PID Tutorial

Introduction The three-term controller The characteristics of P, I, and D controllers Example Problem Open-loop step response Proportional control Proportional-Derivative control Proportional-Integral control Proportional-Integral-Derivative control General tips for designing a PID controller
Key Matlab Commands used in this tutorial are: step cloop Note: Matlab commands from the control system toolbox are highlighted in red.

Introduction
This tutorial will show you the characteristics of the each of proportional (P), the integral (I), and the derivative (D) controls, and how to use them to obtain a desired response. In this tutorial, we will consider the following unity feedback system:

Plant: A system to be controlled Controller: Provides the excitation for the plant; Designed to control the overall system behavior

The three-term controller

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The transfer function of the PID controller looks like the following:

Kp = Proportional gain KI = Integral gain Kd = Derivative gain

First, let's take a look at how the PID controller works in a closed-loop system using the schematic shown above. The variable (e) represents the tracking error, the difference between the desired input value (R) and the actual output (Y). This error signal (e) will be sent to the PID controller, and the controller computes both the derivative and the integral of this error signal. The signal (u) just past the controller is now equal to the proportional gain (Kp) times the magnitude of the error plus the integral gain (Ki) times the integral of the error plus the derivative gain (Kd) times the derivative of the error.

This signal (u) will be sent to the plant, and the new output (Y) will be obtained. This new output (Y) will be sent back to the sensor again to find the new error signal (e). The controller takes this new error signal and computes its derivative and its integral again. This process goes on and on.

The characteristics of P, I, and D controllers

A proportional controller (Kp) will have the effect of reducing the rise time and will reduce ,but never eliminate, the steady-state error. An integral control (Ki) will have the effect of eliminating the steady-state error, but it may make the transient response worse. A derivative control (Kd) will have the effect of increasing the stability of the system, reducing the overshoot, and improving the transient response. Effects of each of controllers Kp, Kd, and Ki on a closed-loop system are summarized in the table shown below. CL RESPONSE RISE TIME OVERSHOOT SETTLING TIME S-S ERROR Kp Ki Decrease Decrease Increase Increase Small Change Increase Decrease Eliminate

Kd Small Change Decrease Decrease Small Change Note that these correlations may not be exactly accurate, because Kp, Ki, and Kd are dependent of each other. In fact, changing one of these

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variables can change the effect of the other two. For this reason, the table should only be used as a reference when you are determining the values for Ki, Kp and Kd.

Example Problem
Suppose we have a simple mass, spring, and damper problem.

The modeling equation of this system is (1) Taking the Laplace transform of the modeling equation (1) The transfer function between the displacement X(s) and the input F(s) then becomes

Let

M = 1kg b = 10 N.s/m k = 20 N/m F(s) = 1

Plug these values into the above transfer function

The goal of this problem is to show you how each of Kp, Ki and Kd contributes to obtain Fast rise time Minimum overshoot No steady-state error

Open-loop step response

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Let's first view the open-loop step response. Create a new m-file and add in the following code:
num=1; den=[1 10 20]; step(num,den)

Running this m-file in the Matlab command window should give you the plot shown below.

The DC gain of the plant transfer function is 1/20, so 0.05 is the final value of the output to an unit step input. This corresponds to the steady-state error of 0.95, quite large indeed. Furthermore, the rise time is about one second, and the settling time is about 1.5 seconds. Let's design a controller that will reduce the rise time, reduce the settling time, and eliminates the steady-state error.

Proportional control
From the table shown above, we see that the proportional controller (Kp) reduces the rise time, increases the overshoot, and reduces the steady-state error. The closed-loop transfer function of the above system with a proportional controller is:

Let the proportional gain (Kp) equals 300 and change the m-file to the following:
Kp=300; num=[Kp]; den=[1 10 20+Kp]; t=0:0.01:2; step(num,den,t)

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Running this m-file in the Matlab command window should gives you the following plot.

Note: The Matlab function called cloop can be used to obtain a closed-loop transfer function directly from the open-loop transfer function (instead of obtaining closed-loop transfer function by hand). The following m-file uses the cloop command that should
give you the identical plot as the one shown above. num=1; den=[1 10 20]; Kp=300; [numCL,denCL]=cloop(Kp*num,den); t=0:0.01:2; step(numCL, denCL,t) The above plot shows that the proportional controller reduced both the rise time and the steady-state error, increased the overshoot, and decreased the settling time by small amount.

Proportional-Derivative control
Now, let's take a look at a PD control. From the table shown above, we see that the derivative controller (Kd) reduces both the overshoot and the settling time. The closed-loop transfer function of the given system with a PD controller is:

Let Kp equals to 300 as before and let Kd equals 10. Enter the following commands into an m-file and run it in the Matlab command window. Kp=300; Kd=10; num=[Kd Kp]; den=[1 10+Kd 20+Kp]; t=0:0.01:2; step(num,den,t)

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This plot shows that the derivative controller reduced both the overshoot and the settling time, and had small effect on the rise time and the steady-state error.

Proportional-Integral control
Before going into a PID control, let's take a look at a PI control. From the table, we see that an integral controller (Ki) decreases the rise time, increases both the overshoot and the settling time, and eliminates the steady-state error. For the given system, the closed-loop transfer function with a PI control is:

Let's reduce the Kp to 30, and let Ki equals to 70. Create an new m-file and enter the following commands. Kp=30; Ki=70; num=[Kp Ki]; den=[1 10 20+Kp Ki]; t=0:0.01:2; step(num,den,t) Run this m-file in the Matlab command window, and you should get the following plot.

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We have reduced the proportional gain (Kp) because the integral controller also reduces the rise time and increases the overshoot as the proportional controller does (double effect). The above response shows that the integral controller eliminated the steady-state error.

Proportional-Integral-Derivative control
Now, let's take a look at a PID controller. The closed-loop transfer function of the given system with a PID controller is:

After several trial and error runs, the gains Kp=350, Ki=300, and Kd=50 provided the desired response. To confirm, enter the following commands to an m-file and run it in the command window. You should get the following step response. Kp=350; Ki=300; Kd=50; num=[Kd Kp Ki]; den=[1 10+Kd 20+Kp Ki]; t=0:0.01:2; step(num,den,t)

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Now, we have obtained the system with no overshoot, fast rise time, and no steadystate error.

General tips for designing a PID controller

When you are designing a PID controller for a given system, follow the steps shown below to obtain a desired response. 1. Obtain an open-loop response and determine what needs to be improved 2. Add a proportional control to improve the rise time 3. Add a derivative control to improve the overshoot 4. Add an integral control to eliminate the steady-state error 5. Adjust each of Kp, Ki, and Kd until you obtain a desired overall response. You can always refer to the table shown in this "PID Tutorial" page to find out which controller controls what characteristics. Lastly, please keep in mind that you do not need to implement all three controllers (proportional, derivative, and integral) into a single system, if not necessary. For example, if a PI controller gives a good enough response (like the above example), then you don't need to implement derivative controller to the system. Keep the controller as simple as possible.

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PID Examples
Cruise Control | Motor Speed | Motor Position | Bus Suspension | Inverted Pendulum | Pitch Controller | Ball and Beam

Tutorials
Basics | Modeling | PID | Root Locus | Frequency Response | State Space | Digital Control | Examples 8/26/97 DK

What is crude oil?

Step right up. In this bottle is a remedy of wonderful efficacy. Its curative powers are calculated to remove pain and alleviate human suffering and disease. Distilled 400 feet below the earth's surface, this remarkable liquid is Mother Nature's bounteous gift of healing. It is my pleasure - no, it is my duty - to bring this soothing restorative, this blessed ointment, this modern-day balm of Gilead to the public. There were few takers of the 19th century elixir that came to be called "snake oil." It was one of the less successful uses of petroleum, but not the first to claim healing properties. Ancient Persians, 10th century Sumatrans and pre-Columbian Indians all believed that crude oil had

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medicinal benefits. Marco Polo found it used in the Caspian Sea region to treat camels for mange, and the first oil exported from Venezuela (in 1539) was intended as a gout treatment for the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. The mysterious oil that sometimes seeped to the earth's surface had other uses as well. In Mesopotamia around 4000 B.C., bitumen - a tarry crude - was used as caulking for ships, a setting for jewels and mosaics, and an adhesive to secure weapon handles. Egyptians used it for embalming, and the walls of Babylon and the famed pyramids were held together with it. The Roman orator Cicero carried a crude-oil lamp. And, in North America, the Senecas and Iroquois used crude oil for body paint and for ceremonial fires. Crude oil - as petroleum directly out of the ground is called - is a remarkably varied substance, both in its use and composition. It can be a straw-colored liquid or tar-black solid. Red, green and brown hues are not uncommon. The image of James Dean dripping with black oil from his Texas gusher in the 1956 movie "Giant" may have been compelling, but it's not descriptive of today's oil producers. For one thing, the days when a gusher signaled a big discovery are long gone. Since the 1930s, oil producers have used blowout preventers to stop gushers. In addition, not all crude oils behave in the Hollywood manner. Some flow about as well as cold peanut butter. Until the late 19th century, an oil find often was met with disinterest or dismay. Pioneers who settled the American West dug wells to find water or brine, a source of salt; they were disappointed when they struck oil. Several historical factors changed that. The kerosene lamp, invented in 1854, ultimately created the first large-scale demand for petroleum. (Kerosene first was made from coal, but by the late 1880s most was derived from crude oil.) In 1859, at Titusville, Penn., Col. Edwin Drake drilled the first successful well through rock and produced crude oil. What some called "Drake's Folly" was the birth of the modern petroleum industry. He sold his "black gold" for $20 a barrel. Petroleum was prized mostly for its yield of kerosene until the turn of the century. Gasoline was burned off, and bitumen and asphalt (the heavier parts of crude oil) were discarded. But gradually rising in importance were the incandescent light and the internal combustion engine. The former relied on oil-fired generating plants; the latter, on gasoline. By the 1920s, crude oil as an energy source - not just as a curiosity - came into its own. But to many, it's still as mysterious as it was to ancient man. Even in the petroleum industry, most people never see crude oil. Geologists generally agree that crude oil was formed over millions of years from the remains of tiny aquatic plants and animals that lived in ancient seas. There may be bits of brontosaurus thrown in for good measure, but petroleum owes its existence largely to one-celled marine organisms. As these organisms died, they sank to the sea bed. Usually buried with sand and mud, they formed an organicrich layer that eventually turned to sedimentary rock. The process repeated itself, one layer covering another. Then, over millions of years, the seas withdrew. In lakes and inland seas, a similar process took place with deposits formed of non-marine vegetation. In some cases, the deposits that formed sedimentary rock didn't contain enough oxygen to completely decompose the organic material. Bacteria broke down the trapped and preserved residue, molecule by molecule, into substances rich in hydrogen and carbon. Increased pressure and heat from the weight of the layers above then caused a partial distillation of the organic remnants, transforming them, ever so slowly, into crude oil and natural gas.

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Although various types of hydrocarbons - molecules made of hydrogen and carbon atoms - form the basis of all petroleum, they differ in their configurations. The carbon atoms may be linked in a ring or a chain, each with a full or partial complement of hydrogen atoms. Some hydrocarbons combine easily with other materials, and some resist such bonding. The number of carbon atoms determines the oil's relative "weight" or density. Gases generally have one to four carbon atoms, while heavy oils and waxes may have 50, and asphalts, hundreds. Hydrocarbons also differ in their boiling temperatures - a key fact for refiners who separate the different components of crude oil by weight and boiling point. Gases, the lightest hydrocarbons, boil below atmospheric temperature. Crude oil components used to make gasoline boil in the range of 55 to 400 degrees Fahrenheit. Those used for jet fuel boil in the range of 300 to 550 degrees, and those for diesel, at about 700 degrees. There are three essentials in the creation of a crude oil field: First, a "source rock" whose geologic history allowed the formation of crude oil. This usually is a fine-grained shale rich in organic matter. Second, migration of the oil from the source rock to a "reservoir rock," usually a sandstone or limestone that's thick and porous enough to hold a sizable accumulation of oil. A reservoir rock that's only a few feet thick may be commercially producible if it's at a relatively shallow depth and near other fields. However, to warrant the cost of producing in more challenging regions (the Arctic North Slope, for example) the reservoir may have to be several hundred feet thick. Third, entrapment. The earth is constantly creating irregular geologic structures through both sudden and gradual movements - earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and erosion caused by wind and water. Uplifted rock, for example, can result in domelike structures or arched folds called anticlines. These often serve as receptacles for hydrocarbons. The probability of discovering oil is greatest when such structures are formed near a source rock. In addition, an overlying, impermeable rock must be present to seal the migrating oil in the structure.

The oldest oil-bearing rocks date back more than 600 million years; the youngest, about 1 million. However, most oil fields have been found in rocks between 10 million and 270 million years old. Subsurface temperature, which increases with depth, is a critical factor in the creation of oil. Petroleum hydrocarbons rarely are formed at temperatures less than 150 degrees Fahrenheit and generally are carbonized and destroyed at temperatures greater than 500 degrees. Most hydrocarbons are found at "moderate" temperatures ranging from 225 to 350 degrees. It is the particular crude oil's geologic history that is most important in determining its characteristics. Some crudes from Louisiana and Nigeria are similar because both were formed in similar marine deposits. In parts of the Far East, crude oil generally is waxy, black or brown, and low in sulfur. It is similar to crudes found in central Africa because both were formed from nonmarine sources. In the Middle East, crude oil is black but less waxy and higher in sulfur. Crude oil from Western Australia can be a light, honey-colored liquid, while that from the North Sea typically is a waxy, greenish-black liquid. Many kinds of crudes are found in the United States because there is great variety in the geologic history of its different regions. Crude oil is a surprisingly abundant commodity. The world has produced some 650 billion barrels of oil, but another trillion barrels of proved reserves have yet to be produced. An additional 10 trillion barrels of oil resources await development, assuming the price of oil someday justifies production. These resources include bitumen, shale oil and oil in existing fields that might be produced through enhanced recovery methods.

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Talk of crude oil oozes with superlatives. Not only was crude oil the basis of the world's first trillion-dollar industry, it also is the largest item in the balance of payments and exchanges between nations. And it employs most of the world's commercial shipping tonnage. Crude oil may not be the panacea that snake oil claimed to be. But for 20th century industrialized nations, it has proved to be more than good medicine.

What is a Refinery?
Inside a maze of silver towers and pipes is a fascinating factory that changes hydrocarbon molecules to make gasoline.

A refinery is a factory. Just as a paper mill turns lumber into legal pads or a glassworks turns silica into stemware, a refinery takes a raw material--crude oil-and transforms it into gasoline and hundreds of other useful products. A typical large refinery costs billions of dollars to build and millions more to maintain and upgrade. It runs around the clock 365 days a year, employs between 1,000 and 2,000 people and occupies as much land as several hundred football fields. It's so big and sprawling, in fact, that workers ride bicycles from one station to another. Chevron has five gasoline-producing "Factories" in the United States and another in Burnaby, British Columbia. Chevron has refining capacities worldwide of over two million barrels per day. These world class operations had surprisingly humble origins. In 1876, company pioneers used wagons and mules to haul two primitive stills to a spot near Pico Canyon, Calif., the site of California's first producing oil wells. The stills, each about the size of a garage, were used to heat oil at the prodigious rate of 25 to 40 barrels a day. This "oil boiling" produced kerosene, lubricants, waxes and gasoline--a clear, lightweight liquid that generally was discarded as a useless byproduct. (Read more about Chevron's first refineries in the History section.)

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Gasoline's lowly status rose quickly after 1892, when Charles Duryea built the first U.S. gas-powered automobile. From then on, the light stuff from crude oil became the right stuff. Today, some refineries can turn more than half of every 42-gallon barrel of crude oil into gasoline. That's a remarkable technological improvement from 70 years ago, when only 11 gallons of gasoline could be produced. How does this transformation take place? Essentially, refining breaks crude oil down into its various components, which then are selectively reconfigured into new products. This process takes place inside a maze of hardware that one observer has likened to "a metal spaghetti factory." Employees regulate refinery operations from within highly automated control rooms. Because so much activity happens out of sight, refineries are surprisingly quiet places. The only sound most visitors hear is the constant, low hum of heavy equipment. The complexity of this equipment varies from one refinery to the next. In general, the more sophisticated a refinery, the better its ability to upgrade crude oil into high-value products. Whether simple or complex, however, all refineries perform three basic steps: separation, conversion and treatment.

Separation: heavy on the bottom, light on the top

Modern separation--which is not terribly different from the "cooking" methods used at the Pico Canyon stills--involves piping oil through hot furnaces. The resulting liquids and vapors are discharged into distillation towers, the tall, narrow columns that give refineries their distinctive skylines. Inside the towers, the liquids and vapors separate into components or fractions according to weight and boiling point. The lightest fractions, including gasoline and liquid petroleum gas (LPG), vaporize and rise to the top of the tower, where they condense back to liquids. Medium weight liquids, including kerosene and diesel oil distillates, stay in the middle. Heavier liquids, called gas oils, separate lower down, while the heaviest fractions with the highest boiling points settle at the bottom. These tarlike fractions, called residuum, are literally the "bottom of the barrel." The fractions now are ready for piping to the next station or plant within the refinery. Some components require relatively little additional processing to become asphalt base or jet fuel. However, most molecules that are destined to become high-value products require much more processing.

Conversion: cracking and rearranging molecules to add value

This is where refining's fanciest footwork takes place--where fractions from the distillation towers are transformed into streams (intermediate components) that eventually become finished products. This also is where a refinery makes money, because only through conversion can most low-value fractions become gasoline. The most widely used conversion method is called cracking because it uses heat and pressure to "crack" heavy hydrocarbon molecules into lighter ones. A

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cracking unit consists of one or more tall, thick-walled, bulletshaped reactors and a network of furnaces, heat exchangers and other vessels. Fluid catalytic cracking, or "cat cracking," is the basic gasolinemaking process. Using intense heat (about 1,000 degrees Fahrenheit), low pressure and a powdered catalyst (a substance that accelerates chemical reactions), the cat cracker can convert most relatively heavy fractions into smaller gasoline molecules. Hydrocracking applies the same principles but uses a different catalyst, slightly lower temperatures, much greater pressure and hydrogen to obtain chemical reactions. Although not all refineries employ hydrocracking, Chevron is an industry leader in using this technology to cost-effectively convert medium- to heavyweight gas oils into high-value streams. The company's patented hydrocracking process, which takes place in the Isocracker unit, produces mostly gasoline and jet fuel. Some Chevron refineries also have cokers, which use heat and moderate pressure to turn residuum into lighter products and a hard, coallike substance that is used as an industrial fuel. Cokers are among the more peculiar-looking refinery structures. They resemble a series of giant drums with metal derricks on top. Cracking and coking are not the only forms of conversion. Other refinery processes, instead of splitting molecules, rearrange them to add value. Alkylation, for example, makes gasoline components by combining some of the gaseous byproducts of cracking. The process, which essentially is cracking in reverse, takes place in a series of large, horizontal vessels and tall, skinny towers that loom above other refinery structures. Reforming uses heat, moderate pressure and catalysts to turn naphtha, a light, relatively low-value fraction, into high-octane gasoline components. Chevron's patented reforming process is called Rheniforming for the rheniumplatinum catalyst used.

Treatment: the finishing touch

Back when Chevron's founders boiled crude oil to get kerosene, they didn't have to worry about customer specifications or government standards. Today, however, a major portion of refining involves blending, purifying, fine-tuning and otherwise improving products to meet these requirements. To make Chevron gasoline, refinery technicians carefully combine a variety of streams from the processing units. Among the variables that determine the blend are octane level, vapor pressure ratings and special considerations, such as whether the gasoline will be used at high altitudes. Technicians also add Techron, Chevron's patented performance additive, and dyes that distinguish the various grades of fuel. Refining has come a long way since the oil boiling days of Pico Canyon. By the time a gallon of gasoline is pumped into a car's tank, it contains more than 200

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hydrocarbons and additives. All that changing of molecules pays off in a product that ensures smooth, high-performance driving.

You can view an illustration showing a refinery's most important processes. Ever wonder what are the key factors in running a refinery? Read a quick lesson in refinery economics to find out. Almost half of every barrel of crude oil ends up as something other than gasoline. Here are a few.

2002-2006 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. Privacy & Terms of Use

crude oil byproduct

Oil Refineries
A refinery is a factory. A refinery takes a raw material (crude oil) and transforms it into petrol and hundreds of other useful products. A typical large refinery costs billions of pounds to build and millions more to run and upgrade. It runs around the clock 365 days a year, employs hundreds of people and occupies as much land as several hundred football pitches. A REFINERY breaks crude oil down into its various components, which then are selectively changed into new products. This process takes place inside a maze of pipes and vessels. The refinery is operated from a highly automated control room.

The Rock C

Plate Tecton

Earth Struct Volcanoes

Earth Origin

Earth's Atm Polymers home

Fossil Fuels

Moorland S Clitheroe, Lancashire BB7 2AJ England email

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All refineries perform three basic steps:

Separation (fractional distillation) Conversion (cracking and rearranging the molecules) Treatment

Separation: fractional distillation

Modern separation involves piping crude oil through hot furnaces. The resulting liquids and vapours are passed into distillation towers:-

FRACTION Refinery gas Petrol Naptha Kerosine Diesel Oils Hot crude Bitumen

B Pt o C

Number of carbons 1-4

Uses Bottled gas, fuels Fuel for cars Raw material for chemicals and plastics. Fuel for Aeroplanes Fuel for cars and lorries Fuel for Power Stations, Lubricants and grease Road surfacing.

40 110 180 250 340 400+

~8 ~10 ~15 ~20 ~35 40+

It is important to realise that the column is hot at the bottom and cool at the top. The crude oil separates into fractions according to weight and boiling point. The lightest fractions, including petrol and liquid petroleum gas (LPG), vapourise and rise to the top of the tower.

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Kerosine (aviation fuel) and diesel oil, stay in the middle of the tower Heavier liquids separate lower down. The heaviest fractions with the highest boiling points settle at the very bottom.

TRENDS AS WE UP AND DOWN THE COLUMN

The following table shows how the behaviour of the hydrocarbon molecules alter: AT THE TOP OF THE COLUMN AT THE BOTTOM OF THE COLUMN

Short carbon chains Light molecules Low boiling points Gases & very runny liquids Very volatile Highly flammable Light colour

Long carbon chains Heavy molecules High boiling points Thick, viscous liquids Low volatility Not very flammable Dark colour

Fuel oil comes off near the bottom of the column. Does the list above describe fuel oil? The fractions are now ready for piping to the next areas within the refinery. Some fractions require very little additional processing. However, most molecules require much more processing to become high-value products. Petrol comes off near the top of the column. Does the list above describe petrol?

Conversion: cracking and rearranging molecules

Some fractions from the distillation towers need to be transformed into new components . This is where a refinery makes money, because the low-value fractions that aren't in great demand can be converted to petrol and other useful chemicals. The most widely used conversion method is called cracking because it uses heat and pressure to "crack" heavy hydrocarbon molecules into lighter ones. A cracking unit consists of one or more tall, thick-walled, reactors and a network of furnaces, heat exchangers and other vessels. Catalytic cracking, or "cat cracking," is the basic petrolmaking process. Using intense heat (about 600C), low pressure and a powdered catalyst

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(a substance that speeds up a chemical reaction), the cat cracker can convert most of the heavy fractions into smaller more useful molecules. Some refineries also have cokers, which use heat and moderate pressure to turn the really heavy fractions into lighter products and a hard, coal like substance that is used as an industrial fuel. Cracking and coking are not the only forms of conversion. Other refinery processes, instead of splitting molecules, rearrange them to add value. Alkylation makes petrol components by combining some of the gaseous byproducts of cracking. The process, which essentially is cracking in reverse, takes place in a series of large, horizontal vessels. Reforming uses heat, moderate pressure and catalysts to turn naphtha into high-octane petrol.

Treatment: the finishing touch

Today, a major portion of refining involves blending, purifying, fine-tuning and improving products to meet specific requirements. To make petrol, refinery workers carefully blend together a variety of hydrocarbons. Technicians also add performance additives and dyes that distinguish the various grades of fuel. By the time the petrol is pumped into a car it contains more than 200 hydrocarbons and additives. Example: Petrol companies produce different blends of fuels to suit the weather. In winter, they put in more volatile hydrocarbons (with short carbon chains) and in summer they add less volatile hydrocarbons to compensate for the higher temperatures.

Back to OIL & GAS Print Page Close Window

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previous image next image This simplied process flow chart shows how crude oil is processed into transportation fuels.

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 2002-2006 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. All rights reserved. Privacy & Terms of Use

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