Myers-Briggs Type Indicator: An Introduction

State the purpose for administering MBTI to the group. You could say something like, "Today I want to introduce you to one of the most widely used instruments for helping individuals learn more about their personalities. The instrument is the MBTI. We will administer the instrument today, score it, and report your results to you during a subsequent class session. Once you receive your results, we plan to use the information to help you with your career exploration." What the MBTI is and is not. The MBTI s a practical application of the typology theory developed by the Swiss psychologist Carl Jung. It was one of the first psychological instruments developed to help individuals learn about the positive aspects of the personality. The development of the MBTI, that you are about to take, was the life work of two brilliant women. Katherine Briggs and her daughter Isabel BriggsMyers. Their intention for its use was to help individuals discover their strength and celebrate their uniqueness. With that in mind, it is important that you answer the questions as truthfully as possible. The results will only be valid and useful to you if your answers are the "real" you. What I mean by that is not answering in one of your roles, such as your "student self" or your "son or daughter self" or your "work self" or any other of those many persons that we all assume in different situations and environments. Another way people tend to answer the questions is as their "best self" or how they would like to be or how they hope they will be one day. Try not to do that. Again the results will not be valid if you don't answer like you really are. Remember the MBTI is intended to help you identify your preferences: things or behavior that you like or favor. Preference is one of the key words when talking about the MBTI or type theory. Preference in this context refers to favoring one thing or one way of acting over another. For instance, you may prefer rock music to classical music, but that doesn't necessarily mean that you don't like classical at all, or that you'd never like classical music or be incapable of liking classical music. It means that normally, given a choice between rock or classical, you would pick rock because that's your preference. All of this is to say thisthe MBTI instrument is made up of 126 questions that ask you to choose one thing over another. When you answer these questions, remember that your choice is the thing that you prefer the most or in most situations would prefer.

A couple of other notes about what the MBTI is NOT:

It is not an IQ test It is not an indicator of illness or dysfunction It is not an indicator or any type mental deficiency The MBTI does not show any flaws of an individual It does define the positive differences we all have

Again, the MBTI can:

Increase self-awareness and recognize strengths Help you better understand others, including friends, spouses and children Help you communicate better Help you choose a career Finally, the question usually comes up of, "Who is going to see my results?" We hope that you'll share your results as readily as you would tell someone your name or where you're from. That will be up to you. At the college, your instructor, the test scorer, and I will be aware of your results and we will, of course, make you aware of ours.

*Questions? *Read the "Instructions for Completing the MBTI Form."

1. Extrovert-Introvert This scale explains how we get our energy. Extroverts (E) are energized by interaction with others. They love to talk, participate, organize, party. They are people of action. Extroverts love parties, especially when they can talk with everyone present. Es are pulled into social life and find it difficult to settle down, read, or concentrate on homework. They hate to listen and need to talk to work out their ideas. They will find many college tasks challenging (reading, research, writing) because they are solitary endeavors. Introverts (I) are energized by the inner world of reflection, thought, and contemplation. They need space and time alone. Introverts like reading, lectures, written over oral work. They usually have a longer attention span and prefer to think things through before acting. Is are uncomfortable in discussion groups, may find it difficult to remember names, and hesitate to speak up in class. Introverts will have fun at a party if they can talk with one person all night. 2. Sensing-Intuitive (S-N) This scale suggests how you take in information. It has the biggest impact on how we learn.

Sensing (S) people rely heavily on their five senses to take in information. They like concrete facts, organization, and structure. They are good at memorization, usually realistic, and relatively conventional. Is are oriented toward the present, the concrete, and the here and now. Sensing people usually like outlines, clear guidelines, and specifics. They often have difficulty with theory. They ask who, what, when, where? Sensing students read the question several times before answering it to be certain they understand it. Intuitive (N) people see the world through intuition. They learn by hunches, look at the forest rather than individual trees. They want to know the theory before deciding that facts are important. They are creative, innovative, and work with bursts of energy. Ns will write their term paper and then finish the required outline. Intuitives will always ask "why" before anything else. Intuitive students may not read a test question all the way through, sometimes missing a key part, because they act on their hunches. 3. Thinking-Feeling This range tells how we make decisions. Thinking (T) people decide on the basis of logic, analysis, and reason. They follow their head rather than their heart, value truth over tact, and sometimes appear blunt and uncaring about the feelings of others. Ts usually have strongly held principles, value fairness over everything, and need purpose. People who must make decisions that negatively effect many individual lives (surgeons and corporation presidents) are often Thinking types. Feeling (F) persons follow their heart rather than their head. They decide on the basis of their feelings, personal likes and dislikes. They want others to like them so find it difficult to say no or disagree with others. Fs need and value kindness. Feeling types value harmony and are distressed by interpersonal friction. Feeling types are often found in social work, elementary school teaching, and other helping professions. They feel rewarded when they can help others. 4. Judging-Perceiving This range suggests the type of life style and work habits we prefer. Judging (J) types try to order and control their world. They are decisive, may be closed-minded, and are usually well organized. They meet deadlines, like planning, and prefer to work on only one thing at a time. Perceiving (P) types are spontaneous and don't like to be boxed in by deadlines or plans. They want to gather more information before making a decision. They work at many things at once. Ps are flexible and often good in emergencies when plans are disrupted. Their biggest problem is procrastination. They may make a calendar of things to do, but will probably lose it.

How E and I Preferences Affect Learning

EXTRAVERSION INTROVERSION

Cognitive style: The extraversion preference is expressed as a cognitive style that favors:

Cognitive style: The introversion preference is expressed as a cognitive style that favors:

Learning by talking and physically engaging the environment, letting attention flow outward toward objective events, talking to help thoughts to form and become clear learning through interactions, verbal and non-verbal

Study style: Extraverted study styles favor: acting first, reflecting after, plunging into new material starting interactions needed to stimulate reflection and concentration having a strong, interesting, external reason for studying, beyond learning for its own sake avoiding distractions that will cut into their concentration studying with a friend studying to prepare to teach someone Instruction that fits E's: The extravert types do their best work with: opportunities to think out loud; e.g., one-to-one with the teacher, classroom discussions, working with another

quiet reflection keeping one's thoughts inside until they are polished letting attention flow inward being engrossed in inner events: ideas, impressions, concepts learning in private, individual ways

Study Style: Introverted study styles favor: reflecting first, acting after looking for new data to fit into the internal dialogue that is always going on working privatelyperhaps checking one's work with someone who is trusted reading as the main way of studying listening to others talk about topics being studied, and privately processing what they take in extraverting just when they choose Instruction that fits I's: These types like situations that let them: work internally with

student, action projects involving people learning activities that have an effect outside the learner, such as visible results from a project teachers who manage classroom dialogue so that extraverts have ways to clarify their ideas aloud before they add them to class discussion assignments that let them see what other people are doing and is regarded important

their own thoughts: listening, observing, lab work, reading, writing process experiences at own pace present the results of their work in forms that let them keep privacy have ample time to polish their work inside before needing to present it have time to reflect before answering the teacher's questions tie their studies to their own personal interests, their internal agenda

How the S and N Preferences Affect Learning

SENSING Cognitive style: The sensing preference is expressed in a cognitive style that favors:

INTUITION Cognitive style: The intuition preference is expressed in cognitive style that prefers:

being careful to get the facts right memory of facts observing specifics, absorbing data starting with concrete experience, then moving to the abstract aiming toward soundness of understanding, staying connected to practical realities around oneself

being caught up in inspiration moving quickly in seeing meanings and associations reading between the lines relying on easy use of words more than memory of facts focusing on general

attending to what is in the present moment

Instruction that fits S's: Sensing types do their best work with: instruction that allows them to hear and touch as Instruction that fits well as see (or only read N's: They perform their best work with: about) what they are assignments that learning hands-on labs, material put them on their own initiative that can be handled real choices in the relevant films and other ways they work out audio-visuals their assignments computer-assisted opportunities for instruction self-instruction first hand experience that individually or with gives practice for the skills a group and concepts to be opportunities to be learned inventive and teachers who provide original concrete experiences first a system of in any learning sequence, individual contracts before textbooks between teacher teachers who show them and students exactly what facts and fascinating new skills the adult world possibilities expects of them experiences rich teachers who do not move with complexities "too quickly" through work that stays material, touching just the high spots before jumping fresh by calling for from thought to thought new skills, not just assignments that allow repetition of existing skills them to start with facts before having to imagine teachers with brisk possibilities pace, who don't go skills and facts they can "too slowly" use in their present lives

concepts more than details and practical facts relying on insight more than careful observation

How the T and F Preferences Affect Learning

THINKING FEELING

Cognitive style: A preference for thinking is expressed in a cognitive style that favors:

Cognitive style: A preference for feeling is expressed in a cognitive style that favors:

making impersonal judgements aiming toward objective truth analyzing experiences to find logical principles underlying them keeping mental life in order through logical principles staying cool and free of emotional concerns while making decisions naturally critiquing things, finding flaws to fix, aiming toward clarity and precision

making caring judgements taking into account people's motive and personal value attending to relationships between people, seeking harmony personalizing issues and causes that have high priorty staying tuned to emotional aspects of life naturally appreciating people and things

Study style: The thinking preference is reflected in a study style that favors: logically constructed subject matter classrooms free from emotional distractions interesting problems to analyze wanting to bring logical order out of confused situations wanting to get mastery over material Instruction that fits T's: The thinking types do their best work with: teachers who are logically organized

Study style: Students who prefer feeling judgment usually favor: having topics to study that they care deeply about, with a human angle to them learning through personal relationships rather than impersonal, individualized activities warm and friendly classrooms learning by helping, responding to other's needs Instruction that fits F's: The feeling types do their best work with: teachers who value personal rapport with students assignments that have a goal of contributing to

subjects that show cause and effect relationships subjects that respond to logic feedback that shows them specific objective achievement

others receiving appreciation for them as persons harmonious small-group work

HOW THE J AND P PREFERENCES AFFECT LEARNING

JUDGEMENT Cognitive style: Running one's outer life with a judgement process is expressed as a cognitive style that favors:

PERCEPTION Cognitive style: Running one's outer life with a judgement process is expressed as a cognitive style that favors:

having a clear structure in a learning situation from the beginning aiming toward completions and getting closure having life organized into an orderly plan, looking for consistency, wanting to be able to predict how things will come out.

open exploration without a preplanned structure staying open to new experiences managing emerging problems with plans that emerge with the problems having the stimulation of something new and different.

Study style: J types typically adopt a study style that includes: planful and scheduled work, drawing energy from the steady, orderly process of doing work

Study style: P types typically adopt a study style that includes: spontaneously following their curiosity studying when the surges of impulsive energy come to them studying to discover something new to them finding novel ways to do

wanting to know exactly what they are accountable for and be what standards they will be judged seeing assignments as serious business, and persisting in doing them.

routine assignments so as to spark enough interest to do the assignments. Instructions that fits Ps: The P types do their best work when: they can pursue problems in their own way they have genuine choices in assignments, as with a system of individual contracts in which the student can negotiate some of the activities

Instructions that fits Js: The J types do their best work with: preplanned structure, and a teacher who carefully provides it predictability and consistency formalized instruction that move s on orderly sequences

assignments hold their interest their work feels like play.

prescribed tasks, milestones, completion points, ceremonies to honor successful completions.

WHEN LEARNING SOMETHING NEW, I WOULD RATHER: E --or-- I

Talk out my thoughts as they come to me Plunge in Interact with other people or things while learning Try out ideas right away

Keep thought inside until they're polished Try things out in my thoughts first Do my learning in private, individual ways Look inside myself for ideas and energy Take plenty of time

before I act

WHEN LEARNING SOMETHING NEW, I WOULD PREFER: S --or-- N

Doing something practical, useful right now Starting with solid facts Going step by step in new material Starting with known things and adding on Starting with firsthand experience that gives practice in things to be learned Starting with handson things

Doing something that catches my imagination Starting with interesting concepts Finding my own way in new material Exploring possibilities Sampling new skills rather than practicing familiar ones Starting with a concept or idea

I DO MY BEST LEARNING WITH: T --or-- F

Teachers who organize the classroom with logical systems Feedback that shows what I do and don't accomplish A cool, objective approach to things Clear, logical material to study Things I can analyze

Teachers who organize the classroom through harmony and personal relations Feedback that shows appreciation of me as a person Personal relationships as the key to my learning Issues and causes I care deeply about Situations where helping people is the main work

I GET MY BEST ENERGY FOR LEARNING WHEN I:

J --or-- P

Have things organized in a clear plan Have deadlines and stay well ahead of them Do my work in a steady way toward completion Know just what I am accountable for Have instruction that is organized and move in predictable ways

Can explore things without preplanning Spontaneously follow my curiosity Do my work when the surges of interest take hold of me Have genuine choices in assignments Have work that feels like play

Sensing (S) people rely heavily on their five senses to take in information. They like concrete facts, organization, and structure. They are good at memorization, usually realistic, and relatively conventional. Is are oriented toward the present, the concrete, and the here and now. Sensing people usually like outlines, clear guidelines, and specifics. They often have difficulty with theory. They ask who, what, when, where? Sensing students read the question several times before answering it to be certain they understand it. Intuitive (N) people see the world through intuition. They learn by hunches, look at the forest rather than individual trees. They want to know the theory before deciding that facts are important. They are creative, innovative, and work with bursts of energy. Ns will write their term paper and then finish the required outline. Intuitives will always ask "why" before anything else. Intuitive students may not read a test question all the way through, sometimes missing a key part, because they act on their hunches.

Type Related Strategies For Students To Try To Develop Their "Less-Preferred" Type Preferences
All students should study with students who are successful learn from their methods

E.

Distraction free study environment Utilize a study group Limit organizational memberships

I.

Class Discussions - goal to make comment per session Prepare ahead to comment Join an organization

S.

Make big picture connections and patterns Whenever possible do labs, then read theory Don't ask how long, many, etc. questions of faculty Don't study longer & harder, - study smarter

N.

Break long term assignments into manageable parts Set specific goals, proofread backwards and forwards

T.

The world is not solely black or white, learn to see the gray too Don't split hairs

F.

If professor is blunt or unfriendly - it probably means nothing personal Study away from phone, roommates, etc. Be sure study groups have some T's to insure task orientation Say no to distractions - if they are really your friends they'll understand

J.

Relax - schedule fun time When professor deviates from schedule; relax and realize s/he is teaching you flexibility, adaptability and tolerance, three valuable attributes todevelop and possess Practice open-mindedness Don't "jump" to conclusions If your original choice of major doesn't work out, go to Peer Career

P.

Put syllabus dates on calendar Set measurable goals - set study times - 4 or 5 onehour blocks per day - commit to using most convenient 3 daily Set goals to finish each assignment Limit organization commitments Practice decision making Finish projects before starting new ones

The MBTI and Reading

Extraversion
Es may have difficulty concentrating on reading for long stretches of time. They often understand texts better if they process them orally.

Introversion
Although Is may be able to concentrate for longer stretches of time, they may sometimes lose concentration because they begin to contemplate what they read and become lost in a daydream.

Sensing
When learning to read, Ss may have difficulty learning the code of written language. Sometimes, they benefit from the languageexperience approach; phonics instruction or other techniques that can help break the "code." Even when mature, Ss may focus

Intuition
Since they tend to have a greater facility for symbols, Ns usually learn to read with less difficulty and tend to be more "bookish." Even when mature, they may focus on the concepts

on the facts of a text and neglect the concepts.

of a text and neglect the facts.

Thinking
Ts often focus so fully on the message of a text that they may neglect the style or tone. They often have a greater tolerance for "dry academic treatises." They also tend to be more critical of what they read.

Feeling
Fs tend to be very sensitive to tone and style. They may enjoy an author simply because they like his or her style. They often become bored with texts that do not engage their personal values.

Judgment
Js may be too quick to interpret a text, sometimes on only a cursory reading, and they have difficulty rethinking the text on subsequent readings.

Perception
Ps tend to more thoroughly read and process texts. This may cause them to read more slowly or become bogged down in research.

The MBTI and Time Management

Extraversion
Es are most motivated when approaching active tasks and may neglect more typically introverted tasks like reading and studying. They sometimes work inefficiently because they leap into tasks without planning and work by trialand-error. They need to learn that tasks can sometimes be completed more efficiently if they attempt to plan a bit before

Introversion
Is may have longer attention spans for reading and studying, but they often avoid more typically extraverted tasks, e.g., scheduling meetings, returning phone calls, etc. They naturally like to contemplate a task before beginning it, but they may think too long before acting. It is often more efficient to simply leap into a task.

acting.

Sensing
Ss often avoid more theoretical tasks and can sometimes spend more time on the details of a task than necessary. Ss may also become locked into their routine approaches to tasks, even when these approaches are inefficient.

Intuition
Ns often have to redo tasks because they neglected important details; they also tend to avoid routine chores. They may want to complete each task in a unique way, which may be more time consuming.

Thinking
Ts tend to schedule what they feel are the most important tasks first, even if these tasks are the most unpleasant ones. The unfortunate consequence is that Ts sometimes never get around to more rewarding and relaxing activities.

Feeling
Fs tend to schedule the tasks about which they care the most, whether or not these are the most pressing ones. They may avoid tasks that are not connected to their personal values.

Judgment
Js tend to be natural time managers, with one important caveat. They are good at making schedules and sticking to them, but they are not always flexible. They need to learn how to "plan to be spontaneous." They need to plan to stop at key intervals and re-evaluate their schedules.

Perception
The more spontaneous Ps are often reluctant to make schedules. When they do, they often fail to follow them or conveniently lose their "list of things to do." Ps may also overcommit themselves and have trouble meeting important deadlines. Ps need to learn how to prioritize and concentrate on the most important tasks.

The Styles
Sensory Learners

The sensor thinker (ST) is closest to Dunn and Dunn's analytical learner, working in an organized fashion, methodically and stepwise. The ST student learns best alone, and by repetitious drill and practice, and has a profound need for timely feedback. Answers are either right or wrong, and the ST student may be easily frustrated by discovery learning where there is no clearly defined path to the correct result. ST's memorize well, and do best in recall tests. The ST student is advised to study alone, in a well lit structured area, desk and chair, with no distractions, and to do repeated example problems and exercises. Concepts which are presented in a manner that is not conducive to recall can be restructured by the ST student. Complex concepts should be broken into steps or small pieces, and each piece mastered before going on to the next. Large quantities of information may be tabulated on flash cards, and some stepwise progression devised to facilitate learning. The ST is the classic student for which American schools have been structured for most of this century, and the population from which Dunn emphasizes most of our teachers have come, perhaps because they enjoyed success in school under the structure imposed. The sensor feeler (SF) is also a concrete learner, and is the student for whom cooperative learning is made to order. SF learners must process information verbally, and learns best if they can relate personally to the content. When attempting to process complex content, the SF must talk it through, studying most productively with another learner. The SF should break large tasks into several small steps, and find a means of relating to the content. This student may create a story line or example problem using friends and family members names, take part in a play or game. Both SFs and STs need to learn sequentially, building from the known to the unknown with manipulatives where possible. Constructivist theories (Aldridge, 1992) hold well for both ST's and SF's, in that the learning is built stepwise from basics to concept, and that the students build their own learning based on their own experiences. The intuitive learners, NT and NF, work most effectively in the abstract, and need to begin new material with a global perspective. This direction is foreign for most educators, so the intuitive learner will generally be assisted by reading the material prior to class in order to glimpse the whole concept for a starting point. Intuitive Learners The intuitive thinker (NT) is characterized by logical thinking, perception of patterns and a strong need to understand, needs to process new material alone before discussion, and must see the overall picture prior to processing details to enhance understanding. When studying alone, the NT should first look over new material to get the overall picture. Once the global concept is grasped, the pieces fit in naturally. The NT must look for patterns in the information in order to facilitate recall, using mnemonics and other memory devices. Since NT's do not memorize well or easily, they must understand the concepts in order to figure out what they will not otherwise recall. The NT is perhaps ideally suited for a career in research sciences, but often does not find academic success early due to natural dislike of repetition and memorization.

The intuitive feeler (NF) is the creative learner. Lacking aptitude for both logic and memorization, most at home in the abstract, the NF represents the greatest risk for non-completion of the educational process. The NF learns best through metaphor, building new learning on a structure of comparison with some other known concept, no matter how far afield. NF's usually work well in cooperative groups, and should study with other classmates whenever possible. The NF student should look for another situation in which the same "rules" apply, as those that apply to the concept being studied. "How is an internal combustion engine like a rock band?" has meaning for the NF, who will see connections between the various energy sources and sounds in the two contexts, and thereby enhance understanding of internal combustion engines

SELECTED CHARACTERITICS OF PERSON OF DIFFERENT PSYCHOLOGICAL TYPES

Direct their energy and attention primarily toward the outside world of people, things, activities. Are people of action. Are often gregarious, talkative, think best "with volume on." Are energized by people and activity; relax through them. Prefer to act first, think about it afterwards.

Extraverts

Introverts

Direct their primary energy and attention toward the inner world of reflection, thought, and feeling. Often work well with thoughts and ideas. Think "with the volume off"; may share thoughts only if asked. May find it difficult to remember names and faces. May be exhausted by too many people and activities; relax and are energized through quiet, privacy, intimacy. Prefer to think things through carefully before acting.

Sensing types

Perceive the world primarily through the five senses. Are interested in facts. Are realistic, practical, down to earth. Are usually accurate, steady, precise, patient and effective with routine and details.

Like to keep things simple; dislike unnecessary complication. Like to practice skills they already know. Are often relatively traditional, conventional. Are oriented toward the present, the concrete, here and now.

Intuitive types

Perceive the world primarily through intuition. Are interested in possibilities. Are interested in abstract concepts, implications, relationships between things and / or ideas. Are often creative and innovative. Often dislike routine, attending to details. Enjoy learning new skills, facing new and challenging problems. Often work in bursts of energy and enthusiasm; need to feel inspired. May exaggerate, recall things inaccurately. May be impractical, especially when they first think something up. Are oriented toward the future.

Thinking types

Make decisions and come to conclusions on the basis of thinking. Are usually logical, rational, analytical, critical. Decide things relatively impersonally, are less swayed by feelings and emotions. May have difficulty recognizing and acknowledging people's feelings. Can deal with interpersonal disharmony; can be firm and assertive when appropriate. Need and value fairness.

Feeling types

Makes decisions and come to conclusions on the basis of feeling. Use personal values, personal likes and dislikes as the basis for decisions. Make relatively less use of logical analysis in making decisions. Are often warm, empathic, sympathetic.

Value harmony; are distressed by serious argument, interpersonal friction; may have difficulty being firm and assertive. Need and value kindness.

Judging types

Approach the outside world in a judging attitude, trying to order and control it. Make up their minds and come to decisions quickly. May jump to conclusions, even be closed-minded. Plan ahead; like to make and follow plans. Like to work steadily until finished, get things done as soon as possible; dislike working on many things at once. Are usually well organized; dislike having things disorganized and unpredictable.

Perceiving types

Approach the outside world in a perceiving attitude, gathering information, trying to adapt to the world. Like to delay decisions, get more information, keep options open. Are flexible, spontaneous, often good in emergencies or when plans are disrupted. Work at many things at once, may start more than they finish. May be prone to procrastination and / or disorganization. Are often very adaptable and open-minded.

MYERS-BRIGGS TYPE INDICATOR (MBTI)

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) describes four basic aspects of human behaviour: Extraversion - outer world of actions, objects, & people Sensing -immediate, real, solid facts of experience Thinking -objective, impersonal analysis of Orientation - how we direct our energy, externally or internally Perceiving - how we take in (perceive) information Judging - how we make decisions (judge) Introversion-inner world of concepts & ideas iNtuition -possibilities, meanings, and relationships Feeling -subjectively weighing personal values

facts, logic Judging - planned, orderly ways; aiming to regulate and control events Interface - how we interact with our environment

and choices for self and other people Perceiving -spontaneous, flexible ways; aiming to understand and adapt to events

The letters used to describe your "type" come from the first letter of each word (except for intuition, where N is used). The words that are used to describe each of these aspects of human behaviour can be confusing since we use them in everyday language, sometimes with different meanings. It is important to discuss them with a trained MBTI practitioner to make sure you understand how they are used here. Our preferences in each aspect, and the degree to which we use our preferences, provide a useful classification for understanding ourselves and others. (They also help explain many of the misunderstandings that can arise in communication among different "types".) Each of us will at times operate in all of the ways being described. But we most frequently feel more comfortable and more natural using our preferred modes of behaviour, especially for an extended period of time or when we are under stress. As you will see, no preference or "type" is better than the other. All have their advantages and disadvantages depending on the situation in which you find yourself. Do not just accept the score on the inventory without "verifying" your type by observing and reflecting on your behaviour and preferences in a variety of settings. The combination of your preferences in each aspect, and the degree to which to you use your preference, determines your type and helps describe your preferred behaviour much of the time. It is common to prefer one function but to frequently use another, depending on the demands of the situation. In the case of Introverts, their preferred function is saved for their inner world, showing a different face to the world outside them. ORIENTATION EXTRAVERSION Description Extraversion is an orientation to the outer Introversion as a focus on the inner world world, what is happening now. of ideas, concepts - focus attention on people and things around them - often sit back, observe and reflect INTROVERSION

- energized by interaction - talk while thinking (think by talking) - involved in a variety of activities - like to share their ideas with others - seek breadth of understanding

- energized by privacy - carefully consider an idea before discussing it - like to concentrate on a few tasks at a time - crave reflection time - demand depth of understanding On The Job

- like variety and action - often good at greeting people, remembering names and faces - impatient with long slow jobs, complicated procedure - can act quickly, sometimes without thinking - interested in seeing results

- like quiet for concentration - happy to work alone - can work on one project for a long time, careful with details - think a lot, sometimes without acting - more concerned with the idea behind the job than with results

Relationships - enjoys many friends - shows feelings easily - trusting of others - straight forward, easy to understand - "still waters run deep" - requires a lot of your time and attention - can intrude on others - understands life by living it - craves time alone, centres their energy inward - can be too private - takes life seriously Seen by Others As - prefers a few close friends - may not show emotions openly - shares innermost thoughts with few people

ACTIVE SOCIABLE PRACTICAL CONFIDENT

REFLECTIVE RESERVED OBSERVANT QUIET INTUITING Description

PERCEIVING FUNCTIONS SENSING

Depends directly on the five senses for information - collect data, details; prefer specific examples - realistic, practical, concrete

Takes in information through impressions, from the unconscious, "sixth sense" - go immediately to possibilities, consequences, associations - imaginative, creative, symbolic - concerned with future possibilities

- concerned with immediate experience - may seem unaware of surroundings - aware of what is happening around them - easily bored with routine, repetitive tasks - patient with routine, tested ideas - crave innovation, change, variety - enjoy a standard way of doing things On The Job - like established ways of doing things, defined procedures - enjoy using and refining skills already learnt - work steadily - accurate with facts and details - tries to be precise - don't trust their inspirations - like solving new problems, complicated situations - prefer learning new skills, bored with repetition - work in bursts of energy and enthusiasm - tends to estimate or approximate details - dislike taking time for precision - follow their inspirations, good or bad Relationships - aware of and affected by physical surroundings - may seem indifferent to environment

- likes things to be real, immediate, definite

- always seeing new possibilities, hates to be pinned down to definite ways

- mistrusts vague, abstract ideas; wants the - inventive, creative, a great problem facts solver - seeks pleasure; wants what other people have - indifferent to conventional notions of success and comfort

Seen by Others As PRACTICAL OBSERVANT IMMEDIATE PLEASURE SEEKING INNOVATIVE CREATIVE FUTURISTIC ENTHUSIASTIC

JUDGING FUNCTIONS THINKING Description Relies on objective logic to evaluate and make decisions - establish objective criteria for decisions - pursue justice and fairness, based on rules - value analysis, clarity, logical order - right/wrong - true/false On The Job - decide impersonally, sometimes ignoring - let decisions be influenced by their own people's feelings or wishes or other people's feelings or wishes - need to be treated fairly - need occasional praise, encouragement - relationships are more important than Relies on a rational weighing of values to evaluate/decide - develop personal, subjective criteria for decisions - care more about principles and harmony - value personal warmth and harmony FEELING

- task is more important than relationships tasks - may seem hard-hearted; make practical decisions based on facts - able to reprimand or fire people when necessary - get along well with most people; tend to be sympathetic; may seem soft-hearted - avoid telling people unpleasant things

Relationships - sees criticism as helpful, and fair - needs system and order - tends to be more truthful than tactful - must understand cause-and-effect - not always able to express ideas in logical, sequential way - intensity of feeling can lead to "moods" - can appear unconcerned of the feelings of others Seen by Others As IMPERSONAL LOGICAL CRITICAL BUSINESS LIKE HONEST, FAIR INTERFACE JUDGING Description Concentrates energy on dealing with the environment by making decisions (using Thinking or Feeling preference). - like things to be settled Concentrates energy on dealing with the environment through gathering information (using Sensing or iNtuiting preference). - need an open, spontaneous life style PERCEIVING WARM SENTIMENTAL CARING, COMPASSIONATE PEOPLE ORIENTED AGREEABLE - needs a harmonious environment - values harmony over fairness - tends to agree with others; can seem "wishy-washy"

- crave clarity and order - organize according to schedules and plans - bring things to closure; like to finish what they start - often high achievers, needing to see results - need to have things settled, decided, resolved, operating

- tolerant of ambiguity - need to be flexible to enjoy the unexpected - may procrastinate, seeking more and better information - emphasize diagnosis over conclusion and resolution; care more about process - sense of curiosity, love of adventure, new experiences

On The Job - like to plan their work - like to get things done - may decide things too quickly - good at adapting to changing situations - leave things open for alterations - may have trouble making decisions

- may want only essentials to get on with a - wants to know all about a job job - may start too many projects and not - dislikes interrupting on project for a finish them more urgent one - always seeking information that will cast - is satisfied once a judgement has been a new light on a thing, situation, person reached Relationships - needs to have a plan - may jump to conclusions (to meet need to decide) - can sound very opinionated - feels wonderful when things are completed - can be inflexible - gets the job done - has deep sense of responsibility - hates being tied down to a schedule; may be late - is non-judgmental, enjoying and - needs flexibility - may put off making decisions - is tolerant, "live & let live" - craves the spontaneous, the unexpected - can be untidy, disorganized

accepting people and things as they are Seen by Others As ORDERLY, SYSTEMATIC CLEAR DECISIVE SUCCESSFUL, RESPONSIBLE SPONTANEOUS, FLEXIBLE OPEN INDECISIVE ADAPTABLE, UNDERSTANDING

The MBTI Dimensions

(Drawn loosely from Managing for the Future, by Ancona, Kochan, Scully, Van Maanen, and Westney.)

Interacting with Others

Extraversion Introversion Like variety and action Like quiet for concentration Often impatient with long, slow Tend not to mind working on one jobs project for a long time Are interested in the activities of uninterruptedly Are interested in the facts/ideas their work and in how other people do it behind their work Often act quickly, sometimes Like to think a lot before they act, without thinking sometimes without acting Develop ideas by discussion Develop ideas by reflection Like having people around Like working alone with no Learn new tasks by talking and interruptions Learn new tasks by reading and doing Enjoy meeting new people reflecting No strong need to meet regularly Seek out social gatherings with others When speaking publicly will often When speaking publicly will improvise prepare in depth and speak from a Likely to contribute a lot in plan meetings

Can be impulsive

More likely to consider consequences before acting socially

Understanding the World

Sensing Intuition Prefers practical problems Like solving new complex Prefers systems and methods ambiguous problems Gets bored with routines Like using experience and standard Like to float new ideas ways to solve problems Enjoy applying what they have Enjoy learning a new skill more already learned: like to work with than using it tested ideas See possibilities and implications May distrust and ignore their Will follow their inspirations inspirations May ignore or overlook facts Seldom make errors of fact Like to do things with an Like to do things with a practical innovative bent bent Creative vision and insight Like to present the details of their Like to present an overview of their work first work first Prefer continuation of what is, with Prefer change, sometimes radical, fine tuning to continuation of 'what is' Usually proceed step-by-step Usually proceed in bursts of energy Patient with routine detail Like to have schedule for working Likes innovative approaches

Searches for standard problem solving approach

Making Decisions
Thinking Feeling Tries to establish objective decision Personal subjective decision criteria criteria Measure decisions against beliefs Measure decisions against payoffs Can appear overcommitted to a Can be seen as detached and cold point of view Believes in deciding according to Believes in deciding on personal situation considerations Flexible Nostalgic Negotiate on the evidence Negotiate on rights and wrongs of Concern for fairness based on rules the issues Fairness comes from values and Like analysis and clarity beliefs Situation oriented Like harmony based on common Use logical analysis to reach values conclusions Objectives emerge from beliefs Want mutual respect among Principles oriented colleagues Use values to reach conclusions May hurt people's feelings without Want harmony and support among knowing it Tend to decide impersonally, colleagues Enjoy pleasing people, even in sometimes paying insufficient attention to people's wishes unimportant things

Tend to be firm-minded and can give criticism when appropriate Look at the principles involved in the situation Feel rewarded when job is done well

Often let decisions be influenced by their own and other people's likes and dislikes Tend to be sympathetic and dislike, even avoid, telling people unpleasant things Look at the underlying values in the situation Feel rewarded when people's needs are met

Allocating Time
Judging Perceiving Like clarity and order Enjoy searching and finding Concerned with resolving matters May procrastinate in search of even Dislike ambiguity better information Can tolerate ambiguity Orderly Concerned to know, not organize May rush to quick decisions Take in tons of data Can be inflexible once decision is Open minded and curious made Emphasize decision taking over Emphasis on diagnosing over information getting concluding and resolving Concern is to implement Concern is to know Work best when they can plan their Enjoy flexibility in their work work and follow their plan Like to leave things open for last Like to get things settled and minute changes finished May postpone unpleasant tasks that May not notice new things that need to be done need to be done Tend to be curious and welcome a Tend to be satisfied once they reach new light on a thing, situation. or a decision on a thing, situation, or person person Postpone decisions while searching Reach closure by deciding quickly for options Feel supported by structure and Adapt well to changing situations schedules and feel restricted without variety

Focus on completion of a project Focus on the process of a project EVALUATION OF THE PERSONAL STYLE INVENTORY

Each pair of columns in the scoring table represents one of the four dimensions evaluated by the Personal Style Inventory.

I=
Introversion

AND

E = Extroversion

N = Intuition T = Thinking P = Perceiving

AND AND AND

S = Sensing F = Feeling J = Judging

The total scores in each column indicate relative strengths and balances in the four dimensions. (for example, I and E is one dimension).

Column scores of 12 or 13 suggest a balance in the two components of the dimension. Column scores of 14 or 15 suggest slight imbalance; that component of the dimension is slightly stronger than the other component. Column scores between 16 and 19 suggest a definite imbalance; that component of the dimension is definitely stronger than the other component. Column scores between 20 and 25 suggest a considerable imbalance; that component of the dimension is considerably stronger than the other component.

An individual's style type is indicated by the four columns with scores of 14 or more; column scores of 12 or 13 reflect balance. The following paragraphs describe the style types and indicate the learning implications of particular strengths and weaknesses in the four dimensions. Type descriptions are quoted from Jewler and Gardner (1993, p. 54-55).

INTROVERSION - EXTROVERSION o "Persons more introverted than extroverted tend to make decisions somewhat independently of culture, people, or things around them. They are quiet, diligent at working alone, and socially reserved. They may dislike being interrupted while working and may tend to forget names and faces." Possible Strengths: Most introverts work independently, work alone, are reflective, work with ideas, avoid generalizations, and are careful before acting. Introverts may excel in scientific lab work, courses requiring attention to detail, and activities requiring diligence and planning. Possible Weaknesses: Most introverts avoid others, are secretive, may lose opportunities to act, may be misunderstood by others, and dislike being interrupted. Introverts may perform poorly in study groups or cooperative learning activities, in tasks requiring interpersonal communication, in social situations, or in jobs requiring extensive contact with the public. o "Extroverted persons are attuned to the culture, people, and things around them. The extrovert is outgoing, socially free, interested in variety and in working with people. The extrovert may become impatient with long, slow tasks and does not mind being interrupted by people." Possible Strengths: Most extroverts interact well with others, are open, prefer action, and are well understood by others.

Extroverts may perform well in study groups or cooperative learning activities, class participation, tasks requiring interpersonal communication or "hands on" work, social situations, or in jobs requiring extensive contact with the public. Possible Weaknesses: Most extroverts cannot work well without other people, need change and variety, are impulsive, and are impatient with routine. Extroverts may experience difficulty in time management, following detailed or extensive directions, independent study, monotonous or regimented tasks, or tasks requiring planning, like writing research papers or developing research projects. INTUITION - SENSING o "The intuitive person prefers possibilities, theories, invention, and the new and becomes bored with nitty-gritty details and facts unrelated to concepts. The intuitive person thinks and discusses in spontaneous leaps of intuition that may neglect details. Problem solving comes easily for this individual, although there may be a tendency to make errors in fact." Possible Strengths: Intuitors tend to see or look for possibilities, work out new ideas, work with complicated tasks or issues, and solve novel and unique problems. Most intuitors excel at generalizing and seeing the "big picture," and thus may perform well on essay tests or remember main points in readings or lectures. They may perform well on tasks requiring originality or understanding of theory. Possible Weaknesses: Intuitors are often inattentive to detail and precision, are inattentive to the actual and the practical, are impatient with tedious tasks, lose sight of the here-and-now, and jump to conclusions. They may perform poorly in math or science courses, on subjective tests, and on repetitive or analytical tasks. They may need to be reminded of the everyday applicability or practicality of skills and knowledge, especially to maintain their interest in subjects they dislike or in topics that are of little personal interest to them. o "The sensing type prefers the concrete, factual, tangible here-and-now, becoming impatient with theory and the abstract, mistrusting intuition. The sensing type thinks in detail, remembering real facts, but possibly missing a conception of the overall." Possible Strengths: Most sensers attend to detail, are practical, remember details and facts, are patient, and are systematic. They often perform well on subjective tests or in science, statistics, accounting or math courses. Possible Weaknesses: Sensers often do not see possibilities, lose sight of the "big picture," mistrust intuition, become frustrated with the complicated, and prefer not to imagine the future. They may not perform well on essays, or tasks requiring examination of alternate viewpoints. They may have trouble following complicated directions and may thus require simplification or clarification. They may not develop or

consider long-term goals and future consequences of their actions. THINKING - FEELING o "The thinker makes judgments based on logic, analysis, and evidence, avoiding decisions based on feelings and values. As a result, the thinker is more interested in logic, analysis, and verifiable conclusions than in empathy, values, and personal warmth. The thinker may step on others' feelings and needs without realizing it, neglecting to take into consideration the values of others." Possible Strengths: Thinkers tend to have critical ability, stand firm, and are logical, analytical, objective, organized, and just. Tasks requiring analytical skills and organization, such as those in the sciences, may be areas where thinkers excel. Possible Weaknesses: Thinkers may not notice others' feelings, may misunderstand others' values, may be uninterested in conciliation, may not show their feelings, may show little mercy or empathy, and may be uninterested in persuading. Thinkers may experience difficulty in study groups or cooperative learning activities. They may experience difficulty reviewing art and literature. Thinkers may not be effective mediators or providers of human resource services. o "The feeler makes judgments based on empathy, warmth, and personal values. As a consequence, feelers are more interested in people and feelings than in impersonal logic, analysis, and things, and in harmony more than in being on top or achieving impersonal goals. The feeler gets along well with people in general." Possible Strengths: Feelers often consider the feelings of others, understand needs and values, are interested in conciliation, show their feelings, and are comfortable persuading and motivating others. Feelers may excel in study groups, cooperative learning activities, or reviewing art and literature. Feelers may be effective mediators or providers of human resource services. Possible Weaknesses: Feelers tend to be subjective, are not guided by logic, are less organized, are overly accepting, and base judgments on feelings. Feelers may experience trouble on tasks requiring analytical skills and organization, such as those in the sciences. PERCEIVING - JUDGING o "The perceiver is a gatherer, always wanting to know more before deciding, holding off decisions and judgments. As a consequence, the perceiver is open, flexible, adaptive, nonjudgmental, able to see and appreciate all sides of issues, always welcoming new perspectives. However, perceivers are also difficult to pin down and may become frustrated at times. Even when they finish tasks, perceivers will tend to look back at them and wonder whether they could have been done another way. The perceiver wishes to roll with life rather than change it." Possible Strengths: Perceivers are often flexible and nonjudgmental, make compromises, see all sides of an issue,

and make decisions based on all data. They may excel in social interactions and interpersonal relationships. Possible Weaknesses: Perceivers tend to be indecisive and easily distracted from tasks, and they often do not plan, control circumstances, or finish projects. Perceivers may have trouble making decisions, delineating problems and activities, completing unstructured tasks, or finishing tasks in a timely manner.

o o

"The judger is decisive, firm, and sure, setting goals and sticking to them. The judger wants to make decisions and get on to the next project. When a project does not yet have closure, judgers will leave it behind and go on to new tasks." Possible Strengths: Judgers make quick decisions, plan, give orders, and remain on-task. They may excel in independent study and delineating problems and plans of action. Possible Weaknesses: Judgers may be stubborn and inflexible, may make decisions based on insufficient data, may be controlled by tasks or plans, and may wish to work uninterrupted. They may experience difficulty working with others or making informed decisions.

Using your learning style

School
Knowing about the strengths of your learning style is important to your success in learning. With your particular learning style you have certain likes and dislikes in how you learn. Learning style determines how you understand and interpret information, what kind of teacher you work with best, and what kinds of class activities you prefer. After the lesson on learning styles in the video, the teacher gave the students a homework assignment. If you are like Tran, you need the teacher to give very specific directions for the assignment. You want to know how many people you should talk to and you want an example of exactly what the teacher expects. But if you're like Shaylee you are already developing your own ideas about the assignment. You are excited about the opportunity to be creative. Some students enjoy a project that is different from typical school work and uses skills besides reading and writing. If you're like Eddie, you are motivated by a project that lets you actively do something outside of class-like interview someone, build a model, or review a favorite television show. You have certain ways of learning based on your style. There is no one right way to go about learning. By understanding your learning style you can be confident in your ability to learn and use your strengths and the strategies that work best for you.

extrovert

E
You like to talk to understand new information and ideas. You like to work in groups. You like to try something first and think about it later. You like to see the results from a project. You like to see examples of how other people are doing the work.

Style Strengths
E's learn best when they can study with a friend and learn by trying it themselves instead of just watching or listening to others. When they're having trouble they benefit by talking about their ideas with others.

Style Challenges
E's need to learn to take time to practice the skills they've already learned, to avoid distractions, and to learn how to work independently. They can benefit from practicing their listening skirts and taking their time rather than rushing through a project.

introvert

I
You like to study alone. You like to listen to others talk and think about information privately. You like to think about something first and try it later. You like listening, observing, writing, and reading. You like to take your time to complete assignments.

Style Strengths
I's learn best when they can find quiet places to study and have enough time to reflect on and polish their work, They like to make connections between school work and their personal interests.

Style Challenges
I's need to learn how to work with others, become more willing to share ideas with teachers and classmates, and work on staying focused during group activities. I's can benefit in school by trying to talk and communicate more with teachers and classmates.

sensing

S
You like clear goals. You are careful and pay attention to details. You like going step-by-step. You have a good memory for facts. You pay more attention to practical tasks and ideas.

Style Strengths
S's learn best when they can ask their teacher to explain exactly what is expected and focus on skills and assignments that are important in their lives. They like to use computers, watch films or find other ways to see, hear, and touch what they are learning.

Style Challenges
S's need to learn how to figure out how to do an assignment on their own, be more accepting of assignments that don't seem important or real to them, and ask for help from teachers who move too quickly, In school S's need to practice using their imagination and problem solving in new ways.

intuitive

N
You like reading and listening. You like problems that require you to use your imagination. You like variety. You are more interested in big ideas than in little details. You like starting on new projects better than finishing old ones.

Style Strengths
N's learn best when they can find ways to be imaginative and creative in school. They prefer to follow their inspiration and understand the big picture before they begin school tasks and projects.

Style Challenges
N's need to learn how to be more observant and realistic, be patient with teachers that go "too slow," and find a way of practicing routine skills. In school N's need to practice taking traditional forms of testing (like multiple choice and fill-in-the-blank tests), completing projects, and being more specific and concrete.

thinking

T
You want to be treated fairly. You like teachers who are organized. You want to feel a sense of achievement and skill. You use clear thinking to figure out problems. You like clear and logical directions.

Style Strengths
T's learn best when they schedule time to study and put information in a logical order that makes sense to them. They succeed when they can focus on what they already know in order to make connections to new information.

Style Challenges
T's need to find a way to be more comfortable when emotional issues come up in class and work with teachers who aren't organized. In school T's need to practice being more thoughtful toward other students when in pairs and doing group work, giving positive feedback to other students, and making decisions "with their hearts."

feeling

F
You like to have a friendly relationship with your teachers. You learn by helping others. You need to get along with other people. You like to work with groups. You like assignments that are meaningful to you.

Style Strengths
F's learn best when they can study with a friend, find opportunities to choose topics they care about, and help others.

Style Challenges
F's need to learn how to work alone on activities like worksheets and in computer labs, to take criticism, and to think logically instead of emotionally. In school F's need to practice worrying less about feelings and more about the project at hand, and accept that conflict in group work is a part of learning.

judging

J
You like to have a plan and stick to it. You work in a steady, orderly way. You like to finish projects. You treat school as serious business. You like to know exactly what is expected of you.

Style Strengths
J's learn best when they set short-term goals, make a study schedule and find out from the teacher exactly what is expected.

Style Challenges
J's need to learn how to accept unpredictable events, be more comfortable with openended situations, and make the most of classes that seem too unstructured. In school J's need to practice approaching problems from a more playful perspective, spend more time considering the process of learning and problem solving, and be more flexible.

perceiving

P
You are open to new experiences in learning. You like to make choices. You are flexible. You work best when work is enjoyable. You like to discover new information.

Style Strengths
P's learn best when they find new ways to do routine tasks to spark their interest and study to discover new information and ideas. They prefer being involved in projects that are open-ended and don't have firm deadlines.

Style Challenges
P's need to pay more attention to deadlines, accept learning situations that are structured and programmed, and participate in projects they have no choice in selecting. In school P's need to practice completing assignments, staying on task with projects, and being more aware of time when they have assignments d

Each pair of columns in the scoring table represents one of the four dimensions evaluated by the Personal Style Inventory.

I=
Introversion

AND AND AND AND

E = Extroversion S = Sensing F = Feeling J = Judging

N = Intuition T = Thinking P = Perceiving

The total scores in each column indicate relative strengths and balances in the four dimensions. (for example, I and E is one dimension).

Column scores of 12 or 13 suggest a balance in the two components of the dimension. Column scores of 14 or 15 suggest slight imbalance; that component of the dimension is slightly stronger than the other component. Column scores between 16 and 19 suggest a definite imbalance; that component of the dimension is definitely stronger than the other component. Column scores between 20 and 25 suggest a considerable imbalance; that component of the dimension is considerably stronger than the other component.

An individual's style type is indicated by the four columns with scores of 14 or more; column scores of 12 or 13 reflect balance. The following paragraphs describe the style types and indicate the learning implications of particular strengths and weaknesses in the four dimensions. Type descriptions are quoted from Jewler and Gardner (1993, p. 54-55).

INTROVERSION - EXTROVERSION o "Persons more introverted than extroverted tend to make decisions somewhat independently of culture, people, or things around them. They are quiet, diligent at working alone, and socially reserved. They may dislike being interrupted while working and may tend to forget names and faces." Possible Strengths: Most introverts work independently, work alone, are reflective, work with ideas, avoid generalizations, and are careful before acting. Introverts may excel in scientific lab work, courses requiring attention to detail, and activities requiring diligence and planning. Possible Weaknesses: Most introverts avoid others, are secretive, may lose opportunities to act, may be misunderstood by others, and dislike being interrupted. Introverts may perform poorly in study groups or cooperative learning activities, in tasks requiring interpersonal communication, in social situations, or in jobs requiring extensive contact with the public.

"Extroverted persons are attuned to the culture, people, and things around them. The extrovert is outgoing, socially free, interested in variety and in working with people. The extrovert may become impatient with long, slow tasks and does not mind being interrupted by people." Possible Strengths: Most extroverts interact well with others, are open, prefer action, and are well understood by others. Extroverts may perform well in study groups or cooperative learning activities, class participation, tasks requiring interpersonal communication or "hands on" work, social situations, or in jobs requiring extensive contact with the public. Possible Weaknesses: Most extroverts cannot work well without other people, need change and variety, are impulsive, and are impatient with routine. Extroverts may experience difficulty in time management, following detailed or extensive directions, independent study, monotonous or regimented tasks, or tasks requiring planning, like writing research papers or developing research projects. INTUITION - SENSING o "The intuitive person prefers possibilities, theories, invention, and the new and becomes bored with nitty-gritty details and facts unrelated to concepts. The intuitive person thinks and discusses in spontaneous leaps of intuition that may neglect details. Problem solving comes easily for this individual, although there may be a tendency to make errors in fact." Possible Strengths: Intuitors tend to see or look for possibilities, work out new ideas, work with complicated tasks or issues, and solve novel and unique problems. Most intuitors excel at generalizing and seeing the "big picture," and thus may perform well on essay tests or remember main points in readings or lectures. They may perform well on tasks requiring originality or understanding of theory. Possible Weaknesses: Intuitors are often inattentive to detail and precision, are inattentive to the actual and the practical, are impatient with tedious tasks, lose sight of the here-and-now, and jump to conclusions. They may perform poorly in math or science courses, on subjective tests, and on repetitive or analytical tasks. They may need to be reminded of the everyday applicability or practicality of skills and knowledge, especially to maintain their interest in subjects they dislike or in topics that are of little personal interest to them. o "The sensing type prefers the concrete, factual, tangible here-and-now, becoming impatient with theory and the abstract, mistrusting intuition. The sensing type thinks in detail, remembering real facts, but possibly missing a conception of the overall." Possible Strengths: Most sensers attend to detail, are practical, remember details and facts, are patient, and are systematic. They often perform well on subjective tests or in science, statistics, accounting or math courses.
o

Possible Weaknesses: Sensers often do not see possibilities, lose sight of the "big picture," mistrust intuition, become frustrated with the complicated, and prefer not to imagine the future. They may not perform well on essays, or tasks requiring examination of alternate viewpoints. They may have trouble following complicated directions and may thus require simplification or clarification. They may not develop or consider long-term goals and future consequences of their actions. THINKING - FEELING o "The thinker makes judgments based on logic, analysis, and evidence, avoiding decisions based on feelings and values. As a result, the thinker is more interested in logic, analysis, and verifiable conclusions than in empathy, values, and personal warmth. The thinker may step on others' feelings and needs without realizing it, neglecting to take into consideration the values of others." Possible Strengths: Thinkers tend to have critical ability, stand firm, and are logical, analytical, objective, organized, and just. Tasks requiring analytical skills and organization, such as those in the sciences, may be areas where thinkers excel. Possible Weaknesses: Thinkers may not notice others' feelings, may misunderstand others' values, may be uninterested in conciliation, may not show their feelings, may show little mercy or empathy, and may be uninterested in persuading. Thinkers may experience difficulty in study groups or cooperative learning activities. They may experience difficulty reviewing art and literature. Thinkers may not be effective mediators or providers of human resource services. o "The feeler makes judgments based on empathy, warmth, and personal values. As a consequence, feelers are more interested in people and feelings than in impersonal logic, analysis, and things, and in harmony more than in being on top or achieving impersonal goals. The feeler gets along well with people in general." Possible Strengths: Feelers often consider the feelings of others, understand needs and values, are interested in conciliation, show their feelings, and are comfortable persuading and motivating others. Feelers may excel in study groups, cooperative learning activities, or reviewing art and literature. Feelers may be effective mediators or providers of human resource services. Possible Weaknesses: Feelers tend to be subjective, are not guided by logic, are less organized, are overly accepting, and base judgments on feelings. Feelers may experience trouble on tasks requiring analytical skills and organization, such as those in the sciences. PERCEIVING - JUDGING o "The perceiver is a gatherer, always wanting to know more before deciding, holding off decisions and judgments. As a consequence, the perceiver is open, flexible, adaptive, nonjudgmental, able to see and appreciate all sides of issues, always welcoming new perspectives.

However, perceivers are also difficult to pin down and may become frustrated at times. Even when they finish tasks, perceivers will tend to look back at them and wonder whether they could have been done another way. The perceiver wishes to roll with life rather than change it." Possible Strengths: Perceivers are often flexible and nonjudgmental, make compromises, see all sides of an issue, and make decisions based on all data. They may excel in social interactions and interpersonal relationships. Possible Weaknesses: Perceivers tend to be indecisive and easily distracted from tasks, and they often do not plan, control circumstances, or finish projects. Perceivers may have trouble making decisions, delineating problems and activities, completing unstructured tasks, or finishing tasks in a timely manner.
o o

"The judger is decisive, firm, and sure, setting goals and sticking to them. The judger wants to make decisions and get on to the next project. When a project does not yet have closure, judgers will leave it behind and go on to new tasks." Possible Strengths: Judgers make quick decisions, plan, give orders, and remain on-task. They may excel in independent study and delineating problems and plans of action. Possible Weaknesses: Judgers may be stubborn and inflexible, may make decisions based on insufficient data, may be controlled by tasks or plans, and may wish to work uninterrupted. They may experience difficulty working with others or making informed decisions.