SOLIDS NOTES 11, George G.

Chase, The University of Akron

11. GRADE EFFICIENCY

Classification is the art of separating solid particles in a mixture of solids and fluid into fractions according to particle size or density by methods other than screening. Most methods of separation are not 100% effective. There is usually a range of particle sizes that are separated with varying degrees of efficiency. The variation in the efficiency is referred to as the Grade Efficiency Curve. A good discussion on Grade Efficiency is given by Svarovsky.1 The grade efficiency is a way of characterizing how well particles are separated according to size (density, or some other desired property). Separation of particles by size is referred to as classification. The process of classification has been used for many years. Some methods make a sloppy separation while others make a sharp classification. Usually for the same production rate, the sharp separation will be more expensive, as could be deduced from the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics.

11.1 Why Do We Classify Particles?

We classify particles to remove contaminants and unlike particles (wheat from chaff, or metal particles from polymers). We classify to remove unwanted parts of a size distribution. In Figure 11-1 indicates the tailings and oversize particles that may be removed from a material for a particular purpose.

FREQUENCY

SIZE TAILINGS OVERSIZE

Figure 11-1. Size distribution indicating undesired tailings and oversize particle ranges.

Ladislav Svarovsky, Solid-Liquid Separation, 3rd ed., Butterworths, London, 1990, Chapter 3.

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SOLIDS NOTES 11, George G. Chase, The University of Akron

There are many processes that may be used to classify particles: Screening Sieving Air or water classification Physical separations Magnetic Gravity Electrostatic Radiation Color These methods are effective, but rate of production may be low. These methods take advantage of different drag forces acting on different size particles. These methods rely on physical properties other than differences in fluid drag to classify.

An example of gravity separation if a mixture of plastic milk jugs (high density poly ethylene, density of 0.95 g/cc) and plastic ware (polystyrene, density of 1.05 g/cc) is dumped into a tank of water, the milk jug plastic will float while the plastic ware will sink. This provides a simple means for separation. Some additional examples of separators are given in Figures 11-2 through 11-4. Air Paper Exit Stream Air Air Plastic and metals input Metals and Plastics Exit Stream Figure 11-2. Air classifier for separating paper and low density materials from solid waste streams. The large drag force to gravitational force ratio of the air on the low density materials causes materials such as paper to separate from plastics and metals. Magnetized cylinder Rotating belt Plastic and metals input Solid Trash Feed Stream

Ferrous metals output

Plastic and non-ferrous metals output

Figure 11-3. Example of a magnetized separator. As the belt rotates around the magnetized cylindrical roller the ferrous materials cling longer to the belt than non-ferrous materials fall off and thus allow separation.

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SOLIDS NOTES 11, George G. Chase, The University of Akron

Top View

Air Holes

Moving Belt

Monolayer of Chopped plastic Moving Belt Side View

Laser scan to ID colors by location

Air jets use puffs of air to blow plastic squares into separate bins

Air Jets

Figure 11-4. Separation by color. Chopped plastic pieces are spread in a monolayer on a perforated moving belt. Lasers scan the belt and identify the locations of plastic pieces of specific colors. Air jets corresponding to the locations of the identified plastic pieces apply puffs of air to blow the plastic pieces into bins.

10.2 Measuring Efficiency

Separation efficiency is directly related to processing costs. Most separations are not 100% efficient. The outlet streams of the separation may be concentrated in the desired or undesired products, but may not be pure. The challenge is to determine the best way to define and measure the efficiency of the separation. The method of separation considered here is called the Grade Efficiency (For an alternative method based on thermodynamic entropy, see the paper by Guistino et.al.2). A black box powder separation process is shown in Figure 11-5. The total mass balance gives

M = Mc + M f .
The total separation efficiency,

(11-1)

ET , is defined as
Mf Mc = 1 . M M
(11-2)

ET =

We assume that there is no agglomeration or comminution in the separator. For a particle size, x, the masses of size x in each stream are noted by M x , M fx , M cx . By analogy with Eq.(11-2), the grade efficiency of separation of size x is defined as

Gx =

M cx Mx

(11-3)

JM Giustino, G.G. Chase, and M.S. Willis, Thermodynamic Separation Efficiency and Sedimentation Criteria for Multiphase Processes: A Comparison of Rigorous and Approximate Models, Separations Technology, 5 (3), 153-164, 1995.

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SOLIDS NOTES 11, George G. Chase, The University of Akron

Coarse Stream Total mass Mc of powder

Feed Stream Total mass M of powder

Black box Separation Process

Fines Stream Total mass Mf of powder

Figure 11-5. Black box (hypothetical) separation process to separation coarse particles from fine particles.

We know from the definitions of frequency distributions (see notes Section 3, Properties of Particulate Solids) that the mass and mass components of each stream are related by

M x = M (fraction of size x) = M f x dx = M dFx

similarly, (11-4)

M cx = M c f cx dx = M c dFcx
M c f cx . Mf x

(11-5)

Hence, the grade efficiency is related to the size distribution functions by

G ( x) =

(11-6)

A typical plot of the grade efficiency versus the particle size is shown in Figure 11-5. The area under the curve plotted in Figure 11-6 represents the coarse cut (the stream with the larger particles) and the area above the plotted curve represents the fines cut. Svrovsky1 gives more detail on defining and measuring these curves.

1 Fines Cut
G ( x)

Coarse Cut

0 x
Figure 11-6. Typical S-shaped grade efficiency curve. At a point, x, on the curve, G(x) represents the fraction of particles of size x that are separated out of the feed stream and contained in the fines product stream.

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SOLIDS NOTES 11, George G. Chase, The University of Akron

For a continuous steady process the curve in Figure 11-6 is steady. For an unsteady process such as filtration, the curve changes with time, as shown in Figure 11-7.

G ( x)

Increasing Time

G ( x)
Increasing Time

x
Cake Filtration

x
Depth Filtration

Figure 11-7. Comparison of typical grade efficiency curves for Cake Filtration and Depth Filtration. In a typical cake filtration, as the filter cake depth increases, the cake itself improves the separation and the grade efficiency shifts with increasing efficiencies for smaller particles. In Depth filtration, initially the filter may perform very well. Gradually the capture sites in a typical depth filter are occupied (though other mechanisms such as straining may occur) and the fine particles start to bleed through. Hence in Depth Filtration the grade efficiency curve shifts toward larger particles as the filter becomes less efficient at capturing small particles.

As an example of how you might apply the grade efficiency curve, consider the water filter pumps used by backpackers on a hiking trail. One of the objectives of the filter is to remove harmful bacteria from water. Bacteria are typically greater than 1 micron in size. If you have the choice of two filters with grade efficiency curves shown in Figure 11-8, the savy backpacker would choose filter A because it is better than 99.99% effective at removing 1 micron particles. Filter B appears to be only about 50% effective at removing 1 micron particles.

A
G ( x)

10

x, microns
Figure 11-8. Comparison of grade efficiency curves for two filters, A and B. Filter A is approximately 99+% efficient at removing 1 micron particles. Filter B is only about 50% efficient at removing 1 micron particles, though it is 99+% efficient at removing 10 micron particles.

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SOLIDS NOTES 11, George G. Chase, The University of Akron

11.3 Cut Size and Sharpness of Cut

To compare efficiencies between steady state processes, we define cut size and sharpness of cut. Normally, cut size refers to the 50% cut size, denoted x50 . This is the particle size for which 50% of the particles exit the separation process in the coarse product stream and 50% exit in the fines product stream. Sharpness of cut is defined as a ratio of particle sizes specified at two efficiencies, typically at 20% and 80%. The sharpness of cut is defined as

I 80 / 20 =

x80 x 20

(11-7)

By this definition, and because the grade efficiency is a monotonically increasing curve, the sharpness must be greater than or equal to unity. In an idealized case in which there is a perfect separation, where all particles less than the 50% cut size exit in the fines stream and all particles greater than the cut size exit in the coarse stream, the sharpness of cut equals unity. Real separation processes have a sharpness of cut greater than unity. These concepts are shown in Figure 11-9. Idealized sharp cutoff with

x80 =1 x20

G ( x)
80 50 20

(a)

G ( x)

(b)

50

The sharper the cut the smaller the triangular areas between the real and idealized grade efficiency curves. x50

x20 x50

x80

Figure 11-9. (a)Typical grade efficiency curve with the particle sizes indicated for which the separation is 20, 50, and 80 percent efficient. (b) The idealized sharp cutoff grade efficiency curve is a vertical line

Other definitions of sharpness of cut are also used, including 1.

I 20 / 80 =

x 20 which is the inverse of I 80 / 20 . x values such as 90/10 could also be defined. x80
dG . dx Ix = dG ( x) dx

2.

Variance in the slope,

3. 4.

Slope of the grade efficiency curve,

Sum of triangular areas in Figure 11-9(b).

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SOLIDS NOTES 11, George G. Chase, The University of Akron

11.4 Construction of the Grade Efficiency Curve

In the ideal case you would feed into your separator a material with a monodispersed particle size distribution (of size x). You would Measure

M x , M cx , M fx ,
G ( x) ,

Calculated

Repeat for other size x (until you have enough points to construct your curve or you loose patience).

This approach is not very realistic because of the difficulty in obtaining monodispersed materials (especially in the very small particle size range) and because of the time and effort required. In real applications you need to measure two of the following Feed rate, Coarse product rate, Fines product rate,

and you need at least two of the following, Feed particle size distribution, Coarse particle size distribution, Fine particle size distribution.

It is best to have data from the smaller of the two product streams because errors in sampling are smaller than when you subtract tow larger streams to get the smaller stream. As indicated in Figure 11-10, the flow rate of the smaller stream may be less than the error of measurement of the larger streams.

10 lbm/hr ? 10,000 lbm/hr 50 lbm/hr 9,990 lbm/hr 50 lbm/hr

Figure 11-10. Example in which the size of the smaller product stream is smaller than the error in measurements of the other two steams. Due to the error, it is better to measure the smaller stream directly instead of calculating it from the two larger streams.

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SOLIDS NOTES 11, George G. Chase, The University of Akron

11.5 Example 1
A sample of the feed, coarse, and fines streams for a separation of a material "Hexamethyl chicken wire" is screened with the following results: Screen Size (microns) Average Particle Size Feed Size mass Fraction retained on screen Mass Rate of particles size x in Feed Stream Coarse Size mass Fraction retained on screen Mass Rate of particles size x in Coarse Stream Fines Size mass Fraction retained on screen Mass Rate of particles size x in Fines Stream

G(x ) =

M cx Mx

Fx
850 600 425 300 212 Total 725 512.5 362.5 256 ~0 0.30 0.40 0.20 0.10 1

Mx

Fcx
~0 0.45 0.45 0.09 0.01 1

M cx

F fx
~0 0.075 0.325 0.365 0.235 1

M fx

The stream rates are: Feed rate = 100 lbm/hr Coarse Product Rate = 60 lbm/hr Fines Product Rate = 40 lbm/hr
G(x) 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 100 0 Size, microns

Plot the grade efficiency curve and calculate I20/80.

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SOLIDS NOTES 11, George G. Chase, The University of Akron

SOLUTION A sample of the feed, coarse, and fines streams for a separation of a material "Hexamethyl chicken wire" is screened with the following results:

Screen Size (microns)

Average Particle Size

Feed Size mass Fraction retained on screen

Mass Rate of particles size x in Feed Stream

Coarse Size mass Fraction retained on screen

Mass Rate of particles size x in Coarse Stream

Fines Size mass Fraction retained on screen

Mass Rate of particles size x in Fines Stream

G(x ) =

M cx Mx

Fx
850 600 425 300 212 Total 725 512.5 362.5 256 ~0 0.30 0.40 0.20 0.10 1

Mx
0 30 40 20 10 100

Fcx
~0 0.45 0.45 0.09 0.01 1

M cx
0 27 27 5.4 0.6 60

F fx
~0 0.075 0.325 0.365 0.235 1

M fx
0 3 13 14.6 9.4 40 1 0.9 0.68 0.27 0.06

The stream rates are: Feed rate = 100 lbm/hr Coarse Product Rate = 60 lbm/hr Fines Product Rate = 40 lbm/hr
1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 G(x) 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 100 0 Size, microns

Plot the grade efficiency curve and calculate I20/80. SOLUTION: Recall that

M x = M Fx M cx = M c Fcx
M fx = M f F fx

Using these equations and a basis of 1 hour, the table is filled in. The calculated points for the Grade Efficiency are plotted on the graph and a curve is fitted to the points. From the curve the x 20 , x50 , and x80 values are estimated to be 330, 425, and 625 microns respectively. The sharpness of cut is calculated to be

I 20 / 80 =

270 = 0.514 . 525

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SOLIDS NOTES 11, George G. Chase, The University of Akron

BLANK FORM FOR CALCULATING GRADE EFFICIENCY

Screen Size (microns)

Average Particle Size

Feed Size mass Fraction retained on screen

Mass Rate of particles size x in Feed Stream

Coarse Size mass Fraction retained on screen

Mass Rate of particles size x in Coarse Stream

Fines Size mass Fraction retained on screen

Mass Rate of particles size x in Fines Stream

G(x ) =

M cx Mx

Fx

Mx

Fcx

M cx

F fx

M fx

The stream rates are: Feed rate = Coarse Product Rate = Fines Product Rate =
1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 G(x) 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 100 0 Size, microns

Plot the grade efficiency curve and calculate I20/80.

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SOLIDS NOTES 11, George G. Chase, The University of Akron

11.5 Example 2
The grade efficiency represents the fractional amount of particles by mass of size x in the feed stream that exits the separator in the coarse stream. Derive a formula in terms of Grade efficiencies for determining the fractional amount of particles of size x in the course stream exiting separator 2 in the compound process shown in Figure 11-11.

M feed

Mc1 coarse

2 Mf1 fines SOLUTION

Mc2 coarse Mf2 fines

The fractional amount of size x in the coarse stream exiting separator 2 can by determined by

Mass balances

M f 1 = M c2 + M f 2 M = M c1 + M f 1
Definitions

G1 =

M c1 M

G2 =

M c2 M f1

Fractional amount of feed exiting separator 2 is given by

M c2 M c2 M f 1 = M M f1 M M M c1 M = G2 (1 G1 ) = G2

11-11