DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORK FUNDAMENTALS Network is a set of devices (nodes) connected by communication links.

A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of send and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the network Distributed Processing task is divided among multiple computers NETWORK CRITERIA must be able to meet a certain number of criteria Most important of these are: Performance Reliability Security Performance can be measured in many ways, including transmit time and response time. It is often evaluated by two networking metrics: throughput and delay (throughput > delay) Transmit Time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one device to another Response Time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response The performance of a network depends on the number of factors o Number of user o Type of transmission medium o Capabilities of the connected hardware o Efficiency of the software Network Reliability o Frequency of failure o Time it takes a link to recover from a failure o Networks robustness in a catastrophe Network Security o Protecting data from unauthorized access o Protecting data from damage and development o Implementing policies and procedures for recovery from breaches and data losses Physical Structure o Point to point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices o Multipoint (multi drop) connection is one in which more than two specific devices share a single link

CATEGORIES OF TOPOLOGY Physical Topology refers to the way which a network is laid out physically: o Two or more devices connect to a link o Two or more links form a topology Topology is a geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and linking devices (nodes) to one another o Mesh o Star o Bus o Ring Mesh Topology every device has a dedicated point to point link to every other device. The link carries traffic only between two devices it connects. Star Topology each device has a dedicated point to point link only to a central controller, usually called a hub. The devices are not directly linked to one another Bus Topology is multipoint Drop Line connection of running between the device and the main cable Tap connector that either splices into the main cable or punctures the sheathing of a cable to create a contact with the metallic core Ring Topology each device has a dedicated point to point connection with only two devices on either side of it Hybrid Topology (star backbone with three bus networks) NETWORK MODELS Standards needed so that these heterogeneous networks can communicate with one another Two best known standards o OSI Model defines a seven layer network o Internet Model CATEGORIES OF NETWORKS Local Area Network (LAN) covers an area less than 2 miles, usually privately owned and links the devices in a single office, building or campus Wide Area Network (WAN) long distance transmission of data, image, audio and video information Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) networks of a sine in between span tens of miles

ELEMENTS OF A NETWORK Rules and Agreement (protocols) govern how the messages are sent, directed, received, and interpreted Messages or units of information travel from one device to another Medium means of interconnecting these devices that transport the messages from one place to another Devices on the network exchange messages with each other NETWORK DEVICES Desktop Computer common computer used in a home or office Laptop portable computer Server a computer dedicated to providing application services to end users on a network IP Phone digital phone that carries voice as data over data networks instead of analog phone lines LAN Media local area network media, usually copper cable Wireless Media depicts local area network wireless access LAN Switch most common device for interconnecting LAN Firewall device that provides security to networks Router device that helps direct message between networks Wireless Router specific type of router often found in home networks Cloud symbol used to summarize a group of networking devices out of local management control, often the Internet itself WAN Media one form of WAN interconnection, represented by the lightning bolt-shaped line RULES Rules (protocols) govern every step of the process, from the way cables are designed to the way the digital signals are send Most Common Protocols: o IP (Internet Protocol) o TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) These protocols work together and are usually known as the TCP/IP protocol TCP/IP works along with other protocols like Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol (XMPP) instant messaging protocol, to provide communication rules involving different services

SERVICES AND THEIR PROTOCOLS Service Protocol World Wide Web http (Hypertext Transport Terminal) (www) e-mail SMTP (Simple Mail Transport Protocol) POP (Post Office Protocol) Instant Message XMMP (Extensible Messaging & Presence Protocol) (Jabber, AIM) OSCAR (Open System for Communication in Real-time) IP Telephony SIP (Session Initiation Protocol) CONVERGED NETWORKS Convergence occurs when telephones, broadcasts, and computer communications all use the same rules, devices, and media to transport their messages Converged Network or platform, different devices will use a common network infrastructure to communicate THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE INTERNET Network Architecture refers to the conceptual plans on which a physical network is built The internets design meets four fundamental expectations: o Fault Tolerance o Scalability o Quality of Service (QoS) o Security Fault Tolerance the internet will continue to function normally even when some of the components of the network fail Redundancy (duplication of equipment and media) is a key factor in fault tolerance. If a server fails, a redundant server performing the same functions should be able to pick up the work until repairs are made. If a data link fails on a fault-tolerant network, messages will be routed to the destination on a duplicate route. Scalability describes the networks ability to grow and react to future changes Internetwork can grow to keep pace with user demand Quality of Service (QoS) indicates the performance level of services offered through the network. It refers to the mechanisms that manage congested network traffic Congestion is caused when the demand on the network resources exceeds the available capacity

Constraints on Network There are some constraints on network resources that cannot be avoided Constraints include: Technology limitations Cost Local availability of high-bandwidth service Network Bandwidth measure of the data-carrying capacity of the network Network Security is essential if the public is to have confidence when using the internet Consequences: o Network outage, causing a loss of communication and business transactions o Loss of personal or business funds o Theft of intellectual property such as project bids, patents, and strategic plans o Exposure of confidential customer data To provide security, a network manager must address two areas: o Network infrastructure security o Content security

CISCO COMMUNICATING OVER THE NETWORK NETWORK STRUCTURE Three elements of Communication Message Source Channel Message Destination Data or information networks capable of carrying many different types of communication
Message source Encoder Transmitter Channel Receiver Decoder Message Destination

Message Source (sender) people or electronic devices, that need to send a message to other individuals or devices Channel consists of the media that provides the pathway over which the message can travel from source to destination How are messages communicated? Data is sent across a network in small chunks (segments) The process is called Segmentation Multiplexing describes the process of interleaving multiple digital data stream into ONE signal NETWORK COMPONETS Hardware (devices and media) Software (services and processes) END DEVIICES Form of interface with human network and communication network Originate data flow Hosts (source or destination of message) Each host has an address that will identify it on the network Role of end devices: o Client software installed so they can request and display into from the server o Server provide information and services to other hosts o Both client and server

INTERMEDIARY DEVICES Role of an intermediary device i.e., hubs, switches, access point, routers, modems, firewalls, etc. provides connectivity and manages data flows across network works behind the scenes determines the path data will travel to get from source to destination knows all paths that exist informs other like devices about errors or communication failures retimes and retransmits signals as necessary NETWORK MEDIA - is thee channel over which a message travels - encoding is different for each type, i.e., electrical impulses, light pulses, wave patterns - copper, fiber optics, wireless NETWORK TYPES Local Area Network (LAN) o a network serving a home, building or campus o Single geographic area, usually a common organization o Administered by a single organization o Provides network services to a common organization Wide Area Network (WAN) o LANs separated by geographic distance are connected by a network o Be able to identify a LAN and a WAN given a similar diagram Internet defined as a global mesh of interconnected networks NETWORK SYMBOLS Router IP Phone LAN Switch Wireless Access Point LAN Hub Wireless Router Server WAN Media Desktop Computer LAN Media Laptop Wireless Media Firewall

FUNCTION OF PROTOCOL IN NETWORK COMMUNICATION - Protocol is a set of predetermined rules - Implemented in software that is loaded on each host and network device - View them as stack from low to high in a hierarchy - Outline the functions necessary to communication between layers NETWORK PROTOCOLS - Used to allow devices to communicate successfully - Protocols agree on structure of message (specific to PDUs) - Protocols agree on the process of sharing, error handling, and termination procedures all functions necessary for communication - Require layer dependent encapsulations PROTOCOLS AND INDUSTRY STANDARDS - Standard is a process or protocol that has been endorsed by the networking industry and ratified by a standards organization - Ensure all protocols (open or proprietary) will work together - IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers) - IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force) FUNCTION OF PROTOCOL IN NETWORK COMMUNICATION Technology Independent Protocols o Protocols specify network functionality, not the underlying technology to support this functionality LAYERS WITH TCP/IP AND OSI MODEL Benefits of using layered model o Assists in protocol design o Fosters competition o Changes in one layer do not affect other layers o Provides a common language Explain protocol reference model o A protocol model provides a model that closely matches the structure of a particular protocol suite o A reference model provides a common reference for maintaining consistency within all types of network protocols and services

THE OSI MODEL Established in 1947, the International Standards Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement on international standards Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is an ISO standard that covers all aspects of network communication introduced in the late 1970s LAYERS WITH TCP/IP AND OSI MODEL Application (Ang) Presentation (Pulis) Session (Sa) Transport (Tulay) Network (Na) Data Link (Da) Physical (Pa) LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL Physical Layer - Responsible for movements of individual bits from one hop (node) to the next - To transmit bits over a medium to provide mechanical and electrical specifications
From data link layer transmission medium to data link layer

Data Link Layer - Responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to the next - To organize bits into frames; to provide hop-to-hop delivery
From network layer data link layer (frame) to physical layer From physical layer data link layer (frame) to network layer

Hop-to-hop Delivery
From A (data link and physical) hops to B (data link and physical) hops to E (data link and physical) and hops to F (data link and physical)

Network Layer - Responsible for the delivery of individual packets from the source host to the destination host - To provide internetworking
From transport layer network layer (packet) to data link layer From data link layer network layer (packet) to transport layer

Source-to-destination Delivery
From A (network, data link and physical) to B (network, data link and physical) to E (network, data link and physical) and to B (network, data link and physical)

Transport Layer - Responsible for the delivery of a message from one process to another - To provide reliable process-to-process message delivery and error recovery
From session layer transport layer (segments) to network layer From network layer transport layer (segments) to session layer

Reliable Process-to-Process Delivery of a Message

Processes Internet (network: layer host-to-host delivery; transport layer: process-to-process delivery) Processes

Session Layer - Responsible for dialog control synchronization - To establish, manage, ,and terminate sessions
From presentation layer session layer to transport layer From transport layer session layer to presentation layer

Presentation Layer - Responsible for translation, compression, and encryption

From application layer presentation layer to session layer From session layer presentation layer to application layer

Application Layer - Responsible for providing services to the user - To allow access to network resources
user (human or program) application layer (message) to presentation layer from presentation layer application layer (message) to user (human or program)

TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE - The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as having four layers: o Network controls the hardware devices and media that make up the network o Internet determines the best path through the network o Transport supports communication between diverse devices across diverse networks o Application representing data to the user plus encoding and dialog control

When compared to OSI, TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five layers: o Physical o Data Link o Network o Transport o Application TCP/IP and OSI Model Application Presentation SMTP, FTP, HTTP, DNS, SNMP, TELNET Session Transport SCTP, TCP, UDP Network IP - ICMP, IGMP, PAR, ARP Data Link Protocols defined by underlying networks (host-to-network) Physical Protocol Data Units (PDU) and encapsulation - PDUs are specific to each layer Key Functions of Encapsulation - Ensure that data pieces get from sending to receiving device - Ability to re-assemble the data packets correctly - Ability to identify data packets that belong together with the same communication package Addressing and Naming Schemes - Explain how labels in encapsulation headers are used to manage communication in data networks Physical timing and synchronization bits Data Link destination and source physical addresses Network destination and source logical network addresses Transport destination and source process number (ports) Upper Layers encoded application data ADDRESSING Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing TCP/IP protocols: Physical Addresses Logical Addresses Port Addresses Specific Addresses