Structure of the bone

Movable Joint

Structure of the Skull

Structure of the backbone

Structure of the hip bone

Structure of the ribs

Injuries and Diseases of Bones

sprain is an injury in a joint, caused by the ligament being stretched beyond its own capacity. A muscular tear caused in the same manner is referred to as a strain. In cases where either ligament or muscle tissue is torn, immobilization and surgical repair may be necessary. Ligaments are tough, fibrous tissues that connect bones to other bones. Sprains can occur in any joint but are most common in the ankle and wrist. A joint dislocation, or luxation, occurs when there is an abnormal separation in the joint, where two or more bones meet. A partial dislocation is referred to as a subluxation. Dislocations are often caused by sudden trauma on the joint like an impact or fall. A joint dislocation can cause damage to the surrounding ligaments, tendons, muscles, and nerves. Dislocations can occur in any joint major (Shoulder, knees, etc.) or minor (toes, fingers, etc.). The most common joint dislocation is a shoulder dislocation.

A fracture is the separation of an object or material into two, or more, pieces under the action of stress. The fracture of a solid almost always occurs due to the development of certain displacement discontinuity surfaces within the solid. If a displacement develops in this case perpendicular to the surface of displacement, it is called a normal tensile crack or simply a crack; if a displacement develops tangentially to the surface of displacement, it is called a shear crack, slip band, or dislocation.

Disease of the bone and their treatment

Rickets is a softening of bones in immature mammals due to deficiency or impaired metabolism of vitamin D, phosphorus or calcium, potentially leading to fractures and deformity. Rickets is among the most frequent childhood diseases in many developing countries. The predominant cause is a vitamin D deficiency, but lack of adequate calcium in the diet may also lead to rickets (cases of severe diarrhea and vomiting may be the cause of the deficiency). Although it can occur in adults, the majority of cases occur in children suffering from severe malnutrition, usually resulting from famine or starvation during the early stages of childhood. The treatment and prevention of rickets is known as antirachitic. The most common treatment of rickets is the use of Vitamin D. However, surgery may be required to remove severe bone abnormalities. Osteoporosis ("porous bones", from Greek: /ostoun meaning "bone" and /poros meaning "pore") is a disease of bones that leads to an increased risk of fracture. In osteoporosis, the bone mineral density (BMD) is reduced, bone microarchitecture deteriorates, and the amount and variety of proteins in bone are altered. Osteoporosis is defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) as a bone mineral density of 2.5 standard deviations or more below the mean peak bone mass (average of young, healthy adults) as measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry; the term "established osteoporosis" includes the presence of a fragility fracture. The disease may be classified as primary type 1, primary type 2, or secondary.

Medication
Certain medications have been associated with an increase in osteoporosis risk; only steroids and anticonvulsants are classically associated, but evidence is emerging with regard to other drugs.

Steroid-induced osteoporosis (SIOP) arises due to use of glucocorticoids analogous to Cushing's syndrome and involving mainly the axial skeleton. The synthetic glucocorticoid prescription drug prednisone is a main candidate after prolonged intake. Some professional guidelines recommend prophylaxis in patients who take the equivalent of more than 30 mg hydrocortisone (7.5 mg of prednisolone), especially when this is in excess of three months. Alternate day use may not prevent this complication. Barbiturates, phenytoin and some other enzyme-inducing antiepileptics these probably accelerate the metabolism of vitamin D. L-Thyroxine over-replacement may contribute to osteoporosis, in a similar fashion as thyrotoxicosis does. This can be relevant in subclinical hypothyroidism. Several drugs induce hypogonadism, for example aromatase inhibitors used in breast cancer, methotrexate and other antimetabolite drugs, depot progesterone and gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonists. Anticoagulants long-term use of heparin is associated with a decrease in bone density, and warfarin (and related coumarins) have been linked with an increased risk in osteoporotic fracture in long-term use.

Proton pump inhibitors these drugs inhibit the production of stomach acid; this is thought to interfere with calcium absorption. Chronic phosphate binding may also occur with aluminium-containing antacids. Thiazolidinediones (used for diabetes) rosiglitazone and possibly pioglitazone, inhibitors of PPAR, have been linked with an increased risk of osteoporosis and fracture. Chronic lithium therapy has been associated with osteoporosis.

Scoliosis (from Ancient Greek: skoliosis "obliquity, bending")is a medical condition in which a person's spine is curved from side to side. Although it is a complex three-dimensional deformity, on an X-ray, viewed from the rear, the spine of an individual with scoliosis may look more like an "S" or a "C", rather than a straight line. Scoliosis is typically classified as either congenital (caused by vertebral anomalies present at birth), idiopathic (cause unknown, subclassified as infantile, juvenile, adolescent, or adult, according to when onset occurred), or secondary to a primary condition.

Treatment
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Observation Physical therapy Occupational therapy Casting (EDF) Bracing Surgery

Arthritis (from Greek arthro-, joint + -itis, inflammation; plural: arthritides) is a form of joint disorder that involves inflammation of one or more joints. There are over 100 different forms of arthritis. The most common form, osteoarthritis (degenerative joint disease), is a result of trauma to the joint, infection of the joint, or age. Other arthritis forms are rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, and related autoimmune diseases. Septic arthritis is caused by joint infection. The major complaint by individuals who have arthritis is joint pain. Pain is often a constant and may be localized to the joint affected. The pain from arthritis is due to inflammation that occurs around the joint, damage to the joint from disease, daily wear and tear of joint, muscle strains caused by forceful movements against stiff painful joints and fatigue. There is no cure for either rheumatoid or osteoarthritis. Treatment options vary depending on the type of arthritis and include physical therapy, lifestyle changes (including exercise and weight control), orthopedic bracing, medications. Joint replacement surgery may be required in eroding forms of arthritis. Medications can help reduce inflammation in the joint which decreases pain. Moreover, by decreasing inflammation, the joint damage may be slowed. 1) Physical Therapy 2) Medications

Bone Infections or Osteomyelitis (sometimes abbreviated to OM, and derived from Greek words osteon, meaning bone, myelo- meaning marrow, and -itis meaning inflammation) is infection and inflammation of the bone or bone marrow. It can be usefully subclassified on the basis of the causative organism (pyogenic bacteria or mycobacteria), the route, duration and anatomic location of the infection. Treatment Osteomyelitis often requires prolonged antibiotic therapy, with a course lasting a matter of weeks or months. A PICC line or central venous catheter is often placed for this purpose. Osteomyelitis also may require surgical debridement. Severe cases may lead to the loss of a limb. Initial firstline antibiotic choice is determined by the patient's history and regional differences in common infective organisms. A treatment lasting 42 days is practiced in a number of facilities. Local and sustained availability of drugs have proven to be more effective in achieving prophylactic and therapeutic outcomes. In 1875, American artist Thomas Eakins depicted a surgical procedure for osteomyelitis at Jefferson Medical College, in a famous oil painting titled The Gross Clinic. Prior to the widespread availability and use of antibiotics, blow fly larvae were sometimes deliberately introduced to the wounds to feed on the infected material, effectively scouring them clean. Hyperbaric oxygen therapy has been shown to be a useful adjunct to the treatment of refractory osteomyelitis. Open surgery is needed for chronic osteomyelitis, whereby the involucrum is opened and the sequestrum is removed or sometimes saucerisation can be done. Proper care of the bones Bones are the body's first lines of defense. They protect the brain, heart and lungs and anchor the muscles. They keep us mobile. And all they ask in return is our support to keep them strong: good nutrition, weight-bearing exercise, calcium and vitamin D.

Size and Shape of the Muscle

Muscle Injuries and Diseases

A strain is an injury to a muscle or tendon in which the muscle fibers tear as a result of overstretching. A strain is also colloquially known as a pulled muscle. The equivalent injury to a ligament is a sprain. Cramps are unpleasant, often painful sensations caused by muscle contraction or overshortening. Common causes of skeletal muscle cramps may include muscle fatigue, low sodium, low potassium, and/or low magnesium. Smooth muscle cramps may be due to menstruation or gastroenteritis. A bruise (layman's term), also called a contusion (medical term), is a type of hematoma of tissue in which capillaries and sometimes venules are damaged by trauma, allowing blood to seep, hemorrhage, or extravasate into the surrounding interstitial tissues. Not blanching on pressure, bruises can involve capillaries at the level of skin, subcutaneous tissue, muscle, or bone.

Diseases and Disorders of Muscle and Tendons

Trigger Finger Infection

Muscular Dystrophy

Myasthenia Gravis

THE PROPER CARE OF MUSCLE

Eat Right

Exercise

Rest

Maintain Good Posture

Digestive System

Esophagus - the tube that connects your mouth and your stomach. Stomach - A stretchy bag that holds your food after you eat.Helps to break food into smaller pieces so your body can use it for energy and nutrition. Small Intestine - Tube that is 20 feet long.Continues to digest food.Food stays in your small intestine for 4 to 8 hours. Large Intestine - Tube that is 5 feet long. Gets waste from small intestine.Waste stays for 10 to 12 hours Gall Bladder - Storage tank for bile (a greenish-yellow liquid) that helps your body break down and use fats.

Located under your liver. Shaped like a pear. Liver - Factory for antibodies and bile Stores vitamins and sugars until your body needs them Pancreas - Helps you digest food by breaking down sugars

How food changes during digestion

Digestion starts in the mouth. The first step in digestion is performed by the teeth. We chew our food to break it down. As we chew our food, saliva mixes with it and makes it soft. The tongue pushes and turns the food until it forms a soft mass called bolus which can be easily swallowed. The breaking down of food into chewable pieces is called mechanical digestion. Another kind of digestion also takes place in the mouth which is called chemical digestion. Chemical digestion uses saliva which contains enzyme that changes starch to sugar. Mechanical and chemical digestion takes place in the mouth. However, digestion is not yet completed here. From the mouth, food is pushed by the tongue to the esophagus. Peristaltic movement of the walls of the esophagus pushes the food down to the stomach.

Digestive system diseases

Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) -Severe heartburn in laymens language. Weakness of the valve between the esophagus and stomach may allow stomach acid to reflux (regurgitate, backup) into the esophagus and irritate and inflame the lining. This results in chest pain which can mimic that of angina (pain of cardiac ischemia or an MI). Jaundice - Literally means yellow in French. Yellowing of the skin and whites of the eyes from a backup of bile metabolic by-products from the blood into body tissues. May result from blockage of the ducts draining bile from the liver into the intestines or excessive breakdown of red blood cells. Hemoglobin from destroyed RBCs is broken down, and in part, ends up in bile secretions. Diverticulosis/diverticulitis Small pouches may form along the walls of the large intestine called diverticuli which if symptomatic, causing discomfort to the patient, is called diverticulosis. These abnormal outpocketings may collect and not be able to empty fecal material which can lead to inflammation, diverticulitis. Cirrhosis - Literally, orange-yellow in Greek. A degenerative disease of the liver that often develops in chronic alcoholics, but can have other causes. The name refers to the gross appearance of the organ.

Portal hypertension A potential complication of chronic alcoholism resulting in liver damage and obstruction of venous blood flow through the liver. The rising blood pressure in the veins between the gastrointestinal tract and liver causes engorgement of veins around the umbilicus (navel). The characteristic radiating pattern of veins is called a caput medusae (head of Medusa). Medusa was the snake-haired lady in Greek mythology. Esophageal varices bulging, engorged veins in the walls of the esophagus are often a complication of chronic alcoholism (see portal hypertension). The thin-walled, swollen veins are at risk of tearing resulting in severe, possibly fatal, bleeding. Dysphagia - Difficulty swallowing. May be related to GERD (see above), esophageal tumor or other causes. Crohns Disease - a chronic inflammatory disease primarily of the bowel. Typical symptoms are abdominal pain, weight loss, diarrhea. There may also be rectal bleeding that can lead to anemia. Special X-rays and tests are needed to differentiate Crohns from other diseases with similar symptoms. Peritonitis - Inflammation of the lining of the abdominal cavity. Before antibiotics, people would die from peritonitis if an inflamed appendix burst. Indications of peritonitis are called peritoneal signs: tender abdomen, rebound pain (pain when manual pressure released from examining abdomen), board-like rigidity of abdominal muscles, no bowel sounds (gurgles). The peritoneal membrane is very sensitive to exposure to foreign substances. Contact with blood, bile, urine, pus will cause peritoneal signs.

Proper care of Digestive System Eat foods that are high in fiber like fruits and vegetables Drink plenty of water Chew your food completely before you swallow Avoid foods high in fat