads where people are together crowded best Which two the children gave ? answers " " dry." Catching the Drinking 21. the sea " Gathering grapes from wind in a cabbage net." " " ing Touchthistles." Washing a blackamoor white." All these sayings mean the end of a rainbow." Some
? (Givethe meanings of all something that is of them in one word.) *22. The doctor thinks Violet has caught some illness. If she has a rash, it is probably chicken-pox, measles or scarlet fever. If she has been ailing with

BURT'S
a

REASONING

TESTS

97

develop whooping-cough, cold or cough she may She has been sneezing and mumps. measles or days, and now spots are appearing coughing for some What do you think is the her face and arms. on matter with Violet ?

23. "I sprang to the stirrup and Joris and he : I galloped, Dirck galloped, we galloped all three." What " he
of the person referred to as in these lines of poetry ? 24. The Duchess of Dustiland's diamonds have been stolen. After the ball at the palace she gave tions to take home, with instructhem to her manservant
was

the

name

"

to

he

was

hand them over half-way home

minutes afterwards a man " I arrest you for stealing came up to -them and said : They were the Duchess of Dustiland's jewels." taken to a large building outside which a blue lamp " hanging Police Station " was with the words in uniform took printed on it. Here another man possession of the diamonds, and locked up both the manservant and his friend in a small, bare room day dawned, hearing nobody for the night. When but about they climbed out through the window, could see nothing of either the lamp or policemen. The Duchess is still looking for her jewels. Who do think is the thief ? *2$. There are four roads here. I have come The from the South and want to go to Melton. road to the right leads somewhere else : straight In which direction ahead it leads only to a farm. is Melton North, South, East or West ?
you
"

When her maid at once. he met a few a friend, and in blue uniform and helmet
to

98

MENTAL
Eleven

TESTS
Years

found nearly dead with his throat a cut, there was and on the back of his left arm The policeman blood-stained mark of a left hand. you think the says he tried to kill himself. Do

26. A

man

was

policeman was right ? Is A to the 27. C is West of B : B is West of A. North, South, East or West of C ? *28. Father has just home in a brand new come his boots, and flour on his : there is clay on overcoat hat. The only places he can have been to are NorthHe has gate, Southgate, Westgate or the City. had time to go to more than one of these. in the streets There is no clay anywhere except is up for repair. There are where the pavement tailor shops only in Southgate, Westgate and the flour mills only in Northgate, City. There are Westgate and the City. I know the roads are not being repaired in the City, though they may be in the other places. Where has father been ? of the occasions on 29. The following are some which people shed tears : People laugh till they they are they weep. cry. When very unhappy A fly in the eye makes the tears flow. Peeling
not

onions, scraping horseradish, going through smoke, in the face all make the eyes water. a cold wind These instances suggest two which general causes What tears. are they ? Choose your produce from the following phrases : (1)Moderate answer Bright colours such as red and green. happiness. (2)
"

(3)Germs.
the

(4)Violent eye-ball. (6)A warm

our

(5)Irritationof emotions. temperature.

third of the
school play

30. In

school

BURT'S
football, and
a

REASONING

TESTS

99

third play cricket. (1)Are there Are any who play neither football nor cricket ? (2) it is impossible to there any who play both ? (If tell without asking further, say so.) *3I. Where the climate is hot, aloes and rubber will grow : heather and grass will only grow where it is cold. Heather and rubber require plenty of moisture : grass and aloes will grow only in fairly dry regions. Near the river Amazon it is very hot Which of the above grows there ? and very damp.

Twelve
brother 32. My from Byford Wood

Years

" I have walked over writes : to-day, where I had the misfortune Can you guess yesterday to break a limb." his right arm, from this which he probably broke left arm, right leg, or left leg ?
"

thickly-populated 33. In the old world the most parts have usually been India, China, and the South In India and China the and West of Europe. is high in the summer ; on the shores of the rainfall Mediterranean it is high during the winter ; on the shores of the Atlantic it is fairly high all the year In the deserts of Russia, Persia and Africa, round. Africa is very hot ; it is dry all the year round. India and China are very warm ; South and West Europe rather warm ; the deserts of Russia cold. What have helped the kind of climate seems to of all cold and dry, growth of civilisationmost warm and dry, or hot and dry ? cold and wet, warm and wet, or hot and wet ? *34_.Field-mice devour the honey stored by the humble-bees : the honey which they store is the
"

ioo

MENTAL

TESTS

Near towns there chief food of the humble-bees. far more Cats are cats than in the open country. Where, then, do you think kill all kinds of mice. humble-bees in the near towns or there are most open country ? 35. My birthday is on December 27, and I am This year Christmas four days older than Tom. just
"

Tuesday. On what day of the week is Tom's birthday ? 36. If the train is late he will miss his appointment late he will miss the train. : if the train is not We do not know whether the train was late or not. Can we tellwhether he kept his appointment ? *37. I started from the church and walked 100 yards ; I turned to the right and walked 50 yards ; I turned to the right again and walked 100 yards. far am How I from the church ?
Day
comes

on

Thirteen
38. Explain how Message

Years

The

same

(in code) come (translated)

.

the following code is worked : dpnf up Mpoepo bu podf.

to

London

at

once.

What

" in this code ? is the secret letter for " x 39. Dismal Johnny said to Sunny Jim : "If I marry I shallbe miserable, because I shallbe bothered with looking after my wife ; if I don't marry I shall stillbe miserable, because I shall have no wife to So in either case I shall be miserlook after me. able."

Sunny Jim replied : " On the contrary, you ought to be happy in either case ; for, if you do not marry, you will be happy, because you will not be " bothered with looking after your wife, and ? How do you think he finished his argument

BURT'S

REASONING

TESTS

101

*40. A pound of meat should roast for half-anhour ; two should roast for threepounds of meat should quarters of an hour ; three pounds of meat
hour ; eight pounds of meat should hours two roast and a quarter ; nine pounds of meat should roast for two hours and a half. From this can you discover a simple rule by which you how long it can tell from the weight of a joint should roast ? 41 I walked 10 yards down High Street ; I turned Thomas to the left and walked 15 yards down
roast

for for

one

the left again and walked 10 James Street ; I turned to the left yards down another street; again and walked 15 yards down I turned to the left again and walked 10 yards down that street ; I turned to the left again and walked I in ? 5 yards. What street was

Street ; I turned

to

42.

1 1 1

is 1, that is, 1 times 1. and 3 added together are 4, that is,2 times 2. and 3 and 5 added together are 9, that is, 3 times 3. and 3 and 5 and 7 added together are 16, ? that is,

the above carefully. Can you see a simple rule for guessing the answers without adding up the figures? Work the following sums yourself ; this 1 will help you to find the rule : (i) and 3 and 5 and because this is 7 and 9 added together are , What do the first seven times (ii) odd
at
.

Look

3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13)come numbers (1, together ? This is times to find how the firsthundred much to if added up. would come

to
.

when added Use the rule odd numbers

102

MENTAL

TESTS

*43. What you draw from the conclusions can following facts ? Iron nails will not floatin a pool ; a cup of pure gold dust weighs nearly twenty times as much as a cup of water of the same size; if you drop a silversixpence or a copper coin into a puddle, it will sink to the bottom ; a cubic inch (about a of water weighs less than half an tablespoonful) ounce over two ; a cubic inch of brass weighs ounces ; a leaden weight will drop to the bottom Sum up all these observations in one of the ocean. " Most of the following form : short sentence
are
."

Fourteen

Years

my house you will find a you enter on window your right in the side wall of the passage. When it shines straight through this sets the sun What direction to the wall opposite. on window are you facing when you stand in the doorway and look across the street ? 45. If the A's have a bigger army than the B's we ought firsteither to fight the B's, or attack the C's by sea, but not attack the A's ; if their army is smaller we should attack the A's first. If the C's have a bigger navy than we, we ought to fight either the B's or the A's, but not the C's. If their navy is smaller, we should first attack the C's by sea.

44. When

The

size of their armies and navies is as follows

"

Whom

should

we

? attack first

BURT'S

REASONING

TESTS

103

*/\6.John said : " I heard my clock strikeyesterday ten minutes before the firstgun fired. I did
not

it struck more sure the strokes, but I am than once, and I think it struck an odd number." Johnwas out allthe morning, and his clock stopped five the same When do you at five to afternoon. think the firstgun fired? has just taken a penny ticket. The 47. Mary
count

this station all stop at Euston, but after that some go to Chalk Farm and Golders Green ; They and Highgate. others go to Kentish Town fare to Euston, Chalk else. The stop nowhere is a penny : to Highgate or Farm or Kentish Town Mary did not Golders Green twopence. get in the Golders Green train. To what station do you think she is travelling ? 48. They say that in Dodoland hundreds of years ago all the kingfishers had legs about six inches inches long, and they long, and beaks about two to catch fish for food. used to wade in the water The individual birds might differ from one another in the length of their beaks and legs by about half But the offspring of the inch or so"- not more. an birds with the shortest legs or beaks would inherit legs and beaks equally short, though again the from each other ; and brothers would differ a little similarly with the birds whose parents had longer legs and longer beaks. And happened the same Now in those with each succeeding generation. days the pools were only four inches deep. But they got gradually deeper and deeper ; and to-day, is always a foot where the fish swim, the water deep at the very least. Kingfishers of the ancient kind would now-a-days either drown in the deep
trains from

104
water,
or

MENTAL
starve

TESTS

for lack of food ; for they could What, learn to swim. never then, do you think birds in the course has happened to these wading of centuries ? *49" Captain Watts and his son Jameshave been

found shot the father in the chest, and the son in the back. Both clearly died instantaneously. A for example, fired close to the person as, gun when a man shoots himself will blacken and even burn the skin or a greater clothes ; fired from The distance it will leave no two such mark.
" " "

the middle of a large hall Its floor is covered with used as a rifle range. damp sand, which shows every footprint distinctly. Inside the room there are two pairs of footprints only. A third man outside the door standing just but or window could aim at any part of the room, footmarks. the pavement outside would show no

bodies

were

found

near

Watts's body was found a gun ; found near no was James. In each such weapon case the coat, where the bullet entered, was blackened with gunpowder, and the cloth a little singed. Captain Watts was devoted to his son, and would have died sooner than harm him purposely ; hence it is impossible to suppose that he killedhim deliberately, in self-defence. But some even think that James secretlydislikedhis father, and hoped to inherit his fortune at his death, (i)Was Captain Watts's death due to murder, accident or suicide ? (-2) Was James's death due to murder, accident or

Under

Captain

of the earth that is, the outer to at least fifty miles below the top Rock and stone consists chiefly of rock and stone.
crust
" "

suicide ? 50. The layer down

BURT'S

REASONING

TESTS

105

weigh about three times as much as a bulk of water size. The heaviest materials found in of the same the crust of the earth are metals ; but in the outer layer of the earth these are, of course, comparatively The earth as a whole weighs over five times as rare.
of the same globe of water size. What does this suggest that the interior and middle of the earth are mainly composed of water, rock and stone, metal or hot gas ?

heavy

as

"

CHAPTER
THE MEASUREMENT OF

VI
KNOWLEDGE

heart of the problem may best be made manifest to the reader by supposing that a father brings to him a boy of ten years of age with the request that he should ascertain whether that boy, who is,say, attending a dame's school, is up to the average in his school studies. The father does not to know want anything about the boy's intelligence but he does want to (no father ever doubts that), know whether the school is giving him value for his money a matter which all parents frequently of telling call into question. Have we any means with any degree of exactness whether the lad is of average proficiency in such rudimentary branches of instruction as reading, composition and arithmetic ? We did not know Until quite recently we had not.
"

The

what the average child of that age could perform : to make a rough we the most guess ; could do was and the value of that guess depended purely upon which again depended upon the personal judgment, range and nature of personal experience. We had, Each in fact, no stable standards of measurement. man measured for himself, and each measured with a private to-day the position yard-stick. And even begun to better. We have only just is not much standardise our tests, and have merely arrived at a
106

MEASUREMENT
few
tentative

OF

KNOWLEDGE
achievement is an urgent in

107
the call for

urge us to make the has been to find the tion the ordinary instrucmulatin of the e colesprimaires. Binet's motive in forhis Bareme d 'Instruction was as the same his motive in establishing his scale of intelligence the quest of the subnormal child. But other motives are constantly operative. There is a need for standards between the achievements of comparison of
"

standards of simplest of processes. There the extension of this work. Many are the motives that In France the aim attempt. child who failsto benefit by

of different historic children of different races, periods, of different environments, and under different types and modes of education. Pedagogic records are no less useful than athletic records. It is surely as profitable to know how long it would

take a nine-year-old child to add a given column of figures as it is to know how long it would take Yet we have horse to run a mile. a two-year-old in the other. case and not records in the one Finally, there is the need for placing in the hands means of the classteacher some of protection against master arbitrary and unreasonable criticism by the heador the inspector. It is well to be quite clear as to the precise nature of the standards we wish to establish; for there are three distinct possibilities.We may ascertain do do, what children of a given age actually or what they can do, or what they ought to do. The first standard is actual, the second maximal, be none can of them and the third ideal. And either deduced from a prioriprinciples or extracted from the inner consciousness of a Board of Examiners.

108

MENTAL

TESTS

Our scale must be on rest measurable facts, must built up by a careful investigation into the actual achievement of children under clearly defined conditions. What in standard of proficiency reading, for instance, or in spelling,or in arithmetic, can be expected of London children of a given age under their present conditions of schooling ? The simplest convenient means of ascertaining this is and most devise a suitable test (by no to means an easy apply it to as large a number of children

matter),
as

possible, and submit the results to statistical analysis. The scale thus arrived at will afford what may be called, by way of distinguishing it from the other two types of standard, Norms of Performance. These norms have a simple and definite meaning ; they can be verified or modified by further testing, and they have a definite range of usefulness. Is it possible to establisheither of the other two standards ? And if possible, is it expedient ? Is there any point, for instance, in trying to discover what the result in arithmetic would be if all the for a time every to sacrifice schools in London were kind of intellectual activity in order to secure direction ? There maximal proficiency in this one Apart from the violence done to evidently is not. the victims of the experiment, the results would be of no value. Can we deduce from the norms some sort of actual performance of ideal standard index of what the children distinct from what they do ? I as ought Where myself see no scientificway of doing so. ethics and aesthetics have failed, it does not seem likelythat pedagogics will succeed. We have therefore to fallback on norms of actual performance as
which would do to
serve as

an

MEASUREMENT

OF

KNOWLEDGE

109

constituting the only type of standard which proves to be both practicable and useful. Of the other is practicable without being useful, and one two, the other useful without being practicable. Let us now consider what attempts have actually been made norms to of arrive at standards or They in first instruction. the guise of appear curricula issued by a central authority. In our own the Board of Education's standards of country
examination are familiar to all those who remember by results. Indeed, they have the days of payment tions not yet quite disappeared from the Code of Regulain the section : they appear in a modified form be said at on of proficiency. It may certificates once that they do not represent any pure type of standard, as the word is used in this book. They ideal. Partaking are neither actual, maximal, nor features of each, they are of some of the worst hybrids of very doubtful pedigree. Based originally
on

the opinion of what certain authorities at the Education Department thought reasonable, moulded
suit the exigencies of examination, they lacked a fact. Moreover, the solid foundation of objective scheme was used, and, indeed, intended to be used, in such a way as to exemplify what Professor Adams
to

has pointed out to be the one great danger to which or standards are exposed : it was all norms used as Since preparation a goal, and not merely as a test. for annual examinations was at that time virtually the sole aim and purpose of the school, it was inevitable that these standards of examination should become syllabuses of work ; should form the ground of the classification of scholars ; should, by simple metonymy, give their
name

to

the classes

no

MENTAL

TESTS

examinations ; and, finally, preparing for the specific for children be regarded as norms of performance of various ages. Thus the word tried to do several distinct pieces of work, and did none of them well. As examination syllabuses and schemes of study, the standards were marred by serious faults. In the firstplace, they were often so vague as to be dard almost useless. The reading requirement for Stan" To read a passage from III, for example, was " " To read a reading-book ; and for Standard IV, a passage from a reading-book or history of England." Neither sentence tells us more than the first two words alone. No indication is given of the mode of judging whether a child has reached the specified any indication as to the amount of standard, nor be expected of a child between progress in reading to and eleven, the normal ages for " " Secondly, the scale these standards. passing involved too high a standard of mechanical accuracy a standard which could not be reached without the ages of
ten
"

undue expenditure of time, and a consequent of the curriculum and loss of interest. narrowing With the present wide and generous scheme of studies, so high a level of attainment in one direction would be difficult,if not impossible. Finally, as
an

the standards of examination were woefully defective. Even supposing that some means of testing were prescribed, so that objective independent two examiners would inevitably arrive
norms

of achievement,

at

the

same

results

(which was

certainly

not

'the

arbitrary and standards themselves were lacked the guarantee of a careful scientific study of the normal capacities of children. Nor did the schedule of standards represent a
the case),

MEASUREMENT

OF

KNOWLEDGE

in

Although a normal suppupil was posed real age scale. to pass through standards each of the seven fourteen before he reached years of age, he could a year ; and while a stroke of bad only pass one luck would put him back a whole year, no amount of good luck could put him forward a day. The that retardates were plentiful and consequence was accelerates entirely absent. A very different kind of standardisation is that based on His Bar erne " Instruction was of Binet. the mean of Parisian performance of a large number in three children. It supplies, in fact, real norms important branches of instruction reading, number and spelling. But although the aim is laudable, the table published in Les idees modernes sur les Enfants " Bareme " is of no great value. As the term implies, it claims to be a ready reckoner a roughof finding out whether a child of and-ready means
" "

given age has profited adequately by his schooling. But its very roughness and readiness constitute its main defect. It is supposed to take only ten minutes
a

to

child's scholarship to fix his position in the age scale ; and it is hard to believe that so meagre and hurried an examination can gauge the effect of years of teaching. Binet's method the reading is based of judging on the position of the pauses made by the reader. If he pauses between the syllables,it is marked " " syllabic ; if he pauses between the words, it is " hesitant " ; and if he does not pause at marked all,except where the sense of the passage demands " it, the reading is marked In all, five current." indicated grades of proficiency are subsyllabic, hesitant, current syllabic, and expressive. This
assess
a
" "

ii2

MENTAL
a

TESTS

simple scheme, and if it were easy to apply, its obvious lack of delicacy of gradation might be But, as a matter sible of fact, it is imposoverlooked. It to apply it with any feeling of certainty. is very rare that any child's reading is found to fall of the prescribed grades. entirely within any one In arithmetic simplification is again aimed at. Binet goes so far as to contend that it is unnecessary ledge to test both addition and subtraction, for a knowof the latterimplies a knowledge of the former. By parity of reasoning, a test in division is claimed to render a test in multiplication unnecessary. Indeed, three simple questions for each child seem to be considered adequate ; but each question must To illustratethe kind form. be given in concrete of question he advocates, I will cite his typical years example for children between six and seven " 6 From 19 apples take away of age : apples :
seems

how many remain ? " The spelling test is of no value outside France ; for it is a test of grammar as well as of spelling being inseparable in the French language. the two This peculiarity is rendered obvious by the typical " Les jolies sentence petites given in the Bareme : hier " filles etudient les plantes qu'elles on remasses a sentence abounding in pitfalls. find there Turning from France to America, we the home of standardisation. A tremendous volume of work has been done by Thorndike, Courtis, Ayres, Terman, Munroe, Judd and others with a view to
"
"

reaching

of the exactitude as the nature is for But its usefulness us will permit. subject by its insularity by the fact that it is marred American and not English. Their arithmetic tests
as

much

"

MEASUREMENT

OF

KNOWLEDGE

113

dollars and cents, their problems often abound in selves, and transactions peculiar to themrefer to customs The next and the spelling is Websterian. serious defect, however, is that the results are not in an age scale, but in a grade scale. We embodied are told what level the children in Grade IV, say, school, did, on an average, of a certain American attain in arithmetic, spelling and reading. But we are not told the actual age of these children. Nor

learn from the grade. We their educational papers that the ages in the grades are not what they are theoretically supposed to be. They vary from school to school, and from city to it makes a very great difference city. Moreover, given at the beginning, the whether the tests were middle, or the end of the school year. Binet's scales are of universal value because they are age scales are to be used scales; and if the American be translated from grade in England they must be to will then cease scales to age scales. They
can
we

infer it from

national and become international. I must emphasise the fact that the tests are merely tests, and that their value diminishes in the of proportion that they deflect the general course study. Although in those rudimentary habits which are the beginnings of school pursuits this danger by making the tests comprehensive, be met may that device is impossible in those higher and advanced branches of study where no test can
more more cover

than a small fraction of the whole field. We have, in fact, ultimately to rely on the co-operation and good faith of the teacher. And my experience goes to show that such confidence is rarely misplaced. It has been urged as an to the use of norms

objection

ii4

MENTAL

TESTS

that they refer to the most measurable school subjects, least are the measurable and the most valuable. There is thus a danger that the teacher will concentrate

his effortson the more mechanical aspects of school work, to the neglect of the higher and more of fact, this spiritual aspects. As a matter fear is groundless. Norms in the mechanical subjects are a as a menace. as just much protection They will probably show that in some schools the mechanical work is too good : it is so far above the normal that too much time and attention have been is reached further devoted to it. When the norm " " The teacher drill is for the time unnecessary. would realise that he could with a clear conscience and render the work more reduce the drudgery broadly cultural. What is recreational and more mechanical really aimed at in establishing the more is the discovery of that degree of automatism norms the interests of the higher prowhich best serves cesses And in it of thought. any given school may be just as necessary to slacken the standard as to string it up.

CHAPTER
DISTRIBUTION AND

VII
DISPERSION
1

multitude of natural objects find that the same genus or class we determinate shape. a the results tend to assume The magnitudes occur in accordance with a general law. Let us suppose, for instance, that we start by the heights of adult Englishmen measuring
after the other stand against a post and marking each height with a horizontal stroke. If we we choose our shall soon specimens at random find our round a fixed marks tending to crowd height. By the time we had measured ioo the in Fig. I. The as marks would appear somewhat

When we belonging to

measure

making

one

largest number of marks would probably fallbetween 6j and 68 inches, and the numbers would tail off as they diverged in either direction from this central increased we should position. As the number of men find our are range of heights extending, for we likely to find a giant or a dwarf among much more fifty. By the time 8000 10,000 men than among measured range extending from
1

had

been

we

should probably find 57 to 78 inches. Let us

our now

to

the reader is referred of this subject Nunn's Exercises in Algebra, Vol. II., Sec. IX. (Longmans). Some excellent diagrams illustrating distribution and dispersion
a

For

fuller treatment

will be found

in Burt's Educational Abilities

iJ5

(Kingand Son).

n6

MENTAL

TESTS

for statistical ioo men, or, take our convenience, let us say ninety-nine, and put them to stand in a in order of height so that the talleststand at row one end of the row and the shortest at the other. An unreflecting observer would expect the line the tops of their heads to be a straight line. joining

Figs. land 2. Probable heightsof

99

Englishmen- taken at

Quartile.

99"ien

f'a

standing

in

row

in.

oraitr of height ("ou"si s6"tnniiu"l)

Ka.x

In fact, however, the line tends to take the forms Ogive the curve of an represented by Fig. 2. from the facts This, indeed, could be deduced Let us arrange the results in recorded in Fig. 1. If we erect a column, A (Fig. yet another way. 3), fall measures to that the number of proportional between 6j and 68 inches, place to the right another column, B, proportional to the number of measures
"

DISTRIBUTION
that fall between

AND

DISPERSION

117

69, and so on for the we other groups of measures, shall get what is or a surface of called a frequency-column-graph, frequencies. It is clear that we have not been dealing with discrete units like the abstract numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, For there etc., but with continuous magnitudes. is no limit, except those imposed by our ments instruand and
our

68

sense-organs,

to

the

number

of

ZZ3
Inches
6/
Sz 65 6"J- 65 66

6f

6%

69

70

7/

~]2- 73
.

74-

f^.3frecucncy-ccJumn.graphdifferent measurements that may be made between, Nor is there any fixity say, 6y and 68 inches. We have chosen one inch, about the group-range. but we might just inch, as well have chosen half an

quarter of an inch, or, indeed, any range we liked. It is obvious, however, that the smaller the
or a

the smaller the number of men fall within that range ; and to show whose statures conthe general scheme of distribution it is most venient to choose one's range in accordance with range
of
statures

n8

MENTAL

TESTS

If the numbers are the number of men measured. can conveniently make our columns very large we by increasing the numbers and thinner ; and find the zigzag formed diminishing the range we by the tops of the columns tending towards a This peculiar bellas in Fig. 4. continuous curve, The is known as a frequency curve. shaped curve to which stature particular type here illustrated, Curve of Normal closely conforms, is called the Distribution.

Jnrfrraijmttl
TOTjige
i-flean Variation
"

Dtytatioh.'
"

"

"

65

64.

6S

66

6J

68

69

70

7/

71

73

7+

75- 76

Gitvs dlslnhut ion. %4-. ofriormal If instead of taking the men's heights we had taken their weights, we should have found the distributed in almost the same measurements way. Finally, when instead of a physical trait we
measure

mental traitwe appear usually to get the same type of result. A number of girls,say, of eleven years of age exhibit degrees of educational abilitywhich, when carefully tested, prove to be distributed in much the same way as their heights or weights. In other words, examination marks
a

DISTRIBUTION

AND

DISPERSION

119

law as the measurements should follow the same of other natural features : they should roughly Distribution. conform to the Curve of Normal This curve is also called the Curve of Probability Curve of Probability and the Curve of Error. The term derives from the fact that the curve shows the frequency of a series of events composed of a of factors when the presence or absence of number a merely by chance. given factor is determined Suppose, for example, I have two coins, toss them
a again and again, and make record of the of times there is no head, the number number of head, and the number times there is only one heads. I shall find the two of times there are

up

tending towards the proportion This, indeed, of 1, 2 and 1. could be deduced by the laws of probability from the fact that there are but four possible ways in which the TH, HT fall,viz. TT, coins can and HH ; and " head " appears once, no one out of these four If instead of the head twice, and two heads once.
score cases

for the three

had considered the absence presence of heads we of heads, or the presence or absence of tails,we kind result. The same should have got the same toss three coins a of thing, too, will happen if we
of times, except that the proportion be that of 1, 3, 3 and 1. The case of would now head (or three no would occur about once tails) head about three times, every eight throws, one

large number

heads about three times, and three heads about With four coins the probable ratios would once. be 1, 4, 6, 4 and 1. The reader will by this time have observed that the proportions I have given
two
are

the coefficients of the expansion

of (x +

i)2,

i2o

MENTAL

TESTS

and if he will proceed to the higher powers of the binomial and expand by frequency-column-graphs, he them represent will find that the graphs gradually approximate the in Fig. 4 the curve curve of probability. The term Curve of Error is a relic of an older The curve in fact, firststudied was, nomenclature. in connection with errors of observation, particularly in astronomy ; and a tendency arose to call " In gunnery, errors." all divergences from a mean it was too, natural to regard as errors all the shots
; (x + i)3and (x + i)4
"

that missed the mark. It should be strongly emphasised that the curve It is seldom or never is an ideal curve. actually limit it towards which merely marks a reached : ideal arrangement to an the values tend which more as they approximate certain conditions and more ences Inferfulfilled. are (those of pure chance) based on it, are drawn from it, arguments For it is never certain : they are only probable.
"

the main

characteristic of all inferences from statistical in increase as they larity particuuniformities, that they diminish in certainty. They are wholesale The truths, not retail truths. smaller the

feel that any we the less sure of cases number will hold good. But the number general statement in a class is rarely so small of children grouped that a central tendency is not observable ; and if the results of examining them depart widely from the normal type, it shows that the examination was unsuitable. It was either a bad examination, or a bad sample of children bad in the sense of not being representative. A picked sample, it is true, ; but these. always exhibits certain peculiarities
"

DISTRIBUTION

AND

DISPERSION

121

as a should be allowed for : they should not come The the examiner. results of an surprise to in fact, a standing criticism of the examination are, examination : they search the suitability of the of the marking. questions and the correctness From what we have already said certain important principles may be deduced (1)On an ideal examination mark-sheet, where the candidates have been ranked in order of merit, the degrees of difference between consecutive marks are not equal. They are greatest at the extremes, and gradually diminish as they approach the middle. (2)If equal ranges of ability be taken, the number of cases falling within the central range is large, and the number ranges small. If, within the extreme therefore, we arrange the examinees in three groups, A, B and C, representing equal ranges of ability, the B group should be the largest,and the A and C groups should be about the same size. Similarly, if we classify them in five groups, A, B, C, D and E, the C should be the largest group, the B and D the next, and the A and E the smallest. (3)A series of tests of any mental quality or attainment should be so devised, and the results so
"

marked, that nobody should gain full marks, nobody gain none, and the average gain about half marks. This is an ideal examination in which is never the aim of the examinapractice attained. When tion the brightest intellects these pick out conditions do not hold good. (4)The range of marks between the median, or middle mark, and the quartile (themark half-way between the middle and the is less than that ends)
to

is

between

the quartile and the

extreme,

122

MENTAL It
must not

TESTS
that
every
test

be

thought

the

teacher sets his class can give results which accord It with these rules. may be, for instance, that the test is only intended to divide the class into passes failures, find do to can a certain out those who and This sheep-andsimple thing and those who cannot. isextremely useful for teaching purgoat classification poses, and may involve any degree of inequality in
the sizes of the
two

groups.

Marks

IS

10

IS

3C

35

40

^5

SO

SS

"SO

65

JO

JS

SO

65

%
Nor
must

SteuuCuTve

it be assumed that the series is always In fact, the curve is as often as not symmetrical. crowd towards skewed, as in Fig. 5 : the numbers the right or towards the left. There is a general rise and a general fall,but one is often steeper than the other. The only way fully is to
to

state

the actual measurements But we rarely use by a graph. know to are generally content and to take that value

describe "a series of measurements all the facts, either by giving by representing them or
all these facts : we dency, their central tenas

representative of

DISTRIBUTION the whole

AND

DISPERSION

123

disthe series is normally tribute series. When the central tendency is represented by the If the terms of this average or arithmetical mean. normally distributed series be arranged in order of is also the median or middle the mean magnitude But when the series is not symmetrical the term. in the middle, and its right to represent disputed. It been is the series has claimed Take, better. it for that the median represents example, the series (a) 1, 2, 3, 3, 3, 4, 19. The average here is 5, but it is clear that the median, 3, is a better index of the central tendency than 5. It may, in fact, be stated generally that when
mean

is

not

of the series,the erratic items disturb the tenor as a measure of median is better than the mean But there are, on the other the central tendency. hand, other abnormal occasions when the average Take, for instance, the is the better measure. The median, 7, is series (b)o, 1, 1, 7, 7, 8, 11.

clearly too high. The average, 5, is better. And in the series (c) o, o, o, 8, 9, the median, o, would be entirely misleading. It is sometimes the suggested that the mode frequent value (e. most g. 3 in series (a), and o in series (c)) be taken as the representative value. But in some more than once ; seriesno value occurs in others it is impossible to decide between rival claims (the 1 and the 7, for instance, occur with in frequency in ; equal series (b)) others, again, the at the beginning or end of the series, mode occurs as in series (c), and is a bad representative. It may be argued that the series of marks we have been citing violate the very rules we have already laid down : they depart widely from the
"
"

124

MENTAL

TESTS

normal, and indicate either very bad testing or very The charge of bad sampling may bad sampling. be admitted, for the class teacher cannot always pick his samples : he has to test what children he has. Moreover, he has to measure the success of find his teaching he to to which out the extent has imparted knowledge or fostered understanding ; here irregular results may reasonably be and are small. I expected, especially if the numbers
"

admit, therefore, that for the purposes of emphasis I have taken extreme cases rather possible cases But infrequent cases these than probable cases. quent. infreillustrateconditions which are by no means They magnify peculiaritiesthat are nearly
"

always present. When the seriesis of normal distribution,it does not matter the median whether we take the mean, or the mode ; for they all three coincide. When, however, the distribution is not normal we have to The mode we may dismiss choose between them. quite is inapplicable. one more suitable, sometimes the other ; and rarely is plicity either a really bad representative value. For simis of calculation the median undoubtedly the Of have learnt the average or central tendency of a serieswe have learnt the most significant But it. there are other things we want thing about important of these other to know ; and the most the closenes'sor things is the degree of scatter looseness with which the various values cluster round In series (d)4, 5, 5, 6, 6, 6, 7, 7, 8, the average. for instance, there is very little scatter ; no value
we
"

at

once

as

never

quite suitable, and often the other two sometimes

better. When

DISTRIBUTION
deviates from

AND

DISPERSION

125

or the median byeither the mean But in the series (e) 1, I, 2, 3, 3, 5, more than 2. 8, 14, 17, which has the same the average as {d), deviations are very much greater. To evaluate these deviations the obvious plan is to treat them as we treat the original series,that is,find their average. In series (d) the deviations are respectively 2, 1, 1, o, o, o, 1, 1, 2, and their average is *8. This is their deviation from the mean, briefly, more mean or, their tion deviadeviation or mean mean variation. The mean is 4*6, that is,more than five times of series(e) as great as that of the first series. In the same we can way calculate the mean persion deviation from the median, another index of dis-

to simplest and quickest way, however, measure the general degree of deviation is to extend the principle of the median, and after finding the median, which divides the seriesinto halves, to find the median of each of the halves. In other words, we arrange the series in order of magnitude, and divide it into four equal parts. The value one

The

quarter of the .way up is the lower quartile, the value half the way up is the median, and the value three-quarters of the way up is the upper quartile. The difference in value between the upper and lower quartile is known as the interquartile range. Since this range is an index of dispersion both above and below the median, it is usual to halve it, and thus get the semi-interquartile range, or quartile deviation. This is, in fact, a convenient way of averaging the deviations of the two quartiles from the median. In the series(J) 1, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 5, 5, 6, 6, 7, 8, 8, 9, 10, for instance, 3 is the lower

126

MENTAL

TESTS

quartile, 5 the median, 8 the upper quartile, 5 the interquartile range, and 2\ the quartile deviation. Sometimes the lower quartile is called the 25 percentile
the median the 50 percentile, and the upper quartile the 75 percentile. The semi-interquartile error. as the -probable range is practically the same It is so-called on to be a lucus a non what seems lucendo principle ; for it is neither an error, is nor it probable. Error means deviation, as in the phrase tion probable deviaincludes sense that since twice its amount half the number of values, any particular value is as likely to fall as within it. just without that amount We have one other means of measuring the degree of variation from the central tendency standard deviation, or root-mean-square-deviation. Instead of the individual variations from of taking the mean
curve
"
"

of in the

error

; and it is only

"

we the mean, take the mean of their squares and This takes a longer time then find its square root. to calculate than any of the others, but it has In calculating it we have not certain advantages. to commit the algebraical solecism of adding terms of opposite signs as if they were signless, as in estimating the other measures of deviation ; for the are squares of all numbers necessarily positive. Moreover, by squaring, extreme deviations are magnified, and given their due weight as indications of individual ability. The very items that cause us trouble when we try to find the central tendency are of supreme service in calculating the correlation of abilities. The best-known method of finding the correlation coefficient involves the finding of the standard deviation. Those, therefore, who wish to make further calculations from an array of values

DISTRIBUTION
are

AND

DISPERSION

127

the standard deviation as a measure or of of variation instead of the simpler measures, He Mr. Burt does so. suggests the mental age. that for strictlyscientific purposes it should be used prone
to use

in the schools as a unit of measurement. viation In a normally distributed series the quartile dedeviation, and the is less than the mean deviation less than the standard deviation mean a fact illustratedgraphically in Figs. 4 and 5. I have described various means of finding the
"

marks, of a list of examination central tendency of finding the deviation from and various means From among these there is that central tendency. in actual use in the schools only one way of recording the central tendency, and none of recording the deviation. The average, or arithmetical mean, The device in common is the only statistical use. result of a test in arithmetic is supposed to be

adequately reported and recorded when the average And I have as of sums number right is given. already shown, the way of the average is quite a good way : it is at least as good as any other. But Some mode it is not of expressing the enough. degree of dispersion is also necessary the mean deviation, for instance. As a matter of simplicity in working, however, and completeness of statement, I would commend the method of the median and quartile deviation. To record a result it is only necessary to give five values the lowest, the lower
" "

quartile, the median, the upper quartile and the highest. This will give more information in a small The mean tion deviacompass than any other method.
of the series, affords no clue to the symmetry for it does not differentiate the deviations below

128

MENTAL

TESTS

the average from the deviations above the average. But the quartiles reveal to us at a glance both how the several values are dispersed (see and how much Fig. In fact, we learn from the five items mentioned

5).

above the range of the series, its central tendency, its degree of dispersion, and its mode of dispersion. The teacher unfamiliar with statistical ogy terminoltating consider these distinctions irriand useless. Irritating perhaps they are, but ferent useless. For different investigators affect difSome find it more systems. convenient to will
no

doubt

not

the reject

and use the median, others cling Those who to the older scheme. wish to base their data prefer to elaborate calculations on dispersion by the standard deviation ; measure while those who desire quick practical results prefer the simpler measures, the mean variation or the quartile deviation. The few explanations I have his mind given should enable the reader to
average

adjust

to

of the ways in which a broad knowledge of the principles of distribution may be useful to the teacher. Let us suppose that he has to mark forty composition exercises written by the boys in his class. It is doubtful whether he

these varying usages. I will try to illustrate some

them with any degree of confidence Although into more a teacher than ten groups. sometimes tries to mark on a scale of 1 00, awarding boy, say, 73 marks and another 74, it is idle to one pretend that he can make such fine discriminations. Generally speaking, ten grades are as many as he can a ten-grade basis it is clear ; and on manage that the forty papers in question cannot all receive
can

arrange

DISTRIBUTION

AND

DISPERSION

129

To examine his distribution the different marks. teacher should, after marking, draw up a frequency graph as in Figs. 3, 5, 6 and 7. He will then see at once apportioned his whether he has judiciously If the bulk of the marks are somewhere scores.
near

the middle it is presumptive evidence of careful As an example of bad marking I will marking. take an instance that occurred some years ago in the top standard of an elementary girls' school. At the terminal examination the thirty-five girlsin the position, class were examined by the head mistress in combeing 20 the maximum marks allowed. Twelve girls got full marks, five got 19, twelve got 18, and six got 15. If the reader will plot this ogive or as a frequency graph, that the principles I have tried to flagrantly violated. In point of fact are expound full marks the twelve papers that were awarded were of very unequal merit, and it is doubtful than 14 whether the best of them deserved more marks out of 20. Both composition and reading are quite frequently than marked in this haphazard fashion. If more result either he will note
as an one

that pupil receive full marks it generally means the best of these pupils is getting less than justice. Towards the middle of the scale " ties " are in the natural order of things, but the further from the middle we get the more unlikely is equality to be found. A test, therefore, that failsto differentiate, and spread out the pupils at the higher and lower ends of the list,is either bad in itselfor badly

marked. Let us
K

now

consider

possible to calibrate more

in which it is finely. Mathematics, for

subject

130
instance.

MENTAL

TESTS

Here, with a sufficiently searching examination, it is quite possible to find ioo distinct grades If base line frequency a the of proficiency. of graph be spaced out in equal ranges of from o to 5 per cent., from 5 to 10 per cent., from 10 to 15 per cent., and so forth, and columns raised proportional to the number of pupils whose marks fall within these ranges, the result will be a graph or curve of which Figs. 5 and 6 are possible varieties. The skew shown in Fig. 5 may be due to an imperfect grading in

Ma-rks

XO

IS

30

3S

4o

^S

So

SS

60

6S

lo

IS

Co

SS

9a

3S

H^. 6

Curve cuilK tuJo cresls

the difficulty of the questions, or to some peculiarity in the class itself. When distinct there are two in Fig. 6 as crests, and especially if this duality it points to a reappears in other examinations in the class. These are serious lack of homogeneity
"

"

central tendencies due to the presence really two of two natural groups. We get this kind of curve when we plot the heights of a mixed group of men One crest will indicate the central and women. tendency of the men, and the other the central A double summit that tendency of the women.

DISTRIBUTION
sometimes

AND

DISPERSION

131

petitive appears in the plotted results of a comdistinct indicates two examination probably those who work for the examitypes of candidates nation Peculiaritiesin do not. the and those who curve of distribution, although they fall short of for investigation. proof, always suggest points
"

nJ
75*

r
%
7

"20-

Surface of freousncuof marks by "40 obtained girls o{9-3i -years

old in }he TnechqnicalTeadingtest
S
10
is 20 is

la

as

."""",.," "%" *s So is 60

!~l
"s

I" )
uz" "cr

-jojs

so

es

/"

at

iu

us

11s is* as

iv

u*

/larks

I would particularly warn to the reader not from so small a number expect a smooth curve of cases as a single class provides. Rather should he in Fig. 7, where expect something like what is seen I have plotted some of the results obtained in the reading test described in Chapter VIII. Although dealt with, yet there is much there are 540 cases irregularity in the rise and fall of the frequencies. Indeed, so conspicuous is the fall at 90-95, or
rather the
rise
at

100-105,

tnat

an

explanation

132
seems

MENTAL
to

TESTS

be called for. As, however, these features do not frequency reappear in the corresponding are surface for boys, I conclude that the causes due to any peculiarity in the accidental, and not
test.

Another

tributi way of using the notion of normal disin ordinary class work may be indicated.

Suppose the teacher has to mark forty drawings. Their absolute merit is beyond his, or indeed anybody's, determine : his concern is to to power He will another. appraise them relatively to one find it a good plan to spread the drawings out on large table, and proceed thus : If there is one a copy which is manifestly the best, mark it io ; and if there is a copy which is manifestly the worst, Then look for the second best there mark it I. Mark each of these 9. Then may be two or more.
"

look for the next to the worst, and mark these 2. Work thus towards the middle, making the groups larger and larger as the middle is approached. which will be gerous found serviceable as a guiding principle, but dana hard-and-fast as rule. It is, indeed, very improbable that a set of papers if rightly marked will tamely fallin with a preconceived scheme, for which each set will have peculiarities of its own but be it is improbable must recognised ; equally drawings depart that the will widely from the general scheme I have outlined above. In the final issue the marks should fit,not the scheme, but the
we a

Here

have

working

conception

papers. In Chapters VIII and X, I give two standardised in arithmetic. The norms tests in reading and seven average appended represent the central tendency (the

DISTRIBUTION
or

AND

DISPERSION

133

the results obtained by applying the tests to several thousands of children in a large They indicate the normal variety of schools. age mentioned ; and the achievement at the exact is simple. If, for instance, a to use them way teacher gives the silent reading test to his pupils, whose average age is ten years three months, he of 11 ; for the table should expect an average score the

median)of

of

norms

gives

10

for ten

years of age, and

14 for

eleven years of age, and his boys are a quarter of the way between ten and eleven. from the score Judging made in certain individual variation for the written arithmetic tests is on the whole nearly 50 per cent, of If, for instance, the norm is the average reached. 6, the mean variation is nearly 3. It is larger even than this for the younger children, but considerably smaller for the older. It should be borne in mind, however, that in collating my results it was schools, the
mean

children of the same class or grade or standard together, but children of the that were grouped same age. And unless the degree of dispersion in the classis less than the degree of dispersion in the that age group, the school is no better organised (for at least) than if the classification particular subject based strictly of scholarswere upon age. The smaller deviation the more homogeneous is the the mean
not

class.

CHAPTER
READING

VIII

A. What

"

As

Mechanical

Art

fundamental and essential factoi in the ability to read ? Binet seems il to assume to be fluency ; for the scale for marking reading in his Bareme ^Instruction isbased upon the frequency
of such pauses as are not necessary to elucidate the meaning of the passage read. The examinees an classified according as they pause after the letters, or the syllables, the words the phrases. More investigators, discriminating between recent the

is the

do for our own use silent reading we and pleasure benefit do for the of others, and the oral reading we important, anc claim the former to be the more
select the comprehension of the material read as the first essential, and speed of reading as the second. Compared with these, intonation, expression and For this pauses are regarded as unimportant. point of view there is much to be said. It is significant
of that happy change which is taking place in our schools the change from reading as an at best) elocutionary display (a very indifferent one But compreto reading as a pleasurable pursuit. hension
"

is a difficult thing
a more
"

to

measure

; and it presuppose

easy

to

measure

rudimentary ability which is quite the ability to translate certain

134

READING

135

visual symbols into sounds, whether those sounds This are actually produced or are merely imagined. is the basal ability the sine qua non of reading amount the step which no of intelligence would enable the learner to dispense with. His intelligence will, of course, eke it out ; it will enable him to
" "

"

words, to respond to slighter anticipate coming to read is rooted cues ; but ultimately his power in his ability to translate symbols into sounds, and this fundamental ability is what I here set out to the whole of reading ; but it is the basal and indispensable part, and it is the part which best lends itselfto exact measurement. The test I adopted after some preliminary experiments
measure.

It is

not

the following page : The pupil was given a paper on which the test was asked to read as fast printed as shown, and was told to and as carefully as he could until he was of words correctly read in a number stop. The that is, the total number minute read minus the If the examinee gave the score. misread number hesitated for more a than five seconds over word
is given
on
"

"

"

to be on the point of saying it,he and did not seem was prompted and told to pass on, that particular He was thus prevented word counting as an error. from being too heavily penalised by his inability
or two recognise one particular words. It is quite clear that the test does not take intelligence into account ; it is designed to measure the bare mechanical art the degree of of reading facility with which a pupil can translatethe symbols of the simplest and commonest words of the mother Sense material tongue into the words themselves. discarded as tending to confuse the issue. If was
"

to

136

MENTAL

TESTS

One

Minute

Reading

Test

is
to

me
as

on

at

by
in

so

us

an am

it if

or

be
we

he
ox can

of

go
and

up

no

my
are

do she
see

the

for you
now

but
not

him
was saw

dog
mix
run

let
cat
man

out

try
met
van ran

boy pet bee lot lit

yet

bit

top bad
pen

get pin
rob sit
cut
cow

did had

red
nut

cup

big
new

old

gun
sly pay his kid

leg wig fed peg

pup

fun

lip
box six
say
eat

fog
sat
wet

has
end

mud
who tin
fox

ink

lad
any

dry
set
use

far ill
one

bud

ask sad
our

egg
tea
ten
arm

cab
sky

jam
fur

all pit
act toe

got
her

yes

rock
this

gone
part sand done

feel foot
time

that
made said much

rich upon then

till long
came

flat

mile into

back
were

wall
seem

walk
come

loss

went

with

READING
an

137

intelligent lad, for instance, starts reading a fairy tale which begins " Once upon a time," the recognition of the firstword brings inference into largely a matter play, and the rest of the phrase is But no such intelligent anticipation of memory. is possible in the test used ; each word, standing isolated in meaning, has to be read without any help It has to be read, not inferred. from the context. has been levelled at this type of Much scorn been denied that it is reading reading. It has even " at all,and has been contemptuously called barking But my investigation tends to show that at print." ing this mechanical response to the seen word, this barkat print call it what you will is not only the basis of all reading, good as well as bad, but is also a trustworthy criterion of the interest with which reading is followed as a pursuit. As a test common to children of different schools points of and different ages, it possesses many Familiarity with subject-matter, advantage. which be factor disturbing a must always variable and
" "

into material is used, does not enter where sense A the question ; there is no subject-matter.

peculiar

knowledge

of

uncommon

words

uncommon nothing : there are no words. young a child may be, however rudimentary his knowledge, ifhe can read at all, he can read some of the words in the first three lines; for all the
common

avails ever How-

two-letter words in the language are to be found there. And however proficient a child may be he will find the task of reading the whole of the 158 words in one minute quite as much as he
can

accomplish. But these a reasons 'priori

in favour of the

test

138

MENTAL
not
"

TESTS

do
test

dispense with the necessity of testing the of comparing, for instance, the resultsobtained

by using this test with those obtained by using sense " " unseen material, such as an passage in the ordinary school reader. Such a comparison I carefully made with ten boys of about eight years of age. The in each case the same the of scoring was mode of words correctly read in one number minute. The first point to be noted is that although 32 per more cent, tinuous words were read per minute in the conprose than in my test, the order of merit in both was, triflingexception, the same with one To test one kind of reading is virtually to cases. The second point to be noted is test the other. that the discrete material gives a higher degree of or reliability steadiness ; for when the children were put to read the same passages again after five minutes but 7 per cent, with the interval, they improved discrete words as compared with an improvement of 22 per cent, with the continuous prose. The was 7 per cent, improvement perhaps entirely due ment to a loss of nervousness ; but most of the improvedoubtless due to the in the other case was As a test, acquired familiarity with the meaning. therefore, the discrete words are better suited for
"

repeated use. In estimating the speed of reading, it is well to For be clear what are measuring. precisely we the there are four possibilities.We may measure normal or the maximal speed of either oral or silent reading. The speed measured in this test is the maximal for oral reading. The far is the be raised : how question may recorded speed a real index of the speed of reading

READING
as

139

distinct from speed of articulation? There is little doubt that adults can read silently very very much much faster than they can read aloud But faster than they can articulate the words. this is not true of a young child. I found by testing
"

of children of 7 years of age that they number could speak or recite at the rate of 170 words per minute while they read the test words at the rate Again, girlsof of 40 per minute. 9I years old who read 80 words per minute were able to recite 220 words per minute. The following norms were obtained by applying
a

the

test

to

the children of 49 schools

6 yrs. 7 yrs. 8 yrs. 9 yrs.
10

:
"

Age.

yrs.

14 yrs.

Boy's Score.

13

Girl's Score.

15

33 38

53 58

72 j6

85
88

115
122

10 at years stopped original experiment did I for not of age ; regard the test as suitable for older children, with whom the mastery of the mechanical factor may as a rule be taken for granted ; but as an afterthought I extended it so as to include children of 14. The results show a considerable flattening of the curve after 10. Among the 49 schools I included 10 which were reputed to be attended by the poorest children in London, and 9 situated in good residential The results show that both boys and girls areas. in good neighbourhoods are (10 about 6 months in advance of the average ; and in poor neighbourhoods marks) the boys are 3 months behind, and the Thus for the extreme types of girls 6 months. find a difference of 9 months home for boys we

The

140
and
12

MENTAL

TESTS

months for girls. A girl of 8 in Dulwich can read as well as a girl of 9 in Bermondsey. Through the courtesy of a friend, I was enabled 6 from in cashire. Lanto secure results elementary schools In general tendency they talliedwith the London 3 results; but the Lancashire boys were months ahead of London boys, and the girls4 months The 6 schools, however, included no poor ahead. to believe that the social schools,and there is reason

conditions were above the average. There is nothing to indicate whether the superiority of the children from good homes is due to heredity or environment to higher native ability better opportunities. Both probably conor to tribute.
"

The statistics obtained lend support to the popular belief that girls read better than boys. Generally But speaking, they are 5 marks or 3 months ahead. it is a curious fact that this difference does not There the boys obtain in slum neighbourhoods. read quite as well as the girls. This is not merely true of the ten schools taken in a lump ; but, with exception, of each of the 10 schools individually. Whatever the reason may be, whether it is due to fully employed the girls being more minding the doing domestic baby or there generally is a baby work, or whether this intrinsic sex difference does hold good generally, the fact itself seems to not admit of littledoubt. Occasionally a reader rushed through the test with little regard to accuracy, and thus made a in spite of many blunders ; whilst fairlyhigh score
one
"
"

more cautiously proceed another reader would lower score no a and secure although he made

READING
blunders
at

141

however, maintained all. The majority, an on a steady level of cautiousness ; and average made by children of all about three mistakes were that accuracy improved with ages. This means roughly proportional to speed ; for age, and was score to get three mistakes out of 88 words read (see for girls of 10)was nearly six times as creditable as to get three mistakes out of 15 words read (score for girlsof 6). The method of teaching reading in all the schools The alphaform of the phonic. some tested was betical method pure and simple may be said to be the children are obsolete in London, although of the letters generally taught the conventional names time as their phonic values or either at the same after the art of reading has been at least partly of reading into acquired. The look-and-say mode which all other forms ultimately merge, is to a greater or lesser degree incorporated in the other In fact, the system in vogue is mixed, systems. There with the phonic element predominating. however, various forms of the phonic method are, Perhaps some current, complex. simple and some the most systematic and complex of all is the Dale method ; and in 19 out of the 49 schools this method is followed. Do the scores at these 19 schools afford evidence of the superiority of this system ? How do they compare at the 30 nonwith the scores Dale schools ? Taken as a whole the Dale boys behind when they are under 7 years 1 month are in advance after 7 ; while of age, and 2 months the girls are 2 months behind when under 7, and 2 months ahead after 7. But 5 of the 19 Dale schools are included in the 9 schools above referred

142
to
as

MENTAL

TESTS

situated in the wealthier neighbourhoods. And if the influence of home and districtbe eliminated it is doubtful whether the Dale results are as It is certain that they are good as the non-Dale. better. Here is a system of high repute, regarded no indeed by some as the mark of up-to-dateness in infant teaching a system requiring special training on the part of the teacher, and involving the use of special apparatus and special books ; but judging from the results achieved, it is no better as a means
"

of teaching reading than the ordinary phonic system It is true that it has other merits. in common use. It includes other things besides reading proper, such as printing, drawing, and phonetic analysis things in themselves valuable ; but taken purely from the reading point of view, it fails to substantiate the high claim generally made on its behalf.
"

then is the salient characteristicof method in the schools where the test shows reading to be exceptionally good ? It is this. In the good schools reading is encouraged as a pursuit, and not merely taught in a series of lessons. The children read for the sake of the story, not for the sake of reading. It is a pleasurable occupation, and not a tiresome yet an phonetic drill, nor elocutionary display. Phonetic drill and elocution have their place in school routine, but the root of proficient reading grows in other soil. In the school where the reading is best of all, even children of six read small fairy tale books for pleasure. There is one arresting exception to the above generalisation. In a certain infants' school where no private reading takes place, but a large amount is taken on the blackboard, the of word-building

What

READING

143

but in the senior result reaches high-water mark ; sinks to the normal : the proficiency school the curve It will thus be seen is not maintained. that the same apparent results may be obtained in the earlier but while the momentum period by opposed methods ; is kept up by the one method, it is lost by the
it is a question of interest. other. As ever, It should be clearly understood that this test, ing, consisting as it does of words of no connected meanis intended to be used as a test only, and never
as even suggesting material for practice, nor the type of material for practice ; for I strongly hold the view that in selecting reading-books for is a consideration of supreme matter children, subject If the is interest to importance. subject of no the child, ifit would not grip his attention when read to him instead of by him, then we must regard it to be of the wrong sort ; unless, indeed, we the

as

reject

view that the main aim and purpose of the teacher of reading should be to hasten the coming of the the child will spontaneously take up time when book and read it for the sake of what it has to a is oral, it must be inferred not that practice should be entirely oral, or indeed mainly oral. For the out-of-school reading, for which the school reading is a preparation and a training, is almost entirely silent : it is reading as a device for getting ideas. And the training of any specific activity should always, as far as possible, take the form of that activity. It is not always possible. At the earliest stage of reading, for instance, drudgery in associating symbols with sounds much is necessary before the process is mechansufficiently the
test

tellhim. Although

144
ised for the
sense

MENTAL

TESTS

of what is read to stand out clearly Indeed, for some and predominantly in the mind. time, the child, unless he reads aloud unless there is somebody for whom he feelshe is doing something
"

this stage read at all. But the sooner is passed the better. Again, fluent reading, regarded merely from the mechanical point of view, is mainly a matter of practice, and the amount of practice given in school, reading especially where individual class reading in turns is adopted, is so small that many years pass before a fair degree of fluency is attained. The reasons are now clear why I regard this test as useful for the early stages of reading only. As
"

will

not

"

"

the child grows older the aspect of reading which becomes increasingly important is the extent to be employed a as thought-getting which it can device the accuracy and rapidity with which the child absorbs the meaning of what he reads privately. It has often been pointed out that to read thing ; to understand what is mechanically is one And read, another. although it will be granted that a child may do the former without the latter, do the latter it is equally certain that he can never
"

child can read about loo of the test words per minute, the be said to have mechanical art of reading cannot been completely the utilisation mastered ; and of the test is profitable as a means of measuring his fluency ; which is roughly a measure of the practice he has had ; which, again, is roughly a measure of the interest he takes in reading. Beyond
without the
a

former.

Until, indeed,

the mechanical that stage other tests overshadow be Reading, indeed, cannot in any sense one.

READING

145

means regarded as a simple process, nor can the same be adopted for measuring proficiency in the earlier and later stages of acquiring the art.

B.

"

As

Means

of

Acquiring

Ideas

At the age of nine most children have acquired fair degree of facility in the mechanical art of a reading is to them either reading. Henceforth
or a means elocutionary exercise (reading aloud), And of these of getting ideas (silent reading). is the latter. It is no important two the more exaggeration to say that in adult life ninety-nine books are read silently. The out of every hundred essential aim, therefore, in the teaching of reading,

an

should be to give the pupil the power to absorb If he is to gain from the printed page. meaning understand what either pleasure or profit he must he reads. And the measure of his progress in understanding is virtually the measure of his progress in reading. But how are we to measure ing understandIt is clear that the time-element What have to determine ignored. we
?
at
cannot

be
rate

is the

the meaning of a given which the pupil can master piece of prose or poetry. There are in use, in the United States, at least They eight different types of silent reading tests.

generally consist in allowing the pupil a fixed time to read a given passage, and then ascertaining how be reproduced. But can of the meaning much here we encounter the difficultythat makes composition How hard to assess. so can we weigh

ideas ? How we measure can Starch, in his silent reading

L

meaning ? Daniel tests, tries to get over

146
the

MENTAL

TESTS

difficulty by getting the pupil to write out of the passage read, and by what he remembers of words written which corcounting the number rectly This is equivalent express the thought. a to marking piece of composition by its length. Some of the other systems require a complicated be scored. key by which the reproductions may The be most to seems scheme, however, which widely used in America, is the Kansas Silent Reading Scale. It comprises a series of sixteen exercises which carry marks proportional to their difficulty. Exercise 6, for instance, which is valued at 2*3, " In going to school Jameshas to as follows : runs house, but does not pass Frank's. If pass John's Harry James,whose house goes to school with " Frank's ? The or will Harry pass, John's This in the blank at the end. examinee has to fill
. .

question

is typical of the

admittedly tests reasoning : The pupil's mind is required not merely to follow but to go beyond it ; the meaning of the sentence, and it is quite conceivable that a child may be able to follow a plain narrative with ease and rapidity, and yet be very slow at dealing with puzzles of the exercises differ the Kansas kind. In any case in toto from the kind of matter people generally read. The last book one thinks of reading is a book
of conundrums.
to the American peculiarity common than one series silent reading tests, is that more is used. There is generally one for the lower grades, for the higher for the middle grades, and one one grades. And although the several seriesare supposed

series a series which but does it test reading ?

"

Another

to

be

so

adjusted

in the

matter

that of difficulty,

READING
the
norms

14-

various school grades increase is in point of fact never regularly, the adjustment perfect. In the Kansas tests, for instance, the norms for Grade V and Grade VI are nearly the same. There is, further, the outstanding disadvantage to the Englishman, that the tests and results are arranged by grades and not by ages. The scale is
for the
never,

The
follows

except by precarious inference, an I have devised for my own test

:
"

age scale. is as use

Silent

Reading

Test

(3 Minutes)
fine morning in spring a robin flew down his thirst. Seeing to quench to the brink of a stream he began to talk to him. in the water a trout " I have often wondered," said he, " how you manage like to keep alive. If I tried to stay under water And even you I should be dead in a few minutes. supposing I could remain alive I should feel miserably cold in the chillywater without either fur or feathers. Please tell me why you are not drowned, and why " You should never you do not perish with cold." One

Quite ask two questions at once," said the trout. " right ! croaked an old crow who had heard their conversation and had alighted on the bank beside the robin. He was very old and very wise and very inquisitive. Some thought that it was because he inquisitive that he was was so wise, others thought from came that his wisdom age and experience. Certain it was that he was regarded as the most learned of all the birds of his time, and that he
used such long words that the littlebirds, beasts and fishes could rarely understand what he was

"

148

MENTAL

TESTS

to the robin's questions, talking about. To return " Why don't I get drowned ? the trout replied : Why, one does not drown in the water drowns : one " " Nonsense ! said the robin. But the in the air." looked so severely at him that he trembled, crow " As for and drooped his tail by way of apology.

feeling cold," continued the trout, " I don't know The what you mean." robin was about to say " " Liar ! he caught the crow's when eye and Then himself. having held up the crow, restrained his right foot to silenceand attention, delivered

himself thus : " It was held by Aristotle,and his theory, opinion is confirmed by modern scientific that there is no living creature that can exist in any and every environment : each requires surrounding bodily its to structure suitable and its bodily functions. To secure a supply of oxygen, perature which is necessary to maintain the purity and temof the blood, each animal is provided with organs which are adapted for extracting this element from the atmosphere, where it is present in great In land animals lungs serve that abundance. purpose ; in fishes,gills. Gills are so constructed solved that they can only take up the oxygen that is disIn the air the gills in water. adhere together and the poor fish dies of asphyxiation. Our friend in asserting therefore quite justified the trout was fishes. As for his drowns that the atmosphere avowed ignorance of the distinction between heat him of falsehood. must not rashly accuse and cold, we It is a well-known psychological fact that sensitivenessto heat and cold is dependent on certain specialised nerve endings in the skin." He paused here to see the effect of his oration on his audience.

enjoin

READING

149

While speaking he had been gradually closing his eyes in order to think better ; but at this point he opened them wide and found to his disgust that the had disappeared and that the robin was strugtrout gling a big fat worm with about twenty yards away.
A double sheet, with the story printed inside,is distributed, and the children told that they will be given three minutes to read it, and that they will
they can much afterwards be tested to see how On the word of command the children remember. must open the papers and read silently. At the end of three minutes the papers are collected and test to the following completion given out each child, with instructions to supply the missing words

except those marked

(x).
Test

Completion

(Unlimited Time)
in (1) a (2) flew down One fine morning to the brink of a ( 3 ) to quench his thirst. Seeing a " I ( 4 ) in the water he began to talk to him. " how you manage have often wondered," said he, like to (5) (6). If I tried to stay under water And even you I should be dead in a few minutes. supposing I could remain ( x ) I should feel miserably ( 7 ) in the ( x ) water without either ( 8 ) or ( 9 ). Please tell me why you are not ( 10 ),and why you do not perish with (x)." "You should never

Quite said the ( x ). " old ( 13 ) who had heard their conversation and had alighted on the bank beside the (x). He wg" very ( 14) and very ( 15 ) and

( 11 ) questions (12) an right !

ask

"

at once,"

150
very
was

MENTAL

TESTS
that it
was

his it was

( 16.) Some ( x ) that he (17) came

thought
was
so

because he

all the

( x ) ; others thought that from (18) and (19). Certain that he was ( 20 ) of regarded as the most birds of his time, and that he used such ( 21 )

that the littlebirds, beasts and fishes could To talking about. understand what he was to return the ( x ) questions, the ( x ) replied : " Why don't I get drowned ? Why, one does not drowns in the ( 25 )." in the ( 24 ) : one drown "(26)" said the (x). But the (x) looked so ( 27 ) at him that he ( 28 ),and drooped his tail by " As for feeling ( x )," continued the way of ( 29 ).

( 22 ) ( 23 )

( x ),"I
was

(x

what you mean." " ( 30 )," when he about to say ) eye and ( 31 ) himself. Then the

don't know

The

(x )

caught the ( x ),having

held up his right foot to ( 32 ) and ( 33 ), enjoin " It was held by ( 34 ), delivered himself thus : theory, and his opinion is (35) by (36) scientific that can that there is no living creature exist in
any and every ( 37) : each requires (38) suitable to its bodily ( 39 ) and its bodily ( 40 ). To secure a supply of ( 41 ), which is necessary to maintain the

and ( 43 ) of the ( 44 ), each animal is provided with ( 45 ) which are adapted for extracting this ( 46 ) from the ( 47 ), where it is present in that purgreat ( 48 ). In land animals (49) serve pose so ; in fishes, ( 50 ). ( x ) are constructed

( 42 )

that they can only take up the ( x) that is ( 51 ) in In the air the ( water. x) adhere together and the was poor fish dies of ( 52 ). Our friend the trout therefore quite ( 53 )in asserting that the atmosphere tinctio (54) fishes. As for his avowed (55) of the dis-

between

(56)

and

(57),we

must

not

READING

151

him of ( 58 ). It is a well-known ( 59 ) rashly accuse fact that ( 60 ) to ( x ) and ( x ) is dependent on certain ( 61 ) nerve endings in the skin." He paused here to see the ( 62 ) of his ( 63 ) on his ( 64 ). While speaking he had been gradually closing his eyes in order to think better ; but at this point he opened them wide and found to his ( 65 ) that the ( x ) had struggling with a big fat worm away. about The most convenient way to administer the completion distribute strips of paper upon test, is to If the which the missing words are to be written. lines on the paper are numbered from 1 to 67 it will One mark is awarded for each facilitatemarking. As it is a test of substance word correctly given.

(66)

and

that the

( x ) was (6j) yards

synonymous and not rote memory, words however, General terms, are must not accepted. be regarded as substitutes for particular terms. The following synonyms missible and variations are per: 3, brook, river ; 5, remain ; 5 and 6, exist; 8 and 9, in either order; 12, said; 14, 15 and 16, in any order; 18 and 19 in either order; 21, big; 23, hardly, scarcely; 25, atmosphere; 27,

memory,

sharply, crossly; 31 checked, stopped; 35, upheld; 38, conditions ; 39 and 40, in either order ; 42 and 43, in either order ; 43, heat ; 46, oxygen ; 47, air ; 48, quantities ; 52, asphyxia, suffocation ; 53, right, correct ; 56 and 57, in either order ; 58, 61, special,particular; 63, speech, lying, untruth; words ; 64, listeners,hearers ; 66, gone, vanished. be given. In every other case the exact word must This test has the merit of being simple and workable, being from the ages of applicable to allreaders in the of nine to ninety, and of being objective

152
sense

MENTAL
that
two

TESTS

independent examiners will, if they follow the instructions, inevitably give the same The examiner may, mark for the same achievement. if he wishes, examine himself. It will be seen that the narrative is easy to begin with, and gradually increases in difficulty,so that the dullest reader some, and the brightest will be able to remember failto remember all. I have tried as far as possible to select, as missing words, those which indicate that the meaning of the text has been understood, and yet are not such as an intelligentpupil would The first blank, for instance, infer from the context. be filledby reasoning, for there are many cannot " Summer," possibilities. The missing word may be

And or month. any other season the second word may be any one of the numerous species of birds or insects. In fact, the missing words are not inevitable words : they really test whether the pupil has read the piece, has understood it. it, and has remembered from To inferring the prevent the examinee
or

"

April,"

or

missing words at the beginning of the piece from I have omitted the words what is said later on, that afford a ground for retrospective inference and substituted ( x ). If,for instance, I had printed " " instead of ( x ) in the twelfth line,a shrewd trout know that the fourth missing lad would at once " In order to ascertain experitrout." word was mentally,
inference could supply what extent the place of direct knowledge acquired from actually reading the piece, I submitted the second paper to a of intelligent children who had not number than three read the first. In no instance were more
to

words guessed correctly.

READING

153

By applying the test to about 5000 children from nine to fifteenyears of age, I arrived at the following
norms
:
"

Age.

9 yrs.

10

yrs.
10

yrs.

12

yrs.

13 yrs.

14 yrs.
21

Score.

14

17

19

the courtesy of Miss Lloyd Evans, the Training College, I Principal of the Furzedown was able to test the students in training. They of 41. made an average score The mean variations for the various ages from were 5*3, 6"l, successively 3*5,' nine to fourteen 6, 6-i, 6-3. 6. For the training college students it was It has been urged in criticism of the test that it but memory. My measures not understanding both ; and in measuring reply is that it measures

Through

both it measures the actual intellectual gain got factors are from the exercise. Indeed, the two both inseparable and indispensable. If a reader forgets the meaning of the earliersentences he cannot of the later sentences. possibly grasp the meaning Any word he reads may turn to be key-word out on which the significanceof allthat follows depends ; and if the key-word, or at least its meaning, be forgotten, his reading becomes vain. Sometimes late and modifies the sense comes the key-word of all that precedes it ; and if what precedes is forgotten, the point and significanceof the whole piece is missed. Browning affords many instances key to " My Last Duchess," of this kind. The for example, is to be found a few lines from the The hint that the Duke end. contemplates a second marriage illuminesallthat he has previously

154

MENTAL

TESTS

said, giving it point and purpose, and turning the into an intelligible whole. poem Again, if the reader will refer to my absurdity test on p. 38, he will see that the absurdities all in the latter half, and their detection depends occur
of what is said in the first is absurd in itself half. Not a single sentence : it is only absurd when brought into relation with the rest ; and if the incompatibility is to be seen,
on an

exact

remembrance

the rest must Admitting, understand

be remembered. however, that

the piece without it, is it not possible to remember remembering it ? It is possible, but without understanding highly improbable

it is impossible to also to a large extent it

so

that the possibilityneed not be It is only necessary to imagine seriouslyconsidered. a similar test given in Latin to an intelligent lad who knows no Latin, but can only read the words

the futility of be of much to verbal memory supposing a mere service in a three minutes' test of this kind. For all practical purposes, if the subject understands the narrative, he will be able to supply the missing the missing words ; and, conversely, if he remembers stood words, it will be due to the fact that he has underthe narrative.
as

though

they

were

English,

to

see

CHAPTER
SPELLING

IX

The
by The
means

usual mode of an

"

of testing spelling in school is " unseen piece of dictation.

this procedure is that the standardised : its difficulty is piece given is not And passages of prose vary so enormously unknown. in difficulty that to lay down any general of mistakes per line rule regarding the number that might reasonably be allowed at different ages is clearly impossible. Opinions differ respecting the range of words which a child should be expected to spell. Some be required to spell think that he should never
main
to objection

words outside his own vocabulary, and that his written composition should be the only basis on which his ability to spell should be estimated. To this view it may be that a child's vocabulary
growing thing, and it would be well to anticipate a littleand to teach him to spell words in the near to use which he will probably want future. Moreover, it is sometimes necessary to is
a

objected

the write from dictation, or to record in notes sayings of others ; and if the writer's own vocabulary is very limited, or restricted to certain favourite words

(asin

fact

most

people's vocabulary
*53

is), the

range of his spelling vocabulary should be extended

156
so as

MENTAL
to

TESTS

include the words that are in most common Thus have two we use. overlapping groups of those words whose spelling should be known : first, which constitute the pupil's speaking and writing frequently used vocabulary ; secondly, those most by the nation as a whole. But which are the words frequently used ? And how most many of them
are
we

include ? In America these questions have been answered by Dr. L. P. Ayres, who has compiled a listof the thousand commonest words in the English language, or rather the American variety of the English language. The method to examine was employed written material of various types, such as letters, newspapers, and children's compositions, and to make a list of the words used and the number of Ayres combined times each word the occurred. resultsof four such studies,which comprised 368,000 words written by 2500 different persons. Some It was stance interesting facts emerged. found, for inquently that fifty of the words were used so frethat they made up about half of the In order to secure a thousand material examined. necessary to include words which only words it was every 8000 words. occurred once By testing a large number of children with this listAyres was able to divide the words into twentyafter the letters of the alphabet. six groups, named The siderabl words in each group (thegroups vary conin culty. are supposed to be of equal diffisize) The following list comprises the words in The N. Group percentages of these words that should, according to Ayres, be spelt correctly in
to

the grades from

III

to

VIII

are

58, 79,

88, 94,

SPELLING
98 and
100

157

respectively. Translated into English it means terminology roughly that Standard II children should be able to spell 58 per cent, of the words, Standard III 79 per cent., and so forth. Ayres'

Spelling
aunt,

Test

capture, wrote, else, bridge, offer,suffer,built, centre, front, rule, carry, chain, death, learn, wonder, tire, pair, check, prove,
"

Group N.

Except,

heard,

inspect, itself, always, something, write, fair, dollar, young, expect, need, thus, woman, broke, least, sorry, press, feel, sure, evening, plan, April, history, God, teacher, November,
cause,
nor,

study, himself,
mean, January,

subject,
use,

yesterday, among, dozen, December, fifth. reason, The most useful list for English schools is Mr. Burt's, which I append
"

thought, person, vote, court, copy, act, been, question, doctor, hear, size, October, there, tax, number,
matter,

Burt's
Age.

Graded

Spelling Test

5."
6.
"

7.
"

8.
"

if box on the and up bad but run men will pin cap got to-day this. fill black only coming table even sorry done lesson smoke. bright ticket speak money sugar number doctor yellow sometimes already.
a

it

cat

to

9." rough

raise scrape manner publish feel answer several towel.

touch

i58
10.
"

MENTAL
surface

TESTS
whistle succeed
rogue
razor

saucer pleasant improvement vegetable

ning begin-

ii.

"

decide

accident. business

carriage

receive

12.

"

usually pigeon practical knuckle. disease distinguish experience illegal responsible agriculture

quantity sympathy intelligent

13.
"

artificial peculiar. leopard luxurious conceited disappoint occasion necessary descendant precipice. virtuous
memoranda glazier

barbarian ous treacher-

14.
"

circuit

cision de-

mosquito promiscuous tyrannous. embarrassing Note.

"
"

assassinate

words assigned to any given age are those answered correctly by 40 to 60 per cent, of the age-group specified. Thus, approximately, 50 per ' ' cent, aged 10 last birthday can spell surface ' accident.' Therefore, to attain a mental age of ioi a child should spell fifty-five words, *". e. all to ' ' the equivalent). vegetable inclusive (or " It is not necessary that all the children should be given all the words : twenty or thirty from the
.

The

appropriate consecutive ages are usually sufficient. The mental ages assigned to the earlier words are somewhat arbitrary owing to wide differences in infants' schools." A protest should be made against the frequency with which unseen pieces of dictation are given in the higher standards of English elementary schools. Sometimes two lessons per week are devoted to it in the top class. The defence generally made is

SPELLING
that

159

in spelling ; to backward the children are which it may be replied that dictation is primarily a means a test, of measurement, and not a means, At any rate except indirectly, of teaching spelling. When it is not the most a economical means. child suffers from malnutrition we him by weighing him twice

do
a

not

try

to

fatten

week.

CHAPTER
ARITHMETIC

(a)The

Fundamental

Processes

Several attempts have been made in America to The most standardise tests in Arithmetic. widely Tests, Courtis used, the share with all the rest the defect of insularity : they constitute a grade-scale units are and not an age-scale, and the monetary dollars and cents and not pounds, shillings and pence. Little has been done to establish norms suitable for England. In 191 3 and 1914 I carried out an extensive research into the abilityof London children to processes of perform the simple fundamental adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing. The
published in the Journalof Experimental Pedagogy for December 1914 and March repeated 1915. The tests were and the standards broadly confirmed by Mr. P. L. results of this research
were

The copy Gray, H.M.I., in the schools of Leeds. (June191 5) which contained Mr. of the Journal Gray's account of his experiment also contained a criticism of my tests by the editor, Professor J.A. At the meeting of the British Association Green. at Newcastle in 191 6 the Report of the Committee on the Mental and Physical Factors involved in metic Education dealt with Norms in Mechanical Arithaccount of investigations in and gave an
160

ARITHMETIC

161

London and Sheffield on similar lines to my own. The devised by Mr. Cyril tests used (theywere Burt)were better than mine. Mine suffered from the defect of being too brief. Five minutes were allowed for working twenty-four sums, and in nearly of the older children finished every school tested some If the paper had the paper before the time was up. been longer their score would have been higher. In the autumn of 191 9 I revised my original tests and administered them to a large number of London children. They differ in important respects from They are both simpler and more the 1914 tests. time searching. The allowed is three minutes instead of five,and none of the children tested were A able to complete the papers within the time. yearly age-scale is substituted for a half-yearly been have so age-scale. Finally, the numbers the greatest variety compatible selected as to secure of approximately with leaving all the sums equal difficulty. If a multiplication table be constructed up to 9 times 9, and a similar table for each of the other processes, every item in those tables will be found represented somewhere in the examples half and once in the first set ; generally twice, once in the second.

Addition

Three Minutes

1 62

MENTAL

TESTS

Subtraction: Three Minutes

69152
48729

80031

68703

63175

37956

54218 49221

17690 7948

91435 23256

62098

34089

761 12 57346

164

MENTAL

TESTS

308465 2938

328547

541783

736582

612549
7465

598162

561923

726493

598263 9

793428

439716

625097
3

180493

641857 5

834729
4

582736 7

Division

Three

Mitiutes

4/26930

7/66759

5/48l75

6/44957

2/365H

9/53412

3/28103

8/58849

4/57792

7/r3"26

5/82947

6/33802

2/12978

9/16743

3/24861 6/52298

8/85390

7/59304

1 59 4/21

5/63772

ARITHMETIC

165

9/24419

2/18758
7/89292

8/39857

3/55378
4/78295

5/19238

9/34263

The examples were graphed or cyclostyled and distributed face downwards, one process at a time. Three minutes were allowed for working, and one mark
correct.

allowed

for

each

sum

that

was

absolutely
"

The

following Lb
Number
Age.

norms

were

arrived

at

of

Sums

right in Three Minutes

10

9yrs.
...

yrs. nyrs.

12

yrs. 13 yrs. i4yrs.

Addition Subtraction

3
.
.

3i
3

Multiplication

1^
. .

4i \\
4

Division

2f

5i 5I 5i

6J

6f 6J

7I
7

the papers in another way mark and instead of counting the number of sums right count the number of operations right, we shall get If
we

examples partly correct By operations I mean score marks. would cesses proof the kind tested. For instance, in the first addition example there are ten addition operations, five subtraction in the first subtraction example division the are numbers corresponding six and four. The in operations per advantage of giving the norms minute, as in the following table, is that in applying a rough test any examples may be set by the teacher, provided he makes a littleallowance for the size of
operations. multiplication and

more

exact

score,

for

For

1 66

MENTAL
sums,

TESTS

the

and the time taken in writing the figures to another. and in passing from one sum
Number
Age.

oj Operations per
9yrs. ioyrs.
nyrs.
20

Minute
12

yrs.

I3yrs,

i4yrs.

Addition

...

12
..

Subtraction

Multiplication. Division
...

4 4
2

16 6

24
10 12

27
12

30 13

8
10

14 9

16
10

reduced thus to operations per minute the results of my 191 9 investigation confirm the results I obtained in 191 4. ment Comments on the Addition Test. The improvefacile with age is only partly due to a more method : it is mainly due application of the same
"

When

to

change of method, to a gradual supersession of habits of a lower order by habits of a higher order. The lowest habit of all is that of adding by units ; the highest, that of adding en bloc. For example, in adding the series8 + 5 + 9 + 2 + 7+1 the pupil working by the former method would start 8 + I + by the 1 + 1 + I, etc., while the pupil working 1 + latterwould say 8 + 5 as a mere matter of rote =13 Between extremes these two there are memory. various intermediary stages. Some, for instance, decompose tens. the addends in order to form Thus 8 + 5 8 + 2+3 10 + 3 13. Adding the
a
= =

next

item, 13 + 9= 13 + 7 + 2 20 + 2 22, etc. Some other devices used to avoid counting by units are the decomposition of the also based upon be added without addends into groups that can further reduction. Then there is the method of far it falls arriving at the result by noting how
=
=

ARITHMETIC
short of a readily ascertained 1 ; and 8 + 7 13 + 9=13 + 10 there is the method advocated
"

167
For instance, 8+ 8 Lastly, 1. in some schools of for numbers which
sum.
=
"

searching along the column Thus in the series given above the 8 form tens. and the 2 would be coupled, and also the 9 and the

This is a useful device when the paired numbers come together ; but to link them when widely separated is to increase unnecessarily the mental strain, and to run the risk of omitting or duplicating
I.
some

that the is that of adding the items most method efficient as they come seriatim and memoriter and by the be addition table. Advantage should, of course,
"

of the addends. There can be little doubt

therefore

taken of any obvious ten-group that would appear, but there should be no hunting for it. It has been 1 10" that to add 4 + 9 as 4+ maintained by some " " intelligent is more than to say straight off 13. But why should it be so ? There is 4 + 9 an assumption that 4 + 10 is known, while 4 + 9 is Logically the proposition 4 + 9 not. 13 rests on
= =

the number units is,in

"

3, 4, etc., and counting by " intelligent" a sense, the one and only the one that lays bare method and only method the ultimate ground of the proposition. But it is that the rationale of adding is clearly assumed understood by the pupils ; and the question under discussion is not the most explicitly logical but the As a step most of adding. expeditious mode
system,
1, 2,

towards 4 + 10

memorising 4 + 9 13, the operation be permitted ; but the process is I may not complete from the point of view of practical 13. efficiencytill it is short-circuited into 4 + 9
=
"

68

MENTAL
to

TESTS be thus memorised 13 be learnt,the sums

is
not

The

of items number great. For if 4 + 9

=

of all

such combinations as 14 and 9, 29 and 4, etc., are easily inferred therefrom. The time taken to work the addition paper gives I have applied the test a clue to the method used. few children without imposing a time limit. to a The in their papers as soon as children handed

finished, and the time taken was recorded Later on each child was thereon. privately asked to work through one orally, in order of the sums be ascertained. that the method might adopted The results confirmed the view that both speed they
were

and accuracy depend upon the grade of habit upon which the process of adding is based. The danger of forming bad habits of computation is far greater in addition than in multiplication. In working the latter there is littletemptation to The fail to perceive count. veriest tyro cannot labour-saving advantage of rememthe enormous bering 6 8 X the counting of six that 48 over 14 eights ; but the advantage of memorising 6 + 8 be is not so the result can readily obvious when by drumming a mechanical with the arrived at fingers. It is indeed a notorious fact that a certain on the fingers percentage of educated adults count when nobody is watching them. Comments on most the Subtraction Test. The
=
=
""
"

subtraction results is the tical evidence afforded of the superiority from a pracof equal addition point of view of the method In my account over the method of decomposition. of the 1 91 4 investigation I gave abundant evidence to this effect,evidence which is further strengthened
salient feature
of

the

ARITHMETIC

169

investigation. When by 1117 recent the subtraction in any school markedly below the scores was score for the other three processes 1 guessed that the method of decomposition was taught at that school ; take as an and my guess was always right. Let me of the best schools tested. Situated example one in a very good residential district,it is attended The girls' by children of exceptional advantages.

school is noted for the general thoroughness of the Now work. observe the difference in the results obtained in the two departments both at the lowest age and the highest age tested.
+
-

-=-

9^rs-\Girls

7-3 6"8

3-8

"3
7"8

47
7'2 io-3

i4.vniB"ys '\Girls
* 7

io-2

7*6 87

li"4

examination of these figures will show that tion the girls' school, where the method of decomposiis adopted, is,in spite of the excellent teaching labouring under a heavy disadvantage as compared with the boys' school, where the method of equal The figures also illustratethe additions is taught. fact that although the advantage of one system over the other tends to diminish with the age of lost not the children, the advantage is never at any rate during the elementary school period. But the disparity in the practical efficacy of the two is really greater than would methods appear from the for having ; the examples set above account few or no noughts in the minuends failed to bring position out the more glaring disadvantages of the decomWhen, however, such an example method.
"

An

jo 40,000
more
"

MENTAL

TESTS

as

is

197 is set, the ineptitude of the method strikingly revealed. Even in the highest

classes of the decomposition schools the time taken is excessive, and the degree to work such an example And yet it is examples of accuracy abnormally low. the minuend is a round number) of this type (where frequent occurrence in everyday that are of most life. This is obviously so in the case of money. We want change from a five-pound note, a sovereign,
a

shilling, and not from such a collection of coins as is represented in ^4 13J. J%d. tion for the inferiority of the decomposiThe reason far to seek. In the equal is not method is made the compensation method addition are at accounts the very first number squared

half-sovereign,or

"

"

has been disturbed. dealt with after the minuend In subtracting 37 from 85, after taking 7 from 15 the disturbed relationship of difference between restored minuend and subtrahend is immediately In the method by increasing the 3 tens to 4 tens. of decomposition, however, it is the 8, the second figure dealt with, that has to be changed to restore figure is zero the the balance. If the minuend longer deferred. In a is still balancing of accounts phrase, the main secret of the difference liesin the dispatch with which accounts are settled. One is " " the other the credit." And cash payment," act increases the of the compensating postponement But this chances of its fulfilment being forgotten. is not the only point of difference between the two methods, for there is a further disparity in the area When the figure in the minuend of disturbance.
than the corresponding represents a smaller number figure in the subtrahend it is necessary to disturb

ARITHMETIC
the

171

both or (method of decomposition) minuend minuend and subtrahend (methodof equal addition). it is never In the latter case necessary to disturb figures; in the former it is always more than two ; necessary to disturb two, and sometimes many more and for a young child to bear the many changes in mind is no easy task. The disadvantage of the decomposition method is limited to pure subtraction sums : it not of course vitiates all exercises into which subtraction enters. Long division,for instance, is,as I have abundantly in decomposition tested, performed schools with difficulty and with dubious accuracy. And yet the decomposition method is apparently taught in about two-thirds of the London schools. What is the reason for its popularity ? It is not learnt in our we the method youth ; it does not to be the method seem adopted by the adult, even The he has learnt that method at school. when is to be found in its greater intelligibility. reason It is easier for a child to understand the decomposition
than to grasp and apply the of numbers principle that the difference between two numbers be added if the same remains unchanged number both. It is therefore the favourite method in to the infant school, and the senior school follows the lead.
its granted its greater intelligibility, The younger is not encouraging. practicalefficiency is he shackled by the inferior the child the more Unless, indeed, we assume that some of method. the older children in the decomposition schools discover in some indirect way the equal addition It is not often method and use it in preference. finds a class of older children all of whom that one

But

172

MENTAL

TESTS

Do we not method. practise the decomposition in any case pay too great a price for a doubtful boon ? If at first the child sees the rationale of the process of decomposing the minuend, he soon " it automatically. The gence intelligets to perform " supposed to be concerned is a temporary illumination only. Indeed for pure practical efficacy it is better that the rationale should not, at the actual time of working, be thought of at all. The pupil should confine his efforts to a rigid application of the rule. I have frequently observed that when teachers in training are asked to work a quently and explain the steps, they fresubtraction sum but the wrong answer. give the right reason It may be pointed out that an intelligent application
arithmetic rule does not necessarily knowledge mean a of the underlying prinscientific ciples. A child may learn to walk and to put the power to intelligent uses without knowing anything by which walking is achieved. about the mechanism So may he learn to work subtraction by rule of thumb, and be able to apply it quite intelligently
of
an

the practical purposes of life. He may later on study the physiology of walking, or the logical basis to think reason of the rule ; but there is no more better in the latter case than that he will compute there is for thinking that he will walk better in the This is not former. a plea for the mechanical teaching of subtraction ; but it is a plea for regarding subtraction as primarily an instrument to be placed in the hands of the young pupil for the purpose of solving certain problems of actual life. If he can for the steps taken, well and understand, the reasons If not, he should for the present use it good.
to

ARITHMETIC
without understanding contended that during
it.

173

Indeed I have long the last year or so of an elementary pupil's schooling he should be taught the underlying principles of all the rules he has be made learnt. Attempts to should, of course, at the time of learning ; render the rules intelligible if but the teacher should be in the main content A cases. the pupil can use these rules in concrete " long division," for instance, criticalexamination of is a valuable exercise for a lad of 13 far more valuable than the senseless manipulation of symbols which often passes for algebra. The mathematics
"

for the last year of the school life of an elementary pupil should include the assimilation of all the undigested material in the whole arithmetic course, is, as it should be, regarded as a if that course

systematic study of the principles of numbers. It has frequently been asserted that there is a third method the method of teaching subtraction of complementary addition. But this is not, like the two just dealt with, a device for methods " borrowing " : it is an meeting the difficulty of alternative way of looking at the process of subtraction
"

itself. 16"7 may mean either : (a) what is left when 7 is taken away from 16? or (b)what be added to 7 to make 16 ? If the latter view must be adopted then subtraction is regarded as complementar

addition
a

"

as

solution of the equation

be remarked about this form of subtraction that it is not taught as a general process in any It to of our my knowledge. schools, at least not is true that complementary addition sometimes Thus form. 43 appears in a hybrid 26 is some"

-+It may

"

b.

i74
times

MENTAL

TESTS

in this way : 6 from leaves 4, 10 worked But such roundabout methods, 4 and 3 are 7, etc. in which two is steps are taken where only one necessary, are not to be commended. Complementary addition pure and simple, combined " " borrowing device, with equal addition as a is advocated at some of the Universities,especially work in logarithms has to be done. where much known Instances are where greater speed and a the change from accuracy have resulted from

subtractive to the additive attitude. The additive view is strongly urged by the few head teachers who have tried it. They think that the subtraction method should be discovered by the child : the steps being indicated by the following

examples
Step I.

"

4x1

Step II.

xc^Vadd. 86

xx\ 4 7/add.
H3

Step III. r43

4 add. 7]

159

xx]

" or compensating carrying step is naturally explanation than adopted, with no need for more " " in simple addition. the carrying It is not for me to judge this method on a priori obvious grounds, but its advantages are sufficiently

The

"

billin its favour and give it at least an experimental chance. On the Importance of Tables. It has already been that the facility in working addition and shown subtraction mainly depends upon a ready knowledge
for
us

to

declare

true

"

of the addition table.

ARITHMETIC

175
"

The
1+1= 2+1=
3+ 4+ 5+
1= 1= 1= 2

complete
3 4 5 6

table may

be written in this form

2+2=

6+1= 7+1= 8+1=

9+
1
=

3 + 2= 4+2= 5+2= 7 6 + 2= 8 7+2= 9 8-t 2=10

10

4. 5 3+3= 6 4+3=

7 5+3= 8 6+4=
9 7+3
=

7 4+4= 8 5+4= 9 6+4=10

1" 11
=

8 9 5+5=io 6 + 5=11

8+3

7+4=ii 8+4=12 9+4=13

7+5 8+5=13
=

12

6+6=12 7+6=13 8+6=14 9+6=15

7+7=14
8 + 7=15 9 + 7=i6

8+8=16 9+8
=

9+2=11

9 + 3=12

9+5=14

17

9+9

18

It will thus be seen that there are 45 results to be 45 habits to be fixed it being undermemorised stood that each of the above items represents four ised should also be memorprocesses. Thus 8 + 4=12 8 12 as 4 and 12 4=8; 4+8=12, independent as not processes, but as of course formula 8 + 4= 12. necessarily implied in the one The same remarks apply to the multiplication table, except that there are only 36 items to be learnt. There are some educationists who contend that In so saying the tables should not be memorised. they do not mean that they should not ultimately be memorised ; but rather that no conscious effort The results to them. memorise should be made should be arrived at either
"
" "

"

"

(a)By (b)By

building them referring

to
a

up afresh each table book.

time,

or

If they are continually being built up afresh, any intellectual value such a process may originally disappears. It sinks to the level of possess soon And if this method the merest mechanical work. ally is to be applied to the multiplication table, logicit should be applied to the addition table as by units should always be well, and counting encouraged. If, on the other hand, it is merelv meant that the

176

MENTAL

TESTS

resultsshould be calculated ab initioeach time until they are fixed in the memory, experience shows that habit of doing so tends to form a stronger the mere tendency to start the process than to recall the on result. Older children, for instance, who count by their fingers delay indefinitely the counting groups. No effort is made to memorise the results,

Indeed and in consequence they elude the memory. a far shorter way of reaching the goal is afforded by the second alternative, that of using a tablebook that the construction assuming, of course, Whenever, for instance of the tables is understood. the product of 7 and 8 is needed the table Here the mind attends exclusively to is looked at.
"

the result, 56, and is not absorbed in attending to the process. Mr. Winch has experimental evidence to show that if a large number of examples involving the use of a specific table are worked rapidly by the pupils who have this table in front of them, it is better than if a conscious effort actually memorised is made to memorise it without working examples.1 It seems is clear that progress in mathematics made possible by assuming the results of previous processes and using these results as stepping-stones higher results. to still On the Best Method Memorising the Tables. of The addition table has generally been left to look but the multiplication table has always after itself, of attention. In bygone received a certain amount by frequent days it was systematically memorised
"

at present the simultaneous repetition ; and even chanting of the tables, although lesswidely adopted,
1

See also Kirkpatrick : J. E due. Psychol,

"

Memorising

versus

ing," Incidental Learn-

of

v.

7, 405-412.

ARITHMETIC

177

But is almost the only means that is employed. this chanting of the tables is open to several

objections.

Memorising of allkinds depends upon the fixation ; and the limits of the series should of a habit-series be clearly defined. Each formula, such as 4 x 7 it 28, constitutes a self-contained system, and to be completely as usable should be so memorised without reference to preceding formulae. In other words no unnecessary associations should be set up. To associate by rote memory 4x5 with 4x6, and is if a an not superfluous, 4x6 with 4 x 7, etc., Chanting bit of mental mechanisation. injurious, tends to establish these useless associations. is Another taneous objection that the speed of this simulrepetition is far too slow for the economic The fixation of habit. upon effect of speed mechanisation, although not generally recognised, is considerable. If, for instance, a passage of so to as render its poetry has to be memorised repetition automatic, the repetition of the lines at case maximum speed has been found, in my own least, to diminish the number at of repetitions It has to do with probably something necessary. the span of attention. A third to the simultaneous chanting of objection tables is based upon the liability of the attention to wander during the repetition. Attentive repetition is far more than the inattentive kind. efficacious Finally, there is the that may be urged objection against all kinds of simultaneous classwork ; that is, that it makes no allowance for individual differences in the mode and rate of learning. There are experimental grounds for believing
=

178

MENTAL

TESTS
"

"

a method that the method of individual muttering " " to get on the nerves which unfortunately seems teachers is considerably more of some efficacious than the method of concerted repetition. There are two methods of memorising the tables to think would which I have reason prove effective are not methods exclusive but supplewhich mentary. Both might be tried. (1)Take, say, two items per diem in the addition 10 ; and two table, such as 7 + 8 15 and 4 + 6
"

multiplication table, such as 7x8=56 24. If this be systematicand 4x6= ally done, and past work frequently revised, the If whole will be learnt in less than five weeks. of each be taken per day the whole can only one be mastered in less than three months. (2)Learn by applying. Put, for example, the 7 times table before the boys and let them work involving of sums very rapidly a large number multiplication by 7. Of the two methods this is probably the better. On the Importance of Practice, and the Claim of the Individual. That the principles of number per
"

diem

in

the

should be intelligentlytaught ; that they should be recognised by the pupil as rooted in the experiences of everyday life; that they should be learnt and quently applied with understanding ; that they should frebe presented in novel combinations these divergence no are matters upon which there is now But when we of opinion. ask the questions : Should every exercise be given in concrete form ? Should dominate the problem the arithmetic lesson ? we get a variety of answers. believe there are There are more many who
" "

ARITHMETIC
"

179

practice in the who wish, to believe that sufficient is gained by working of computation mechanism problems and problems only. But whatever opinion if one may have held ten years ago on this matter, development has followed the recent one of mathematics in the elementary schools one help cannot being forced to the conclusion that such practice is forms, insufficient. Ciphering, in its rudimentary is so useful an art that proficiency therein is justly regarded
of the essential aims school, and to discover the most
as one

elementary economical means of achieving that aim, without doing violence be to the pupils' instincts and interests, will ever one of the central and vital problems of teaching. It is not fair to argue that since the excessive and exclusive grind at mechanical arithmetic which by results was characterised the period of payment distasteful to the pupils, mechanical arithmetic is in itself distasteful. Indeed, many children share little the opinion of the girl of my acquaintance likes but does not like sums who says that she sums about John. A noticeable feature of the present arithmetic is the absence course or at least the infrequence having of the pure practice or drill lesson. From down all the lessons practice lessons we have come The custom to none. of wrapping up numbers in inveterate that so abundant verbiage has become the mere sight of a naked number gives some of us a sort of shock. Some time ago I was reproached by a teacher for asking a little girl in an infant school to add 2 and 3. All departure from the has come We to be regarded as wicked. concrete have in consequence an ounce of arithmetic to a
"

of

an

"

"

180

MENTAL

TESTS

pound

I have seen a teacher spend of padding. ten over this little question in mental minutes " If 80 birds sat on tree, a arithmetic : and 30

of them flew away, how many would be left sitting " Laboriously she wrote it on on the tree ? the board, and persistently she checked all attempts at answering until she had explained the situation to the point of boredom. Another factor unfavourable to progress is the

non-recognition of the essential heterogeneity of any collection of children, however carefully chosen. Any seeming homogeneity in a class is both superficial However the units much and temporary. may resemble one ments another in their present attaindiffer in they will their capacity enormously for work, and consequently in their rate of improvement. If they appear like one another to-day, they

though Alwill appear unlike one another to-morrow. this fact has been clearly demonstrated by others,1 I have taken steps to verify it for myself. Three classesin a girls'school were allowed to work
the exercises in their arithmetic text-books at their own pace for half-an-hour per day. The as follows results were through
"

Number

in Class Approximate age of Children Number of half-hour Lessons Average total number of sums
.....

worked

correctly Highest Score

.....

.....

Lowest

Mean
1

Score Variation

.....

.....

See, for instance, Search's Ideal School,pp. 29 and 33.

ARITHMETIC

181

It would be difficult to find a school more carefully a school where the children in a organised level and yet the varianearer the same bility classwere in their rates of working is seen to be enormous. In the highest class the best girl was able to work more than 21 times as fast as the worst ; and although this amount of disparity is exceptional, rarely will it be found that the fastest in the class does not work at least three times as rapidly as the slowest. It will be seen that, taking the three classestogether
" "

per child were average 7 sums worked Five girls in the top correctly in half-an-hour. than double this average. able to do more classwere be thought that the exercises worked It must not
on an

of a merely mechanical easy type, or were from were nature ; they continuous examples Suggestive Arithmetics ; and McDougall's these
were

of

an

books are above, rather than below, the average in difficulty. A careful investigation of the methods of teaching arithmetic at present in vogue in elementary schools has convinced me that the most serious and prevalent defect is the excessive use of the blackboard, both for setting exercises to be worked by the class, and for exposition for explaining, and exemplifying,
"

and correcting. When we consider that itis rare for a classworking from blackboard to get a examples written on during a lesson of through more than four sums is,half as long again as the forty-fiveminutes (that lessons referred to it becomes obvious that above) the individual scholar is not working at anything like his normal pace. I do not go so far as to urge

that

child should always work

at

the highest

82

MENTAL

TESTS

pressure, but I do submit that he should sometimes do so. It is often the practice of the teacher to write an example on the board, and set the whole class After all have finished (note to work it on paper.
the
of time on the part of the brighter children) is If sum the marked. about one-third of the class gets it wrong, the teacher, as a rule, works it himself on the blackboard, or gets the class to
waste

to seem to work (or work) it with him. This is idle time for two-thirds of the class; and it is not the best method of correction for the other third. More often than not the mistakes are due to carelessness on the part of the pupil, or to an imperfect knowledge of the tables ; and effective correction depends on individual effort rather than on blackboard

explanation. arithmetic lesson is occasionally taken up by two or the teacher working one examples on the blackboard with the class, the children afterwards in their exercise books. The out copying them concerted appearance of this work is illusory. The work is really done by the teacher and a few of the is of little more copying out alert pupils. The of value except as a relaxation from the boredom

An

watching These

other people work. practices are by no means universal, nor do they imply that the instruction is mechanical In making the criticismsit is but and perfunctory. fair to record my conviction that earnest efforts are tion almost universally being made to vivify the instrucand to bring it into line with modern tional educanot

ideals, and that whatever faults exist are due to lowness of aim, but rgther to a misconception

ARITHMETIC
of how
a

183

high ideal may best be approached. The spirit of the Suggestions to Teachers and of the Report of the L.C.C. Conference on Arithmetic has the majority of schools, and is doing permeated incalculable good ; but at the same time many been sound practices of the past have sometimes forgotten, and the new ing conditions that are developwith the gradually diminishing class and the more of pupils have not been met rapid movement by a corresponding That change of method. change may briefly be described as a progress from
from class teaching to sectional teaching, and in fact sectional teaching to individual teaching from larger to smaller units. The ideal teaching is, individual teaching, and Rousseau, in his of course,
"

Emile,

principle : one teacher, one pupil. " blackboarditis " (if It will be seen I may that from too ardent be permitted to call it so)arises and sanguine a desire to preserve the unity of the class from the belief that the individuals forming
assumes as a
"

rate, and progress this unity should work at the same One teacher with whom rate. at the same this discussed not only held this doctrine, was matter but strictly maintained that the pace should be to that of the slowest pupil. This indeed seems

only logical form of the doctrine. It is clear that the average pupil (ifthere be such) leave about half set the pace, as that would cannot the class in the lurch. In actual practice a small

be

the

is recognised as forming no real part of the number body of the class,and is labelled the " tail end." " " is left out of account, The tail end and the pace is virtually fixed by the slowest pupil among the remainder.

84
But

MENTAL

TESTS

it is clear from what has already been said that the doctrine of the homogeneous class ought be abandoned, to and the teachers should devise means of healthy effect of securing the maximum from

each individual child. is obvious That it is necessary to devise such means when we consider the size of the classand the limited time and energy at the disposal of the teacher. He cannot of possibly devote the necessary amount The solution of personal attention to each child.
the difficultylies in the delegation of his powers, of responsibility. and in fostering in his pupils a sense We have not yet discovered the extent to
trust we can the pupils. By adopting a which allowing a child general policy of mistrust, by never his own, or even to mark another child's,exercises, by making no child responsible for anybody's by retaining all conduct or progress but his own, in the teacher's corrective and coercive powers

hands,

certain advantages : we simplify we matters, minimise the likelihood of abuse of authority, and we cultivate in the pupils the virtue lose much But we more than we of obedience. gain gain.

we

healthy fail to internal progress, we distinct from an external authority, we fail to as cultivate the power to rule wisely as a balance to the correlative virtue of obeying wisely, and we the brilliantand the stupid to the mediocre. sacrifice The surprise with which we view the success of the
to

We

fail

normal and foster respect for an

secure

prefect system among is itself a mark of our

elementary school children traditional mistrust. The

possibilitiesof self-government and self-culture school children will, I believe, among when fully

ARITHMETIC

185

realised,provide the key to the solution of a large which press upon the of the difficulties number to teacher at the present time, and which seem strain upon his nervous system. put an abnormal I am not here concerned with showing how precisely this delegation of work and responsibility may be effected in the arithmetic lesson (eachteacher can but with suggesting best discover this for himself),
the direction in which the lies. development probably In view Recommendations. set forth above, I arguments
"

ideal of
of
venture
"

individual
facts

the
to

make following definite recommendations (1)That the tables, both addition and multiplication, be by some means or other fixed in the memory early in the arithmetic course. (2)That the simultaneous repetition of the tables be superseded by individual learning, or better still, by their application to examples to be worked

and the

rapidly. That (3) seriatim repetition be discarded after the structure of the tables is understood. (4)That adding by tables be the final objective in practising addition, and that adding by units, by partial groups, or through any roundabout or device, be regarded as a habit of a lower order, to be abandoned habits of a higher order as soon as be engendered. can (5)That speed of adding be insisted on as a means towards the higher of pressing forward habits. (6)That the method of equal addition be universally taught
as

the practical method of working

subtraction,

86

MENTAL

TESTS

be rethe method of decomposition garded, if taught at all,as a means of showing the correctness of the result arrived at by the usual method. (8)That
at

(7)That

least

one

pure

practice lesson be

given per week. (9)That speed as well as accuracy be aimed at in the practice lesson. (10)That the terminal examination in arithmetic contain at least one straightforward abstract sum. (11)That each class be frequently practised in the work of all the lower classes. be adopted to secure the progress (12)That means natural rate. of each pupil at his own (13)That the blackboard be not used for setting

text-books are when available for examples for working sums that purpose ; nor which could by be the majority of the class; nor worked easily due to for correcting errors mere carelessness. legitimate has, its blackboard course, use (The of for class and sectional teaching ; it is only when it becomes means a of preventing individual effort that its use is open to objection.) (14)That the practice of copying in the exercise books examples be on out the board worked
out

discarded. (15)That much of the responsibility of marking exercises be, with due reservations and precautions, delegated to the pupils.

(b)Simple
Many
means
a

Oral

Arithmetic
simple reasonable degree of
some

teacher has felt the need of

a

of estimating, with

ARITHMETIC

187

precision, the arithmetical attainments of young hitherto been tests that have children. The for older children, for intended published are children who They cannot
are

able

measure

consequently of no use infant schools. To meet this need I have used the following in addition and subtraction
"

on work sums paper. beginnings, are the and in dealing with children in

to

tests

One

Minute

Oral Addition

Test

MENTAL
Each

TESTS

child is tested individually and in isolation. He is asked the question, " One and two ? " and as " it he is asked the next, he answers Four as soon " He is not allowed to proceed and one ? and so on. The number until he has given the right answer. in one questions correctly answered minute score. gives the The same is adopted for administering method the subtraction test. A little preliminary questioning is desirable to put a child at his ease, and to see that he knows exactly what is required of him. The based on following norms are the results in by the application myself and others obtained of the tests to about ten thousand boys and girls
of

within the last six years.

The mean to be nearly the same variation seems for each age group and for each process, and amounts to between three and four. better than the The girls are able to add a trifle boys, but in subtraction there is no appreciable difference between them. With the very youngest children the score is low, not merely because they are slow in computing, but because their knowledge is limited to the first in the scale. They few numbers answer cannot
the whole unlimited few score if they are given of the questions even When, however, older children time. marks it is because they add by units.
to

This points

the expediency of memorising the

ARITHMETIC
addition

189

in a few table early. The answering schools, however, convince me that there is a danger 10, for instance, 2 + 5 of premature memorising. This infrequent. by no means is a type of answer the addition and the multiplication confusion between tables is scarcely possible if the child is familiar with the make-up of the firstten natural
=

numbers. In subtraction the question that seems to present is the sixth (2 the greatest difficulty 2). large As the oral examination a of of number hoped that pupils took a considerable time it was be effected by setting the same test a saving might
"

in written form. It was found however on actual trial that even with the older children the written less delicate measure test was a of arithmetical The typed and set to a ability. questions were
of children between number nine and ten years in blank form the of age, space given above with a for the answer. The children between nine and a half and ten did 20 per cent, worse than at the oral

examination, and the children between nine and The difference nine and a half did 30 per cent, worse. be increasingly would, it isreasonable to assume,

down went the scale of age. It was great as we therefore considered wiser, in dealing with such rudimentary work, to adhere to the oral form throughout. I have endeavoured the achievements
to

find the difference between

schools, the terms a good and social sense only. Instead of comparing two schools,the best and by obvious risk a a the worst plan accompanied group of very good schools was compared with a
" "

in good and poor poor being used in

190

MENTAL

TESTS

group of very poor schools. The difference proved be greater than I had anticipated. In both to at addition and subtraction the good schools were least one year in advance of the age-norms, and the

There was, year behind. poor schools at least one in fact, a difference of more than two years between the achievements of the two socialclasses. I also found distinct evidence in support of what seems to be a general rule : the higher the social favourably do the girls compare status the more the girls with the boys. In good neighbourhoods little better than the boys, in poor a compute worse. a little neighbourhoods Arithmetical (c) Devices

discovering how many of the in the elementary taught commonly rules If the pupil shows schools have been mastered. that he knows the rule and has merely made a slip in computation is counted right. Each the sum
test

This

aims

at

"

"

correct

sum

scores

one

mark.
Devices

Arithmetical

{unlimited time).

(i)658 x 204. (2)95567 ^ 53. (3)" 14J. 5J x 26. (4)"23 "*" 9\d-+ I7(5)Calculate the cost of 15 f\ $s. 6d. per ton. (6)i + f f (7)*" (8)!xi (9)* "*" I.
-

tons

cwt.

qrs.

at

"

ARITHMETIC

191

(10)-i x *i. (n) -6-^ -003. (12)5 : 12 : : 9 : x. (13)Find the average of 5, 11, 7, 2, o, 19. ? (14)What is the value of "0-168 (15)Find the simple interest on "650 f"r

years

It will be observed that where a simple example will sufficeto indicate whether the pupil knows the No. 5 and No. rule the simple example is adopted. doubt to the difficult 12 ; due no proved the most " " fact that within recent has fallen years practice into discredit, and proportion has given place to the method of unity.
"Aie9Yrs.

10

yrs.

11

yrs.

12

yrs.

13 yrs.

14 yrs.

Score

61

9J

(d)Applied
To

Arithmetic

(Problems)

develop the capacity to apply the principles of numbers is after all the final aim of the teaching to which the pupil of arithmetic ; and the extent bring his knowledge to bear upon the common can of his understanding. of lifeisthe real measure affairs Hence the importance which we now-a-days attach, " It is regarded problems." and rightly attach, to
to reduce all problems to questionable wisdom types and to teach them under the old system of The to root this rule and example. objection is that the pupil, recognising a particular plan by illegitimate belonging as problem (often signs) it by rule of to a certain group, is liable to work thumb rather than the direct application of basal
as

192

MENTAL

TESTS

principles. It prevents him, in fact, from reasoning If,however, pupils are to be trained the thing out. it is necessary at all in the solution of problems, to call their attention to the underlying principles ; directly or indirectly they must be taught to recognise in the examples, and to a certain sameness do this is to systematise and classify. Take for example the 19th problem in the test given below. " This is the same What as are the two asking : is 5 and whose difference is numbers whose sum " " Or again, A bottle and a cork cost 2 ? z\"; the bottle cost 2d. more than the cork ; what did " This, too, is cousin german to the cork cost ? The real danger liesnot in the recognition No. 10.
of the type, but in working successively so many type that the work becomes examples of the same difficult to avoid. a danger not mechanical At any rate, whatever there may be
"

the teacher's classifyingproblems for his pupils, there is a distinct advantage in his classifyingthem for himself. He should be familiar with the common applications of arithmetic, and should be careful both in teaching and testing to vary his types. He can never perhaps exhaust the types ; but he
to
a catalogue of the commonest readily make The test below is, in fact, just such of them. catalogue. It comprises twenty fundamental types It of problems reduced to their simplest forms. will be observed that the actual calculations are that is extremely easy ; for it is not computation being tested, but merely the capacity to applj principles. Hence a slip in counting is overlooked

objections

can

the papers are marked, and every problem when one. solved by the right method is allowed to score

ARITHMETIC
The

193

problems are arranged in order of increasing difficulty an order which differsfrom my preconceived was notion of their difficulty, and which large discovered by actually applying them to a
"

number

of children.

Test (unlimited Applied Arithmetic time) 100 1. If there are apples on a tree and the wind blows down 1 7, how many are left on the tree ? hundred oranges are put into 5 baskets so 2. Two that each basket has the same of oranges. number How basket in ? many are there each If man a earns 3. y. 6d. in a week, how much ."5 will he have earned at the end of a month ? buy a book which costs to js. 6d., 4. I want How in my pocket. but I have only is. S^d. much do I need ? more money 5. John pays 8s. \d. for 5 lbs. of butter. What have to pay for 7 lbs. of the same would Henry butter ? 6. If eggs sellat 3 for 2d., what will 2 dozen cost ? boys earn ten 7. One day two shillings between them by carrying trunks from an hotel to a railway station. One boy carries 5 trunks during the day and the other 7. How ought they to share the
be added to is the leastnumber that must 1483 to make it exactly divisibleby 16 ? I find I 9. After spending a third of my money ? have 3j-. \d. left. How much had I at first Two girlshad tea at a tea-shop. The waitress 10.
? money 8. What

charged for both on one bill,which One girlhad a threepenny cake more How much of the half-crown ought
o

came

to

is.

6d.

than the other. each to pay ?

i94
ii.

MENTAL A

TESTS

dig a garden in 3 days, can certain man and his son can do it in 6 days. If they both work together how long will they take ? Nine soldiers eat their food in one hut and 12. Seven loaves of bread are allowed 15 in another. If the 9 soldiers in the firsthut eat for each hut. their bread in 4 days, how long will it take the 15 soldiers to eat theirs, assuming that all soldiers eat ? amount the same in the ". What did he 13. A bankrupt pays 5.5". he pays "16 10s? to a creditor to whom owe has decreased 14. After the population of a town by 10 per cent, the number of people left is 18,000. How ? were there at first many

15. A shopkeeper wishes to sella blend of tea at by mixing tea at 2s. a pound with tea is. 3d. a pound In what proportion should he mix a pound. at 3-f.
them
?

16. If I lose 5 per cent, by selling an article for "9 ioj., what should I lose or gain per cent, by selling it for ? 5-f. ."10 C cycle continuously round a 17. A, B and circular track. A takes 8 minutes to go round, B 9 minutes, and C 12 minutes. If they all start together, how long will it be before they are all together again at the starting-point ? towns 210 18. P and Q are two miles apart. A train which travels at the rate of 30 miles an hour At the same to go from P to Q. starts at 9 a.m. time a train which travels at 40 miles an hour starts going from Q to P. When will these trains meet ? rows at the rate 19. A man of 5 miles an hour
with
stream.

the

stream,

What

and is the

rate

miles an hour against the ? of the stream

ARITHMETIC
20.

195

A cyclist who rides at the rate of 12 miles hour chases a man an who walks at the rate of 3 miles How long hour and who has had 2 hours' start. an will it take the cyclistto catch the walker ? The norms are as follows
"

of the level of achievement will probably surprise those who have not had a wide dren. experience in setting arithmetical problems to chilIt is possible that the results I obtained were conditions, and that it is somewhat vitiated by war later on desirable to revise the norms the when

The

lowness

Indeed, it is completely recovered. always expedient to make a periodical revision of the scholastic standards, for these standards are of study, resultant of native intelligence, courses least two at and efficiencyof teaching ; and of these factors vary with time. The boys do better than the girls in applied arithmetic, but the difference in these simple for separate norms problems is too slight to justify the
two
sexes.

schools have

CHAPTER
PRACTICAL

XI
ABILITY

the mind as a whole : we can onlyAnd in testing it piecemeal, it is test it piecemeal. found that certain specificabilities manifest a sort on the surface to of kinship. They not only seem be kindred abilities,but when tested they give results which are highly correlated. They form a natural group, clearly separated from other natural Of the three such groups which are most groups. to be the readily discernible,literary ability seems
cannot

We

test

factor

mathematical ability to another, and motor ability to the third. It is in this third factor, the factor that underlies success that here clrawing, handwriting and handwork, demands our attention. It seems in all that success reasonable to assume sorts of manual work depends on the general efficiency A man's body is many motor of one's apparatus. To the food-faddist it is a digestive things at once. tube, to the bacteriologist it is a happy huntingto the boxer a fighting machine, ground for bacilli,
common
one,

to

the philosopher a thinking machine, and to the delicate a craftsman wonderfully and complex instrument for making things. And the important point of application of the instrument is the hand. The hand is in fact taken as representing the whole
196

to

PRACTICAL

ABILITY

197

And ifwe test the dexterity neuro-muscular system. are supposed to test motor ability of the hand we We between distinguish,however, a as must whole.
ability and acquired ability; for it is the former that mainly interests the psychologist. The ability has for its primary and basal test of motor of the amount of motor aim the discovery, not skillthat has been acquired by practice, but of the amount of aptitude for acquiring skill. It is the
innate
not the actuality ; potentiality we wish to measure, the originalcapital,not the interest that has accumulated as the Just through careful investment. aim of Binet's tests is to measure that general intellectual

ability which islndependent of schooling, so the aim measure test is to that general motor of a motor abilitythat isindependent of training. And the only test of this kind that has crept into general use among is the tapping test. psychologists Essentially the test consists in discovering the
can make per of taps the unpractised subject A pencil and a piece of paper roughly serves second. disadvantages : It has, however, two this purpose.

number

to count, the marks made are difficult and the subject be allowed to tap more on cannot than once the same spot. For careful work a piece of apparatus

is necessary which records automatically the number of taps made, whether made with a stylus on a flat surface, or by merely pressing a small lever after the manner of the telegraph operator. The claim
of tapping to be regarded as a test of general motor ability is considerably strengthened if the results resemble in a broad way the results of intelligence if they show a gradual improvement tests with age, is reached during adolescence, if the maximum
"

198

MENTAL

TESTS

and if the effectof specialtraining is negligible. The firsttwo conditions are satisfiedin the outcome of by Miss Bickersteth a research Oxford, at conducted and recorded in Vol. IX of the British Journal of Psychology. She tested girls from five to fifteen years of age and found that as they got older they from 3 taps per second at gradually improved, five years of age, to 5 taps per second at fourteen. Here the maximum was reached : girls of fifteen did no better than girls of fourteen. The third condition, that the score should be unaffected by practice, is fairly well satisfied. Miss Bickersteth found that the improvement produced by practice was very slight. Unfortunately, however, there is a disparity among the results obtained by marked different investigators. This is largely due to the fact that they use The different instruments. instrument I have myself used gives a higher score score at than that used by Miss Bickersteth. My the first trial was 7*4 taps per second. With a pencil, however, on a piece of paper my rate is 5*4. Several adults whom I have tested with the lever instrument score about 6-5, and girls of fifteen give
score as average the same adults. It is a I curious fact that the few expert pianists whom tap any faster than the average. tested did not Neither did expert typists. on
an

Let
test,

us

now

consider

different kind of

motor

which is carried out with a piece of apparatus The McDougall invented by Mr. of Oxford. apparatus consistsof a heavy brass plate with 24 raised sockets 2 centimetres high arranged in a circle. The has subject
wooden
to

insert

handle

small steel plunger with into each socket as fast as he can

PRACTICAL

ABILITY

199

and the time taken to go completely round gives As the plunger exactly fits the socket, the score. as that involved in the skillrequired is the same putting a key into a lock. Miss Bickersteth, who has experimented with this instrument, found that an average 28 seconds, children of five took on and children of twelve took 20 seconds. Beyond Here again improvement. no that age there was laws as those have results following the same we obtained by tapping. When, however, we compare the tapping scores
against the amazing with the plunger scores, we come fact that there is virtuallyno connection between the two series. What slightcorrelation there isgradually decreases with age. In other words, a child who does well at the tapping test is just do as likely to illat the plunger test as to do well. So that if one the other is of these tests is a test of motor ability, not ; for they give contradictory results. Looking tests, however, we see that the closely at the two Tapping element. plunger test introduces a new
measures

only : the plunger speed of movement test measures precision as well. In tapping we may like,but with the plunger aim as carelesslyas we be we must aim precisely. Moreover, tapping can done blindfold, but the plunger test needs the coordinat and co-operation of eye and hand. Motor ability,in fact, in any profitable sense of the is not a simple thing : it comprises at least term,

body three elements strength, speed and precision. Anywho goes to a fair can roughly test his strength at a machine and his accuracy of aim at a shooting it done scientifically booth ; but if he wants he must go to a psychological laboratory. There he
"

zoo

MENTAL

TESTS

will find a dynamometer and an ergogograph for testing his strength, and a dotting machine for testing his precision. Another simple motor test similar to the tapping is score test consists in the dealing of cards. The given by the number of cards dealt in a fixed time. Mr. Burt has used this test extensively,and has shown that it is positively correlated with other motor It is found, too, as any one who has watched tests. an old whist player dealing cards will readily believe, that practice affects the rapidity with winch it is done. There is one important point upon which all those who have carefully investigated these simple motor processes are agreed ; and that is that the the simpler forms of motor connection between ability and intelligence is much smaller than that by more motor shown processes. It is complex investigators have true that certain American different conclusions have found a arrived at marked direct correspondence between mental and motor efficiency. But then they obtained their data from The sources. only non-experimental American who has investigated this matter by rigorous experiment is Bagley, and he found an inverse The most correspondence. careful researches of all have been made in England by Mr. Burt, Mr. Moore, Dr. Carey and Miss Bickersteth, and they of positive all found a comparatively small amount between types of ability an the two correlation
"

"

which got smaller and smaller as the subjects intelligent. With the older grew older, and more defective children the correlation is still high. This is not very surprising when we discover that
amount

PRACTICAL

ABILITY

201

the kind of ability revealed by these instruments the tapping apparatus in particular has apparently littleconnection even with skillin craftsmanship. From the few experiments that I have made (they far too few to be are the children who conclusive) " " are clever with their fingers cannot regarded as " fingers as a rule tap more rapidly than those whose
" "

The can only inference we all thumbs." legitimately draw from these facts is that the simple some tests I have described measure motor specific abilitywhich is not an index either of fine powers of cercraftsmanship or of high intellectuality. We tainly have no right to infer that the ability in line of reasoning question isworthless. For the same too was would force us to admit that memory worthless. The correlation between rote memory and intelligenceis not high : a fool sometimes has Yet we a good memory, and a genius a bad one. bound to concede that the fool would have been are had been worse, a bigger fool if his memory and the genius would have been a greater genius ifhis memory had been better. So with natural motor capacity, in however narrow field There it a may work. may be other things that are more for serviceable even it is good : it is better technical skill ; but in itself to have it than not to have it. The only use of tapping that cannot be impugned is as a means a of determining whether pupil is congenitally right-handed or left-handed. I myself inveterate dextral : I tap 7*4 to the second am an with the right hand, and 5*5 with the left. In experimenting with this instrument one cannot fail to be struck by the evenness I of the scores. dealt with five adults in succession who made
are

202

MENTAL
"

TESTS

in half a minute. In 200 score precisely the same Miss Bickersteth's experiments the mean variation for both the tapping and the plunger scores was with the variation in surprisingly low as compared to the other abilities tested. In fact, we here seem be testing a gift which among civilisedraces nature impartiality. People has distributed with rare differ very littlein their basal motor : endowment
it is in the use to which they put this endowment in the interests of the higher intellectualpowers that wide differences appear. We have not yet help feeling that we cannot that we have failed reached the root of the matter finger on the essential to put our thing in the making And if native hand-skill is not the of a craftsman. essential thing, what is the essential thing ? Let us examine a few significantinstances. Vierge, a had the misfortune celebrated black-and-white artist, In a short time he to lose the use of his right arm. was producing drawings indistinguishable in executive he had from formerly those which skill produced Hawkins, H. Weaver Mr. his a young right. with student at the Camberwell School of Arts and Crafts, by shrapnel during the war was severely wounded
"

passing through his right arm-pit and penetrating his shoulder-blade. Pyaemia set in and attacked both shoulder-blades and both elbows. Surgical operations became necessary : the two elbow-joints ones were put in their place. removed and artificial The result was that when he got up from his bed of
movements woefully sickness he found his arm restricted. He had littlepower in his shoulders, his elbows, not much more littlecontrol over over his wrists and fingers. He seemed like a man with

PRACTICAL
two

ABILITY
soon

203

But he paralysed arms. his left hand in one could move and his right hand in another

found that he seriesof directions, series of directions.

he returned to school eighteen months So when ago, and took up his art studies again under Mr. Walter Bayes, he held his pencil in his less crippled his left and by eking out its movements hand with his right was able to make a start in re-learning the Now he can draw as well as he art of drawing. Indeed, his work, recently exhibited ever could. highly praised by critics Gallery, was at the Goupil who knew nothing of his infirmity. Requiring two hands to do imperfectly the work of one, and drawing as it were with his whole body, he manifests a strength and precision to be found only in the accomplished have a notable instance of the artist. Here we To over matter. thwart the triumph of mind is impossible creative impulse in such a man unless If his hands he killhim. are gone, will draw you with his feet ; if his feet, too, are gone, he will draw with any part with his elbow, his chin, his teeth of his person to which he can attach a pencil or a brush. If the essentialspiritis within him it seems In to create the machinery with which it works. it is brain that counts, not the long run muscle. It is in the mind of man that artistryand craftsmanship reside : they depend on a form of psychic or cerebral energy which flows out through the hand, the hand being the most permeable outlet ; but if this outlet is blocked the imprisoned energy will
"
" "

"

force open some other channel of escape. If, therefore, we try to gauge a person's capacity for making things by getting him to wag his finger, be surprised to discover that we we are must not

204

MENTAL

TESTS

And merely touching the fringe of a great matter. we may give the primary essential whatever name it is not a simple thing. For we we may be sure up shall find motor elements inextricably mixed with intellectual elements of the highest order, and To call emotional elements of the subtlest form. the central aptitude constructive ability is certainly it with one to connect of the great instincts of humanity, but at the same time it masses under one name a number of distinct abilitieswhich we have neither analysed nor measured ; and until we have measured individually there is little them hope of our being able to estimate them collectively, indeed, lay hold of that single factor (if or, there is such a factor) which may be supposed to be common It has, however, been argued to all these units. that as all construction in the handicrafts consists in adapting and arranging in objects space, a capacity in to conceive and to picture those arrangements the mind is at least part of the general constructive ability. One of Binet's intelligence tests for adults consists in folding a square of paper twice, cutting a triangular notch in one of the sides,and asking the to draw what it would look like if it were

subject
opened. A more

complex construction test is that of the The dissected cube. imagine a is subject asked to into cubic painted cube of three-inch side cut inches, and is required to say how many of these little cubes are painted on three sides, how many how many on one, two, on and how many on none. Another way of administering the test is to present the twenty-seven
to subject

small cubes allmixed up and ask the put them together so as to form one large

PRACTICAL

ABILITY

205

A record is made of the plan cube painted allover. adopted and the time taken. The who subject in works accordance with a premeditated plan is regarded as superior to the subject who works by trial It is a difficult test, which can and error. only be " done with facilityby what Terman calls superior adults." The commonest type of construction test is the form board, of which there are many varieties. The as essence that of the of the problem is the same jig-saw puzzle : how to put things together to form The time taken gives the score. a whole. Mr. T. L. Kelly of Texas University has devised a
construction ability test on the meccano principle. A quantity of material consisting of stripsof wood of different shapes and sizes, and a variety of blocks

and wheels, is placed before the pupil and he is out of them. asked to build the best thing he can Here initiative and inventiveness are brought into test is reasonable play. The enough and simple in difficulty l ies assessingthe result the enough ; the in fact that we have in working the difficulty same It is hard models made in the handicraft centre.
"

mark them when all the things are the same : it is harder still when they are all different. In America they try to get over the difficultyby forming a standardised scale of specimens which enough already been marked in accordance with the average judgment of a number of independent Any be marked to examiners. particular object has to be compared with the standard specimens But it is not easy to find is found. until its equal its equal. It is not easy to say whether an indifferently made toy table is equal to. better than, or

to

have

2o6
worse

MENTAL
than,
a

TESTS

badly made The parquetry mat. vidual specimen scale,in fact, does not do away with indidoes it appreciably lessen the nor judgment,

variability of marking. The test that seems to give the best evaluation of the factors which make up practical ability is the Mr. S. D. Porteus, the Director of test. maze Research at the Training School, Vineland, New
seriesof these tests, has standardised them, and has compared the results with The those obtained by using other types of tests. correlation coefficientsshow that the Porteus tests,
a

has Jersey,

invented

developtype of mental whole the same as Binet's, differ curve widely from them in the estimates they afford of certain individuals who are temperamentally mentally unstable and are in Mr. Porteus, the world. unfit to make their way in fact, contends that the Binet tests are too exclusive intellectual, and that they generally fail have brains but no grit, to detect the children who common sense, who have linguisticabilitybut little who show a superficialbrightness but have little capacity for forethought and planning. diagram represents the Porteus The accompanying It for children of 14 years and 6 months. test is one of the series of eleven standardised for the no test being given for to years from
while yielding
as a

3^

14^,

13^.

pencil the with problem by entering at direct route of threading the maze S and getting out again by some other exit. The " Show following are Mr. Porteus's instructions : child starting-point at S, and tellhim to find his way the test form through without going along any As soon blocked path. as a mistake is made, stop
a

The

is

to

trace

most

PRACTICAL

ABILITY

207

the child and bring him back to the starting-point for his second trial. Never allow the child to retrace Half-year credit is allowed if the test his course." is passed on the second trial. If he passes on the first

Porteus Test

YearXIV

if trial his mental age is regarded as at least 14!, on the second at least 14. A new line of investigation has recently been by F. B., and opened up in America, mainly

208

MENTAL

TESTS

L. M. Gilbreth. It is technicallytermed " motionMr. Gilbreth made a systematic study of study." brick-laying, and found that a big reduction could be made in the number of separate movements From eighteen they could be reduced to involved. five; with the result that 30 men could by the new by the old method lay as many bricks as 1 00 men method, and would be less fatigued at the end of the day. A brief account of this research will be in Dr. Myers's Present-Day found Applications of Psychology. This little book also describes the chronocyclegraph, an instrument for photographing be examined in all its a so movement that it can details, and speed of each part scienand the extent tifically By it means an of measured. awkward be with a skilled action, so action may compared be that the needless and harmful elements may brought to light and eliminated. It bids fair to reveal to us in due time how we may learn to work
; and perhaps efficiently and to play efficiently allows us to indulge in the Utopian hope that the distinction between work and play may disappear altogether. With the drudgery part reduced and the the creative part increased work will become joyand delight we allfeel it ought to be. in The conclusion at which we arrive is that skill

carrying out any piece of practical work, needing as it does the thinking mind as well as the creating hand, involves a large number of special aptitudes and a large number of special habits ; and that mere in the barest sense of that term, is only motor ability,

part, and that not the most important part, of the terity innate dexmeasure to whole process. Attempts have not so far proved of any help to the
a

PRACTICAL

ABILITY

209

have the methods of measuring the teacher ; nor higher functions involved in constructive work developed sufficientlyto give the young craftsman any guidance in pursuing his craft. We have not of testing yet discovered a good indirect means practicalability : we must test it directly. We must have always measured it, by getting the pupil to do a piece of work and forming our and estimate of it by standards which knowledge
measure

it as

we

experience have fixed in

our

minds.

CHAPTER
COMPOSITION

XII

There branch of study more important is no so than English Composition, and there is none hard to mark. So heavy, indeed, is the task, that bargain with their to teachers have been known
amount of marking to chiefs about the minimum Elementary Schools the markbe done. In London ing set of composition of one exercises per week is be reasonably generally regarded as all that can

Some teachers do demanded of the class master. but this is looked upon as a work of supereromore, gation. Marking involves a twofold task correcting
"

the imperfections and appraising the result ; less. seems and of these, one endless and the other hopeAnd the corrections do not help us much in aiming at an estimate of the merit of the exercise. For to appraise a piece of writing by counting the blunders is itselfa blunder. On this basis Shakespeare would fare badly, and Lamb would come than if he had placed himself in the off worse hands of the schoolmaster who to teach wanted him how to write essays. A pretentious piece of blunders ; writing may have nothing in it not even and another piece may be full of good things, and at the same time full of faults. Not that faults do not but that value is to be judged matter,
"

2IO

COMPOSITION
positively,not negatively by for each fault, but
"

211

not

by subtracting marks adding marks for each

of the business is that the marker, a after spending weary hours in toiling through rid himself of the suspicion pile of papers, cannot knows that the that his labours are vain. He
worst

merit. And the

pupil, ignoring simply aside. place. whereas mind. place, person. How,

in red ink, will the emendations glance at the final mark and cast the paper in the wrong The made corrections are from the paper, The mistakes are removed from the pupil's they should be removed The corrections are not made in the right by the right because they are not made

For the right person is the pupil himself. we then, can make the task of correcting fall more upon the shoulders of the pupil who is benefited by it, and less upon the shoulders of the teacher who is bored by it ? To begin with, the have ideas. He should be put to write pupil must those topics only which really occupy his mind. Every child thinks about something constantly if thinks about something and that something, be discovered, is the theme upon which he it can is best fitted to write. His ideas are best put from his brain. Then warm they come when
on
" "

of self-expression. only does writing become a means But since his ideas are often meagre and trivial, exercise is a means of enand the composition larging both his circle of thought and his store of

words, words

as

well

he

of improving his control of what already has, he should constantly be

as

for to on new venture topics. And encouraged this an opportunity for preparation is essential.

212

MENTAL
Then,

TESTS

he has finished the exercise again, when he should be given a chance to revise it. Many of the mistakes which we point out to him he could quite well with a littletrouble find out for himself. When leave you or I write anything, rarely do we We set it aside it as it firstflowed from the pen. score out superfluous and read it again later ; we the words, change awkward phrases, rearrange ideas, and indeed, write the whole sometimes, thing over and over again. All careful writers do this. If they do not actually do it on paper, they do it in their heads before committing it to paper. To revise and to remodel, to reflect upon what is even the good in favour of written, and to reject the better that is at least part of the secret of do this ourselves, clear and vigorous prose. We but do not allow our pupils to do it. Often do we
"

expect them to write without preparation ; always do we to write without revision. expect them Second thoughts are discouraged ; for erasures are The discouraged. try to present a pupil must
fair page

So of writing without blot or blemish. the children of crossing anything out chary are that if they make a mistake in phraseology or in spelling, they enclose the peccant word in brackets
leave it there. Let the teacher countenance, the untidipraise, the untidy page (provided ness is due to careful thinking, not to carelesswriting), find into habit he his falling a will of and pupils If become illegible has the writing self-criticism. be re-written. The the piece should, of course,
and nay

therefore, exercise are, three : preparation, rough draft and final copy. And they may require three distinct lessons, or
stages

of

composition

COMPOSITION
any
two

213

lesson, or sequent stages may occupy one many lessons. stage may spread over any one for correcting. The So much marking proper, the measuring of the achievement, stillremains to be done. And in that liesthe crux of the difficulty. So complex is the thing to be measured, so numerous the criteria of merit, so diverse the points of view, that it is almost impossible to find different examiners
of the same scripts arriving at the same They form different estimates because they marks. factors. attach different values to the component Some think highly of quantity, others of quality ; some of ideas, others of style ; some of wealth of
of words, others of clearness of diction ; some logical arrangement, others of sound and rhythm. Indeed, there is no end to the qualitieswhich may be exalted by some and belittled by others. In we a are the achievement measuring measuring It is as though we were trying to repremedley. sent by a a room the value of number which should its sum room, up the size of the shape, the lighting, the ventilation, the convenience of the fittings,

the pattern of the wall-paper, the state of the floor, and a host of other qualities and quantities. The consequence is that in appraising a piece of writing we rely on the general impression left on our minds do not measure at after reading it. In fine, we guess. True, it is not a pure guess : but all : we

neither is it a pure guess when we guess the height of a building by looking at it. We have data to go upon, but our mode of estimating is purely subjectiv The standard by which we is judge our
own

standard and nobody else's. And the aim of the modern movement of reform in testing is to

2i4

MENTAL

TESTS
"

standards provide objective standards that are everybody's standards. In America they try to the standard in objectify by means of a scale of specimens. composition Certain pieces are standardised by a number of

reputable examiners ; they are arranged in order This is of merit, and assigned definite marks. then used as a scale by reference to which composition Five such scales measured. exercises are in general use, of which the Hillegas-Thorndike are This scale has is apparently the most popular. 15 grades of merit, ranging in marks from o to 95 The sixth of 100. presumably out of a maximum specimen from the bottom reads as follows
"
"

"

First :

De

Quincy. Quincy's mother

"

De

was

her De Quincy and through of his genius. much " His running away from school enfluenced him much as he roamed through the woods, valleys and his mind became very meditative. " The greatest enfluence of De Quincy'slife was the
women

beautiful inhereted

opium
"

habit.

If it was

not

whether we would now during his college course His companions and before that time were even great enfluences. The surroundings of De Quincy were enfluences. Not only De Quincy's habit of opium but other habits which were peculiar to his life. " His marriage to the woman which he did not especially care for. " The many well educated De friends of Quincy,"

for this habit it is doubtful be reading his writings.

and

noteworthy

COMPOSITION

215

This specimen is labelled Quality 47. What are It reads as though the writer we to think of it ? had been put to read something about De Quincey, had ill-digested it, and had tried to reproduce it ; because he wanted to but because he had to. not It may be typically American ; it certainly is not typically English. As it stands half-way up the I presume, to regard it a"s an average are, scale we But the average performance in our performance. schools bears so slight a resemblance to in no are comthis specimen that the two way parable. The bulk of the children's writings strike We never a more even genuine note. and a more find a pupil using such booky words and showing

English

feeble a grasp of the structure If he can use the colon (herarely of the sentence. by the can, trophe. way) he will not bungle at the aposIf he uses long words he generally knows Indeed, it would be difficult how to spell them. to schools a piece of composition pick up in our
at

the

same

time

so

combination of merits which, exhibiting the same and defects, could be confidently judgedas equal to the standard sample, and therefore deserving of forty-seven marks out of a hundred. parate disis the further difficultyof comparing To equate an essay types of composition. easy. A realisationof with a story is by no means led to the formulation of the Harvardthis difficulty Newton scale, which comprises four distinct series forms for each of the four common of samples, one
narration, description, argumentation and exposition. But the whole question of the It is certain open. value of a scale of samples is still of discourse
:

There

that its worth has

never

been clearly demonstrated,

2i

6
one

MENTAL

TESTS

particular group of investigations upon one actually found that teachers scale, indeed, it was ability who used a scale of this kind showed greater variin their marking than those who adopted the general impression. In usual plan of relying on fact, they measured better without the scale than In with it. On the other hand, it is claimed that with practice this variabilitydecreases, so that after a time the advantage in steadiness will lie on the side of the scale. Be that as it may, its merits so are not obvious as to lead to its adoption in to England it must other countries. If it ever comes be put on English garb. The sample pieces must taken from English schools and standardised afresh. A promising line of inquiry has been opened up in his inquiry into the methods by Dr. Kimmins children in essay of expression used by London different ages. (The Journal Experiofmental Pedagogy, III, 289.) The criterion used is the type of sentence by Dr. Kimmins employed. From this point of view the most significant change to be the less frequent with increasing age seems writing
at
use

of the simple unrelated sentence, and the more But imfrequent use portant sentence. of the complex as is this way of looking at children's writings,

the only way : it merely marks one point of merit out of many. There is, in fact, no help for it : we for must, the present at least, fall back upon the method of And, indeed, impression. rewe personal when member in to more the that tangible addition features of a piece of writing, there is always that aestheticsense peculiar appeal to our which defies and allstandards when, in fact, $11 measurements
it is
not
"

COMPOSITION
we

217

that it is an artisticproduct as well remember find it hard to see intellectual product we as an be outhow ever the subjective grown. standpoint can There are, however, certain definite things into do to bring our individual judgments we can
"

realise the roughness of the scale we are capable of using, and give up trying to finely than the conditions warrant. calibrate more To pretend to find 100 degrees of difference in however huge a number of papers, is to expose can say, with any measure oneself to ridicule. Who
paper merits 58 marks confidence, that one ? unless, indeed, he works exactly and another 59 on some mechanical system of adding sentences, of deducting for errors, and of ignoring all the broader and more finely spiritualissues. The most graded scale in America, the Hillegas-Thorndike, has only 15 degrees of merit ; the others have respectively 10, 9, 8 and 6. At our universities it has ever been the custom to grade essays in four of the first four groups, assigning to each one letters of the Greek alphabet, with an occasional
of
"

closer unison. First, we must

plus or minus to indicate finer shades ; and even this broad classificationinspires in the undergraduate no taining, great degree of confidence, mainas he often does, that
"

"

the difference is dim, right and wrong 'Tis settled by the moderator's whim ; Perchance the delta on your paper marked Means that his lunch has disagreed with him."

'Twixt

the number of grades of merit is probably enough tQ stajt we must (five with)

Having

fixed upon

2i

MENTAL

TESTS

the efficiencyof our criticise marking by observing distributed. If, scores are the way in which our five grades the coefficientsin for instance, we use
that is, i, 4, 6, 4 and 1 the expansion of (x + i)4, give the probable or normal distribution. Generally speaking, out of every 16 papers 1 should receive one mark, 4 two, 6 three, 4 four and 1 five. If ten that is, grades are used, the expansion of (1 + x)9, 1, 9, 36, 84, 126, 126, 84, 36, 9 and 1, apportions the number of papers that should, in a reasonable from 1 to 10 system of marking, receive the scores consecutively. This, however, is a guiding principle, a compelling not principle. It helps the teacher in cases of doubt, it shows up the defects of a faulty decide what marks are actually system, but it cannot merited. The real starting-point is neither the best but the middle or average. the worst, paper nor

The

marks should crowd round this middle, but at This average each end there should be elbow-room. is the standard which the marker should have fixed in his mind, and with which he should mentally be must the individual papers. There compare

much provisional marking before this standard is in the case fairly established. And of the class teacher it is a standard which should be constantly rising,and should be assigned a constantly increasing

value. Having

sensible system impart it to his of marking, the teacher should now It pupils. He should teach them how to mark. him hours of useless toil, will alter the will save and will pupils' attitude towards his judgments, healthy spirit of self-criticism. a evoke in them

developed

for himself

At present the schoolboy

never

thinksof challenging

COMPOSITION
the

219

as a teacher's verdict. He regards it not " What valuation but as a gift. He asks himself, " He should learn to ask, mark has he given me ? " What mark have I earned ? " And he should be his wage is whether able to say approximately correct, and have the right to challenge the figure. One of the pupils should occasionally read his composition to the class, and the rest be required to their record individually and independently estimate of its merit. After a littlepractice it is surprising how close together the estimates become. The scholars tend more to agree with and more

another and to agree with the teacher ; and soon the marking of a complete set of papers may safely be delegated to one of the scholars. He may be trusted to take pains over the task, knowing as he does that his marks will be carefully scrutinised by the writers, that his corrections and his findings cases at least be challenged, and that will in some he is to-day judging the work of one who to-morrow the marked papers may become his judge. When distributed there will probably be much comare motion in the class. There will be a simmering of indignation and protest. And if the teacher has " " With he had better not try the system. nerves patience and tact, however, all the troubles will tween disappear. The teacher becomes the umpire beone

the plaintiff,who states his grievance, and the marker, who has to defend both his corrections And the discussion that arises and his assessment. will be of more value to both pupils than much blue pencil. In course of time red ink and much the classwill become educated to this sort of thing,

and the members

will take kindly and calmly the

220

MENTAL

TESTS

It affords the same sort criticisms of their fellows. boxing : it teaches them to of moral training as losing their tempers. take hard knocks without Moreover, they are really learning to write English. No claim of novelty or of originality is made for In modified form it has been used this system. Nor must by others, and used with signal success. the teacher think that it entirely relieves him of the burden of marking : it only reduces the burden. he is the final arbiter : in important In all cases he is the sole arbiter. And when he examinations does mark he should mark very carefully; for his go back to trained critics. papers will now

APPENDIX
SOCRATES ON INTELLIGENCE

There is littledoubt that the dream itselfwas due to the lunch ; but the content of the dream by other things. It was determined holiday was I had taken a long and In the morning time.
the question solitary walk ; and, pondering over of the discipline of the mind, had followed trains of thought which led to flatlycontradictory issues. hearty lunch I retired to my After a somewhat from the shelves a volume study and took down translation of Plato. The book rested of Jowett's the broad arm of my reading-chair, and as I ness turned over the leaves I was overcome with drowsiand fellinto a profound sleep. And as I slept I thought I stood in And dream. I dreamed a
on

the

of a strange city, which by some obscure process of reasoning or intuition I knew to be the And of those who passed ancient city of Athens. men specially arrested along the sunlit street two short and ungainly, my attention. One of them was with a snub nose and protuberant eyeballs. bare and his simple cloak old and His feet were weather-stained. Indeed, his unattractive aspect formed a marked contrast with that of his companion, who, although a somewhat older man, suggested by his dress and general bearing the
streets

222

APPENDIX

ideal of a gentleman xaloxayaBoq. was the ill-favoured one not devoid of a certain in recognising native dignity ; and I had no difficulty him as Socrates. Who the other was I could merely I followed them for some distance until surmise. they turned into a porch and knocked at a door Presently the door was of finely chased bronze. hall opened by a slave, and passing along a narrow

old Yet

Greek

"

shelves, abruptly entered a room equipped with booka pedestal desk and oak furniture of modern design. A severe-looking person in spectacles who was sitting at the desk rose to greet his visitors and bade them be seated. The anachronisms of the dream are glaring and palpable ; but during the dream itself they not only failed to astonish me : they entirely escaped my notice. It seemed quite right and fittingthat Socrates should be conversing in English with a black-coated gentleman Tennyson. who quoted There appeared no historical inconsistency in the
we

prospectuses, school examinations and medical inspection. Nor did the fact in the least that although I was present the whole surprise me, time nobody seemed to take the slightest notice Of the conversation that took place in that of me. strange-familiar room my recollection is clear and vivid, and a faithful record thereof is herewith given
"

reference

to

Soc.

schoolmaster, to consult you about come is nine and the one sons, my two of whom other ten years of age. I have brought with me my old friend Crito, who also takes much

Hearing of your Sophisticus,I have

fame

as

APPENDIX

223

interest in the lads. We wish to know how best they may be trained in wisdom and virtue. Soph. Well, Socrates, I do not think you could do better than send them to my school. Soc. Many thing ; and of my friends say the same You will, to you. that, indeed, is why I came I am sure, put it down to pardonable anxiety on the part of a father if I seek, by asking you
myself that my sons questions, to assure will get at your school a sound education. Soph. You may ask me as many questions as you like, Socrates, and I will do my best to answer you. Soc. Tell me, then, Sophisticus, what will my boys learn in your school ? Soph. They will learn everything that an educated There is my prospectus. man should know.

You will see therein the full listof subjects. Soc. But I see nothing here about the teaching of ? virtue. Is not that one of the subjects Soph. We do not put that down, Socrates ; but do teach our pupils to be good. We explain we the sacred writings, and we look very carefully after their morals. Soc. And I see nothing here about wisdom. You will admit that a boy may know a large number of things and yet not be truly wise. Soph. I readily admit that. Although it is not put down in my prospectus, that is really the supreme aim and purpose of my school. We have discarded the old-fashioned word " wisdom,"
to

them

get

in"intelligence" stead the word and use ; but it means the same thing. My boys a training ; their intelligence is good

224
awakened. my which

APPENDIX
is in fact the chief way in most school differs from other " It is knowledge a not schools. place where but wisdom lingers." Our aim is not comes boys for examinations ; to merely prepare

That

what we really pride ourselves on doing is in producing general intelligence. Soc. I begin to understand. But it is a pity you do not in your prospectus, put this down Sophisticus, for I have for years been looking school where they train intelligence, as I see, found one. you call it, and have never however, that you advertise the fact that pupils are prepared for certain examinations. Sopb. If I did not put that down, Socrates, I fear I should get no pupils at all. But what I really try to cultivate is general intelligence. Crito. Don't you see, Socrates, that that is the for the parents of explanation he reserves
a

for

children who fail at the examinations. Soc. That of you, suspicion, Crito, is unworthy to a great schoolmaster like and does injustice Sophisticus. I indeed prefer to believe that he seeks to produce general intelligence, and product is a sort of byat examinations that success

truly, Socrates. Soc. But tellme what you mean by giving the boys a good training. Sopb. I mean that we cultivate their mental We teach them not only to know, powers. better, but to do. We make them remember better, and, to put observe better, and reason it generally, we make them better thinkers.

Sopb. You

state

the

case

APPENDIX Soc.

225

indeed, is a great achievement. But bewilder me by telling me so not you must for I have a bad memory, at once, much and deal Tell can thing at a time. with one only how you make a boy more me observant. Soph. By giving him practice in observation, of
course.

That,

Soc.

By
same

practice, you
act
over

mean over

and

that he again ?

repeats the

Soph.
Soc.

so. Just

And he does it better the second time than ? the first Soph. Yes. Soc. And the third time better than the second ? Soph. Precisely. Soc. But is not this what we call forming a habit ? Soph. I suppose it is. Soc. Observation, then, is a habit ? Soph. I have never thought of it in that light, Socrates, but I think you are right. Soc. I do not say that I am trying to right : I am find out what you can tellme about the matter. You do not mind my putting these questions ? Socrates. I have heard of Soph. Of course not, your custom of questioning people, and I am glad to have an opportunity of hearing you. Soc. Tell me, then, does training consist in anything else but the formation of habits ? by habits. Soph. It depends on what you mean Soc. Does not an act tend to become easier by
repetition ? Soph. Yes.

Soc. And
or

it is true

of

an
as

act

of will,as well

of

of thought, of feeling, physical act ?

226

APPENDIX

Certainly. Soc. Shall we agree to call any act that has been improved by practice a habit ? for it. to be a suitable name Soph. It seems Soc. Then training consists in forming habits ? Soph. Yes. Soc. And nothing else ? Soph. And nothing else. Soc. And is intelligence a habit ? tellig Soph. Well, I should not be disposed to call inIt seems to be less to me a habit. a habit than observation even. Soc. And tellig yet you said that you could train in-

Soph.

where. contradiction someI can train intelligence. sure Soc. Let us try again. What is intelligence? Soph. Now a you have asked me very difficult tellig inmost question. I can my pick you out tell you off-hand pupils, but I cannot precisely in what this intelligence consists. Soc. Are they necessarily intelligent if they can read well ? Soph. No. Soc. Or write, or draw, or sing well ? Soph. No. Soc Or repeat poetry, or remember history ? Soph. No. Soc. Or do arithmetic ? Soph. It depends upon the kind of arithmetic. Soc. What kind of arithmetic can an unintelligent boy do ? Soph. Simple straightforward sums, such as the
a
.

Soph. There

does seem And yet I am

to

be

common

rules which

he has been taught.

APPENDIX

227

boy alone do ? And what kind can an intelligent Soph. Problems. Soc. And what is the essential difference between the two ? do sums Soph. The unintelligent boy can which he has previously practised, or has at least been shown how to do. The intelligent boy do sums can as which are not quite the same any others which he has done or been shown how to do. Soc. And is intelligence shown in any other subject besides arithmetic ? Soph. Certainly, a boy may show intelligence in history, or science, or handwork, or geography, indeed in any or which is not Soc.

subject

purely mechanical. And is it the novel part that requires intelligence in other as in arithmetic ? subjects Soph. That is right, Socrates, you have made it

Soc.

the unfamiliar part quite clear. It is the new, of any given situation that callsfor intelligence on the part of a boy. Soc. I am glad to hear you say that, Sophisticus, Tell me, for that simplifies the case. does training have to do with the familiar, or with ? the unfamiliar ? With the old or with the new Soph. I do not see what you mean. Soc. Does not training involve doing the same thing over again ? Soph. Yes, we agreed that it was based on practice. Soc. And when you are trained to deal with any kind of situation that situation is no longer ? it is no longer unfamiliar ? new

Soph.
Q2

Quite

so.

228

APPENDIX

Soc.

Then

trained faculty has

to

do with familiar

material ? Soph. Yes. Soc. And intelligence deals with the unfamiliar ? Soph. Yes. Soc. Then intelligence cannot be trained ?

Soph.

No, Socrates, I will never that. admit There be some flaw in the argument. must I think I see what it is. The situation which or you call new unfamiliar is never wholly new. There is always much that is old, and rarely more than a littlethat is new. Soc. But the unintelligent pupil can deal with the old part of the situation if he has been trained
to

it ?

Soph.
Soc.

Yes. And if the is not

new

part is not shown ?

dealt with, intelligence

Soph.
Soc.

Quite
Then
new

so. can

the

it is only intelligencethat part ?

no

deal with

Soph.
Soc.

And

training

can

enable

us

to

deal with

? the new Soph. It seems so. Soc. Then we are again back in the same position. be trained. Intelligence cannot I cannot Soph. Although refute your argument, do it in Socrates, in your own way, I can If you will send your boys to another way. me you will find that at the end of a year intelligentthan when more they will be much ; and I call that a much they came stronger argument than even you can devise.

APPENDIX
Soc.

229

do that I will believe that our If you can discussion has somehow the strayed from truth. I will think over what you say. Come, Crito, let us depart, for I see that Sophisticus is impatient of all this talk about things which he can do but cannot explain.

usual greetings they take their leave.) Socrates, do you really think that Crito. Tell me, be cultivated ? intelligence cannot Soc. I should be glad to be convinced to the contrary.

(After the

in our I fear there were errors many discussion with Sophisticus, but not of the You nature that you imagine. noticed that
to to call observation a agree seemed habit ? Crito. I noticed that, Socrates. Soc. And do you think it is a habit ? Crito. I thought so at the time, but I don't feel so
we

about it now. Soc. Tell me, Crito, is breathing a habit ? Crito. We never call it a habit. Soc. But is it not an act which we are continually repeating ? Crito. Certainly. Soc. How, then, does it differ from an act which everybody callsa habit, such as the trick which some people have of frequently stroking the beard ? Crito. Only some people stroke their beards, but everybody breathes. Soc. And why does everybody breathe ? Crito. He cannot help it, Socrates. It is a natural power which he brings with him when he comes into the world.
sure

230
Soc.

APPENDIX And

why does not everybody who has a beard stroke it ? Crito. Because it is a habit which some acquire, do not. and some Soc. A habit, then, is a personal acquisition ?

Crito. Yes. Soc. And in that sense breathing is not but a natural power ? Crito. Yes. Soc. Can a natural power be improved,

habit,

do

you

think ? Crito. I think it can,

who
are

now

at

Socrates. My grandchildren school have breathing exercises

every day. And the physician visitsthe school, the children's noses and and air examines passages, so that obstructions may be removed. People, too, who have their voices trained say
to their throats attention is paid not but to the the sound is produced, where in fact for breathing. They are mechanism

that

breathe better. me any way in which children at school are taught to breathe better. Crito. They are taught to use handkerchiefs, and breathe through the nose, to and to breathe deeply. Soc. And is not the proper use of a handkerchief a habit ? Crito. Certainly. Soc. And breathing through the nose, rather than * the mouth, is that a habit, too ? Crito. It is a habit. Soc. And what shallwe say for breathing deeply ? cannot that become a habit ?
taught Soc. Tell
to

APPENDIX Crito. It can. Soc. Then, shall

231

we

natural power by forming certain habits which render power more effective? Crito. We shall be right in saying that.

right in saying that like breathing can be improved

be

that

Soc.

And

is not

which we power ? Crito. Yes. Soc. And is

as

the same thing true of observation, have agreed to regard as a natural

much intelligence a natural power inasdegree ? everybody possesses it in some

not

Crito. Yes. Soc. Then be improved in the intelligence can be same way as breathing and observation can improved ? Crito. It seems so. Soc. Then Sophisticus is right after all, and intellig be trained. can Crito. And yet, Socrates, it seemed to me while Sophisticus that the you were arguing with
true. opposite was Soc. May not both conclusions be
true

Crito. How is that possible, Socrates ? Soc. I fear, Crito, that we have been confusing by using ourselves and obscuring the argument When we the same words in different senses.
one at time observation we about assumed it to be a simple power which could either be trained or not be trained ; at another a group time we spoke of it as though it were if not of distinct and separate powers, some, all, of which could be trained. And in the have been deceived by different same way we

talked

232

APPENDIX

intelligence. I think, of the word meanings Crito, that you and I had better go to school again to learn the right use of words. Crito. I am quite willing to go with you, Socrates, provided you
can

find somebody

to

teach

us.

Meanwhile we were streets walking along narrow whose bare and windowless walls were relieved here and there by doors that opened outwards into the One of these doors, more street. pretentious than the rest, was protected by a porch, near the entrance of which stood one of those images of Hermes which Alcibiades was As we supposed to have mutilated. did just Crito had as passed this porch, which we finished speaking, I touched the image with my hand and it fell to the ground with a loud crash. So loud indeed was it that I woke up with a start, I saw the volume of Jowett's and looking down floor. lying flat Plato upon the

INDEX
Absurdity
tests, 30, 38, 39, 76,

154 Adams, J.,109 Addition, 161 ff.

9-10 jEsthesiometer, Age-performance, 13-14 Age test, 60 Alcibiades, 232 American tests, 15, 20, 29, 40, 46, 145, 214, 215 Analogies test, 32, 33 Applied arithmetic, 191 ff. Arithmetic, 19, 112, 160 ff.,226 Arithmetical devices, 190 Association test, 37, 80 Average, 123 ff. Ayres, L. P., 112, 156-7

Colour test, 61 Columbia University, 15, 42 Complexes, v Complimentary addition, 173-4 Composition, 19, 45, 87, 128-9, ff. 210 Correlation, 17, 18, 25, 26 Counting test, 55, 62, 71 Courtis, S. A., 112, 160 Criminology, 5 Crito, 222 ff Cube test, 204-5
.

Dale system of reading, Darwin, C, 5 Date test, 72

141 ff.

Bagley,
Bareme
"I,

W. C, 200 d'instruction,

40,

107,

134 Bayes, W., 203 Bickersteth, M.

202

E., 198-9,
11,

200,

Binet,
23.
in,

Alfred,

27, 30, 197 Blackboarditis, 182-3 Bottle test, 34 Breathing, 229-30 British Association, 47, 160 Brown, W., 47 Browning, R., 153 Burt, Cyril, viii, 11-12, 16, 18, 27, 45, 47, 48 ff., 90 ff., 115,

13 ff., 17, 20, ff., 35 48 ff., 107,

traction, method of sub168 ff. Definitions test, 64, 73, 84 De Quincey, 215 Dictation, 158-9 Dictation test, 69 Differences test, 68, 86, 88 Digits test, 36, 50, 55, 61, 73, 80 Distribution, 115 ff. Dotting 11, 46 machine,

Day of week Decomposition

test, 63

Drawing, 132 tests, 13, 62, 75, 85, 86 Drawing Dynamometer, 7 Einstein, 2 English, H. B., 47 Equal traction, addition method of sub168 ff. Ergograph, 7 Error, Curve of, 120 Evans, Miss Lloyd, 153 Examinations, 2, 14, 18, 19, 27, ff., 127, 121 29, 41 ff., no,
131

127, 157-8,

161,

200

Cancellation, 34 Carey, N., 47, 200 Central tendency, ff. 122 Coin tests, 63, 68, 72, 73
233

234
Finger test, 62 French test, 33 Frequency-column-graph,

INDEX
Measurements, v, vi, 2, 3 Median, 123 ff. Memory, 10, 36-7, 176 ff. Milton, J.,4 Months test, 73 Moore, R. C, 200 Morning and afternoon 60 Motion study, 208 Motor ability, 196 ff. Munroe, W. S., 112 Myers, C. S., 47, 208

117

Gall, F. J.,3, 4 Galton, F., 6, 10, 17 Gilbreth, F. B. and L. M., 207-8 Goddard's revision of Binet's
tests, 15 Gray, P. L., 160 Green, J. A., 47, 160

test

Hart, Bernard, 47 Harvard-Newton scale, 215 Hawkins, H. W., 202 Heights of Englishmen, 115 ff. Heine, H., 5 Hillegas-Thorndike scale, 214

Name test, 51 Newton, I., 1 Normal distribution, 17, 118 ff. Norms, 21, 108 ff.,139, 153, 160. 165, 166, 188, 191, 195 Nunn, T. P., viii, 115 52, 68 Oblong test, 64 Observation, 225 ff. CEdipus, 3, 31, 33 Ogive, 116 Oral arithmetic, 186 ff. Pearson, K., 6, 18 Perseus, 31 Phrenology, 3-4 Physiognomy, 4-5 Pictures tests, 52, 56, 57, 66, 67, 82 Plato, 221, 232 Plunger 198 ff. apparatus, Porteus, S. D., 206 Porteus test, 206-7 Poverty 139and attainments, 40, 189-90 Practical ability, 196 ff. Practice in arithmetic, 1 79 Probable error, 126 Probability curve, 119 Problems test, 83 #

Images, 10 Indirect measurement, 3 ff.,26 Individual 142 ff., 178 ff. work, Instructions tests, 40, 50, 59 Intelligence, 6,11 ff.,21 ff.,29 ff ff. 48 ff., 221 Intelligence quotient, 49 Interquartile range, 125 ff.

Objectstests,

.,

James, Wm., 27, 36 Jevons, S., 1 Jones,Emrys, vii Judd, C. H., 112
Kansas

silent

reading

tests,

146-7 Kelly, T. L., 205 Kimmins, C. W., 216 King John, Ballad of, 30-31 Knowledge, 22 ff., 106 ff
.

Lamb, C., 4, 210 Lancashire, Reading Lavater, K., J. 4 Lewis, E. O., 47 Lines tests, 56, 82 C., 5 Lombroso,

in, 140

L. A. J., Quetelet, 17 Quartile, 125 ff

.

Manual ability, 45, 196 ff. Mathematics, i, 17, 130 W., 10, 11, 47, 198 McDougall, Mclntyre, J. L., 47 Mean deviation, 125 ff.

Reaction-time, 7, 8 Reading, in, 134 ff. 70, 73, no, Reading-books, 143 Reasoning tests, 16, 90 ff.

INDEX
Recommendations
for improving

235
Spurzheim, J. G., 3, 4 Standard deviation, 126 ff Standardisation, 19, 34 ff 106 ff Binet's Revision Stanford of
.

arithmetic, 185-6 Repetition test, 54, 60, 66, 69, 84 Rhyme test, 81 Riddles, 3, 29, 31. 33 Right and left test, 66 Rivers, W. H. R., 10
Samson, 3 S avoir jaire tests, 70-1, 78 Scale of samples, 20-1 Scholarships, 44 Schuster, E., 47 Sensory discrimination, 9-10 Sentence tests, 74, 81 Sex differences, 140 Sex test, 51 -naming W., 210 Shakespeare, Simon, Th., 48 122 Skew curve, Smith, M., 47 ff. Socrates, 221 C, Spearman, 18, 24, 25, 27 Spelling, 112, 155 ff.

.,

tests, 15 Stern, W., 49 Subtraction, 162-3,

ID8 ff-. 187

Tables in arithmetic, 174 ff. Tapping, 7, 197 ff. Taylor, N., 47 Tennyson, A., 222 L. M., 15, 17, 49, 112 Terman, E. L., 2, 20, 24, 27, Thorndike,
112

Tossing coins, 119 test, 63 Transcription

Vocational

tests, 8

law, 8-9 Weber-Fechner tests, 61, 73 Weights W. H., 13, 18, 47, 176 Winch, Yerkes'

Sphinx,

3, 31, 33

point-scale, 15

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