Pipe fitting

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the work of pipefitters. For pipe fittings, see Piping and plumbing fitting. This article does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2007)

Soldered copper pipes

Welding of steel pipe

Pipe fitting is the occupation of installing or repairing piping or tubing systems that convey liquid, gas, and occasionally solid materials. This work involves selecting and preparing pipe or tubing, joining it together by various means, and the location and repair of leaks. Pipe fitting work is done in many different settings: HVAC, manufacturing,hydraulics, refineries, nuclearpowered Supercarriers and Fast Attack Submarinescomputer chip fab plants, power plant construction and other steam systems. Pipe fitters (sometimes called simply "fitters") are represented in the USA and Canada by the United Association of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipe Fitting Industry of the United States and Canada.

Fitters work with a variety of pipe and tubing materials including several types of steel, copper, iron, aluminium, and plastic. Pipe fitting is not plumbing; the two are related but separate trades. Pipe fitters who specialize in fire prevention are calledSprinklerfitters, another related, but separate trade. Materials, techniques, and usages vary from country to country as different nations have different standards to install pipe.
Contents
[hide]

1 Steel pipe 2 Copper pipe

2.1 Soft copper

2.1.1 Flare connections

2.2 Rigid copper

2.2.1 Soldered connections 2.2.2 Compression connections 2.2.3 Crimped or pressed connections

3 Aluminium pipe 4 Glass pipe 5 Plastic pipe 6 Occupational hazards 7 Scope of work 8 See also 9 External links

Steel pipe[edit]
Steel pipe (or black iron pipe) was once the most popular choice for supply of water and flammable gases. Steel pipe is still used in many homes and businesses to convey natural gas or propane fuel, and is a popular choice in fire sprinkler systems due to its high heat resistance. In commercial buildings, steel pipe is used to convey heating or cooling water to heat exchangers, air handlers, variable air volume (VAV) devices, or other HVAC equipment. Steel pipe is sometimes joined using threaded connections, where tapered threads (see National Pipe Thread) are cut into the end of the tubing segment, sealant is applied in the form of thread sealing compound or thread seal tape (also known as PTFEor Teflon tape), and it is then threaded into a corresponding threaded fitting using a pipe wrench. Beyond domestic or light commercial settings, steel pipe is often joined by welding, or by

use of mechanical couplings made by companies such asVictaulic or Anvil International (formerly Grinnell) that hold the pipe joint together via a groove pressed or cut (a rarely used older practice), into the ends of the pipes. Other variations of steel pipe include various stainless steel and chrome alloys. In high-pressure situations these are usually joined by TIG welding. In Canada, with respect to natural gas (NG) and propane (LP gas), black iron pipe (BIP) is commonly used to connect an appliance to the supply. It must however be marked (either painted yellow or yellow banding attached at certain intervals) and certain restrictions apply to which nominal pipe size (NPS) can be put through walls and buildings. With propane in particular, BIP can be run from an exterior tank (or cylinder) provided it is well protected from the weather, and an anode-type of protection from corrosion is in place when the pipe is to be installed underground.

Copper pipe[edit]
Main article: Copper tubing Copper tubing is most often used for supply of hot and cold water, and as refrigerant line in HVAC systems. There are two basic types of copper tubing, soft copper and rigid copper. Copper tubing is joined using flare connection, compression connection, or solder. Copper offers a high level of resistance to corrosion, but is becoming very costly.

Soft copper[edit]
Soft (or ductile) copper tubing can be bent easily to travel around obstacles in the path of the tubing. While the work hardening of the drawing process used to size the tubing makes the copper hard/rigid, it is carefully annealed to make it soft again; it is therefore more expensive to produce than non-annealed, rigid copper tubing. It can be joined by any of the three methods used for rigid copper, and it is the only type of copper tubing suitable for flare connections. Soft copper is the most popular choice for refrigerant lines in splitsystem air conditioners and heat pumps.

Flare connections[edit]
Flare connections require that the end of a tubing section be spread outward in a bell shape using a flare tool. A flare nut then compresses this bell-shaped end onto a male fitting. Flare connections are a labor intensive method of making connections, but are quite reliable over the course of many years.

Rigid copper[edit]
Rigid copper is a popular choice for water lines. It is joined using a sweat, compression or crimped/pressed connection. Rigid copper, rigid due to the work hardening of the drawing process, cannot be bent and must use elbow fittings to go around corners or around obstacles. If heated and allowed to slowly cool, called annealing, then rigid copper will become soft and can be bent/formed without cracking.

Soldered connections[edit]
Solder fittings are smooth, and easily slip onto the end of a tubing section. The joint is then heated using a torch, and solder is melted into the connection. When the solder cools, it forms a very strong bond which can last for decades. Solder-connected rigid copper is the most popular choice for water supply lines in modern buildings. In situations where many connections must be made at once (such as plumbing of a new building), solder offers much quicker and much less expensive joinery than compression or flare fittings. The term sweating is sometimes used to describe the process of soldering pipes.

Compression connections[edit]
Compression fittings use a soft metal or thermoplastic ring (the compression ring or "ferrule") which is squeezed onto the pipe and into the fitting by a compression nut. The soft metal conforms to the surface of the tubing and the fitting, and creates a seal. Compression connections do not typically have the long life that sweat connections offer, but are advantageous in many cases because they are easy to make using basic tools. A disadvantage in compression connections is that they take longer to make than sweat, and sometimes require retightening over time to stop leaks.

Crimped or pressed connections[edit]

Crimped or pressed connections use special copper fittings which are permanently attached to rigid copper tubing with a powered crimper. The special fittings, manufactured with sealant already inside, slide over the tubing to be connected. Thousands of pounds-force per square inch of pressure are used to deform the fitting and compress the sealant against the inner copper tubing, creating a water tight seal. The advantages of this method are that it should last as long as the tubing, it takes less time to complete than other methods, it is cleaner in both appearance and the materials used to make the connection, and no open flame is used during the connection process. The disadvantages are that the fittings used are harder to find and cost significantly more than sweat type fittings.

Aluminium pipe[edit]
Aluminium is sometimes used due to its low cost, resistance to corrosion and solvents, and its ductility. Aluminium tube is more desirable than steel for the conveyance of flammable solvents, since it cannot create sparks when manipulated. Aluminium tubing can be connected by flare or compression fittings, or it can be welded by the TIG or heliarc processes.

Glass pipe[edit]
Tempered glass pipes are used for specialized applications, such as corrosive liquids, medical or laboratory wastes, orpharmaceutical manufacturing. Connections are generally made using specialized gasket or O-ring fittings.

Plastic pipe[edit]
This section requires expansion. (June
2011)

Occupational hazards[edit]
Pipe fitters are often exposed to hazardous or dangerous materials, such as asbestos, lead, ammonia, steam, flammable gases, various resins and solvents including benzene, and various refrigerants. Much progress was made in the 20th century toward eliminating or reducing hazardous materials exposures. Many aspects of hazardous materials are now regulated by law in most countries, including asbestos usage and removal, and refrigerant selection and handling. Other occupational hazards include exposure to the weather, heavy lifting, crushing hazards, lacerations, and other risks normal to the construction industry.

Scope of work[edit]

Blueprint reading Detailing CAD Drawing coordinators Layout Supports and hanger Installation Pipe threading Pipe grinding Welding (MiG, GMAW, TiG, SMAW, Orbital) Plasma cutting Mechanical pipe cutting and grooving Gas arc cutting Rigging Brazing Soldering Mitering Tube bending Valve installation and repair Preparation and installation of medical gas piping

Fire clay

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Fire clay is a term applied to a range of refractory clays used in the manufacture of ceramics, especially fire brick. The United States Environmental Protection Agency defines fire clay very generally as a "mineral aggregate composed of hydrous silicates of aluminium (Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2O) with or without free silica."[1]
Contents
[hide]

1 Properties 2 Chemical composition 3 Extraction 4 References

Properties[edit]
High grade fire clays can withstand temperatures of 1775C (3227F), but to be referred to as a "fire clay" the material must withstand a minimum temperature of 1515C (2759F).[2] Fire clays range from flint clays to plastic fire clays, but there aresemi-flint and semi-plastic fire clays as well. Fire clays consist of natural argillaceous materials, mostly Kaolinite group clays, along with fine-grained micas and quartz, and may also contain organic matter and sulphur compounds. Fire clay is resistant to high temperatures, having fusion points higher than 1,600C, therefore it is suitable for lining furnaces, as fire brick, and manufacture of utensils used in the metalworking industries, such as crucibles, saggars, retorts andglassware. Because of its stability during firing in the kiln, it can be used to make complex items of pottery such as pipes and sanitary ware.

Chemical composition[edit]
The chemical composition typical for fire clays are 23-34% Al2O3, 50-60% SiO2 and 6-27% loss on ignition together with various amounts of Fe2O3, CaO, MgO, K2O, Na2O and TiO2.[2] Chemical analyses from two 19th century sources, shown in table below, are somewhat lower in alumina[3][4] although a more contemporary source quotes analyses that are closer.[5] Fire Clay Compositions

Thorpe[3]

King[4]

Shackelford[5]

Stonebridge Eisenberg I Eisenberg II Newcastle 1 Newcastle 2 Newcastle 3

N/A

SiO2 (%)

65.10

89.8

64.7

51.1

47.6

48.6

58.1

Al2O3 (%)

22.2

5.40

24.0

31.4

29.5

30.2

23.1

MgO (%)

0.18

0.09

0.40

1.54

0.71

1.91

1.00

CaO(%)

0.14

0.20

0.37

1.46

1.34

1.66

0.08

Iron Oxides (%) 0.18

0.09

0.40

4.63

9.13

4.06

2.40

K2O (%)

0.18

0.61

2.40

not quoted

Extraction[edit]
Unlike conventional brick-making clay, some fire clays (especially flint clays) are mined at depth, found as a seatearth, the underclay associated with coal measures.

Fire brick
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"Firebrick" redirects here. For the communities in the United States, see Firebrick, California and Firebrick, Kentucky.

Refractory bricks in a torpedo car used for hauling molten iron

A fire brick, firebrick, or refractory brick is a block of refractory ceramicmaterial used in lining furnaces, kilns, fireboxes, and fireplaces. A refractory brickis built primarily to withstand high temperature, but will also usually have a lowthermal conductivity for greater energy efficiency. Usually dense firebricks are used in applications with extreme mechanical, chemical, or thermal stresses, such as the inside of a wood-fired kiln or a furnace, which is subject to abrasion fromwood, fluxing from ash or slag, and high temperatures. In other, less harsh situations, such as in an electric or natural gas fired kiln, more porous bricks, commonly known as "kiln bricks" are a better choice.[1] They are weaker, but they are much lighter, easier to form, and insulate far better than dense bricks. In any case, firebricks should not spall under rapid temperature change, and their strength should hold up well during rapid temperature changes.
Contents
[hide]

1 Manufacture 2 Composition 3 High temperature applications 4 Lower temperature applications 5 See also 6 References

Manufacture[edit]
In the making of firebrick, fireclay is fired in the kiln until it is partly vitrified, and for special purposes may also be glazed. There are two standard size of fire-brick; one is 9 4 3 in. (230 mm 115 mm 75 mm) and the other is 9" 4" 2". Also available are firebrick "splits" which are half the thickness and are often used to line wood stoves and fireplace inserts. The dimensions of a split are usually 9" 4" 1". In the United States, fire bricks were made at the now-defunct Evens & Howard Fire Brick Company in Saint Louis, Missouri, and shipped to diverse locations around the nation as well as Canada.[2]Here is a description of the plant circa 1904:

The grounds of the plant cover 133 acres. The company has three mines in the city and one mine at Glencoe, Mo., 30 miles away, where about 61 acres are owned. All the mining is done below ground by pick and blast. About 50 men are constantly employed disembowelling the raw material. The company has an extensive equipment of cars and tracks, at Glencoe, for the conveying of the clay to the plant. All clay is weathered for at least six months. The clay from the mines on the plant is hauled to the dry pay by teams, being dumped into storage bins situated near the pans for which it is intended. -- The Clayworking Plants of St. Louis (1904 book)[2]

Composition[edit]

Main article: Fire Clay Fire bricks have an aluminium oxide content that can be as high as 50-80% (with correspondingly less silica). [3]

High temperature applications[edit]

The silica firebricks that line steel-making furnaces are used at temperatures up to 1650C (3000F), which would melt many other types of ceramic, and in fact part of the silica firebrick liquefies. HRSI, a material with the same composition, was used to make the insulating tiles of the space shuttle.

Lower temperature applications[edit]

A range of other materials find use as firebricks for lower temperature applications. Magnesium oxide is often used as a lining for furnaces. Silica bricks are the most common type of bricks used for the inner lining of furnaces and incinerators. As the inner lining is usually of sacrificial nature, fire bricks of higher alumina content may be employed to lengthen the duration between re-linings. Very often cracks can be seen in this sacrificial inner lining shortly after being put into operation. They revealed more expansion joints should have been put in the first place, but these now become expansion joints themselves and are of no concern as long as structural integrity is not affected.[4] Silicon carbide, with high abrasive strength, is a popular material for hearths of incinerators and cremators. Common red clay brick are used for chimneys and wood-fired ovens.

Gasket
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about mechanical seals. For other uses, see Gasket (disambiguation). This article contains weasel words: vague phrasing that often accompaniesbiased or unverifiable information. Such statements should be clarified or removed. (July 2011) This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challengedand removed. (March 2011)

Some seals and gaskets 1. o-ring 2. fiber washer 3. paper gaskets 4. cylinder head gasket

A gasket (correct terminology is a "joint" made from "jointing material") is amechanical seal which fills the space between two or more mating surfaces, generally to prevent leakage from or into the joined objects while undercompression. Gaskets allow "less-than-perfect" mating surfaces on machine parts where they can fill irregularities. Gaskets are commonly produced by cutting from sheet materials. Gaskets for specific applications, such as high pressure steam systems, may contain asbestos. However, due to health hazards associated with asbestos exposure, non-asbestos gasket materials are used when practical. It is usually desirable that the gasket be made from a material that is to some degree yielding such that it is able to deform and tightly fills the space it is designed for, including any slight irregularities. A few gaskets require an application of sealant directly to the gasket surface to function properly. Some (piping) gaskets are made entirely of metal and rely on a seating surface to accomplish the seal; the metal's own spring characteristics are utilized (up to but not passing y, the material's yield strength). This is typical of some "ring joints" (RJ) or some other metal gasket systems such as those made by Grayloc

(an Oceaneering International company). These joints are known as R-con and E-con compressive type joints.[1]

Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) gasket

Contents
[hide]

1 Properties

o o o o o o o o

1.1 Gasket design 1.2 Sheet gaskets 1.3 Solid material gaskets 1.4 Spiral-wound gaskets 1.5 Constant seating stress gaskets 1.6 Double-jacketed gaskets 1.7 Kammprofile gaskets 1.8 Flange gasket

2 Improvements 3 Failure reasons 4 See also 5 Sources 6 External links

Properties[edit]

Compressed fiber gasket

Gaskets are normally made from a flat material, a sheet such as paper,rubber, silicone, metal, cork, felt, neoprene, nitrile rubber, fiberglass,polytetrafluoroethylene (otherwise known as PTFE or Teflon) or a plasticpolymer (such as polychlorotrifluoroethylene). One of the more desirable properties of an effective gasket in industrial applications for compressed fiber gasket material is the ability to withstand high compressive loads. Most industrial gasket applications involve boltsexerting compression well into the 14 MPa (2000 psi) range or higher. Generally speaking, there are several truisms that allow for best gasket performance. One of the more tried and tested is: "The more compressive load exerted on the gasket, the longer it will last". There are several ways to measure a gasket material's ability to withstand compressive loading. The "hot compression test" is probably the most accepted of these tests. Most manufacturers of gasket materials will provide or publish the results of these tests.

Gasket design[edit]
Gaskets come in many different designs based on industrial usage, budget, chemical contact and physical parameters:

Sheet gaskets[edit]
The premise is simple in that a sheet of material has the gasket shape "punched out" of it. This leads to a very crude, fast and cheap gasket. In previous times the material was compressed asbestos, but in modern times a fibrous material such as high temp graphite is used. These gaskets can fill many chemical requirements based on the inertness of the material used and fit many budgetary restraints. Common practice prevents these gaskets from being used in many industrial processes based on temperature and pressure concerns.

Solid material gaskets[edit]

The idea behind solid material is to use metals which cannot be punched out of sheets but are still cheap to produce. These gaskets generally have a much higher level of quality control than sheet gaskets and generally can withstand much higher temperatures and pressures. The key downside is that a solid metal must be greatly compressed in order to become flush with the flange head and prevent leakage. The material choice is more difficult; because metals are primarily used, process contamination and oxidation are risks. An additional downside is that the metal used must be softer than the flange in order to ensure that the flange does not warp and thereby prevent sealing with future gaskets. Even so, these gaskets have found a niche in industry.

Spiral-wound gaskets[edit]
Spiral-wound gaskets comprise a mix of metallic and filler material. Generally, the gasket has a metal (normally carbon rich orstainless steel) wound outwards in a circular spiral (other shapes are possible) with the filler material (generally a flexible graphite) wound in the same manner but starting from the opposing side. This results in alternating layers of filler and metal. The filler material in these gaskets acts as the sealing element, with the metal providing structural support. These gaskets have proven to be reliable in most applications, and allow lower clamping forces than solid gaskets, albeit with a higher cost. [2]

Constant seating stress gaskets[edit]

The constant seating stress gasket consists of two components; a solid carrier ring of a suitable material, such as stainless steel, and two sealing elements of some compressible material installed within two opposing channels, one channel on either side of the carrier ring. The sealing elements are typically made from a material (expanded graphite, expanded polytetraflouroethylene (PTFE), vermiculite, etc.) suitable to the process fluid and application. Constant seating stress gaskets derive their name from the fact that the carrier ring profile takes flange rotation (deflection under bolt preload) into consideration. With all other conventional gaskets, as the flange fasteners are tightened, the flange deflects radially under load, resulting in the greatest gasket compression, and highest gasket stress, at the outer gasket edge. Since the carrier ring used in constant seating stress gaskets take this deflection into account when creating the carrier ring for a given flange size, pressure class, and material, the carrier ring profile can be adjusted to enable the gasket seating stress to be radially uniform across the entire sealing area. Further, because the sealing elements are fully confined by the flange faces in opposing channels on the carrier ring, any in-service compressive forces acting on the gasket are transmitted through the carrier ring and avoid any further compression of the sealing elements, thus maintaining a 'constant' gasket seating stress while in-service. Thus, the gasket is immune to common gasket failure modes that include creep relaxation, high system vibration, or system thermal cycles. The fundamental concept underlying the improved sealability for constant seating stress gaskets are that (i) if the flange sealing surfaces are capable of attaining a seal, (ii) the sealing elements are compatible with the process fluid and application, and (iii) the sufficient gasket seating stress is achieved on

installation necessary to affect a seal, then the possibility of the gasket leaking in-service is greatly reduced or eliminated altogether.

Double-jacketed gaskets[edit]
Double-jacketed gaskets are another combination of filler material and metallic materials. In this application, a tube with ends that resemble a "C" is made of the metal with an additional piece made to fit inside of the "C" making the tube thickest at the meeting points. The filler is pumped between the shell and piece. When in use the compressed gasket has a larger amount of metal at the two tips where contact is made (due to the shell/piece interaction) and these two places bear the burden of sealing the process. Since all that is needed is a shell and piece, these gaskets can be made from almost any material that can be made into a sheet and a filler can then be inserted. This is an effective option for most applications.

Kammprofile gaskets[edit]
Kammprofile gaskets are used in many older seals since they have both a flexible nature and reliable performance. Kammprofiles work by having a solid corrugated core with a flexible covering layer. This arrangement allows for very high compression and an extremely tight seal along the ridges of the gasket. Since generally the graphite will fail instead of the metal core, Kammprofile can be repaired during later inactivity. Kammprofile has a high capital cost for most applications but this is countered by long life and increased reliability.

Flange gasket[edit]

Copper flange gaskets used for ultrahigh vacuum systems

A flange gasket is a type of gasket made to fit between two sections ofpipe that are flared to provide higher surface area. Flange gaskets come in a variety of sizes and are categorized by their inside diameter and their outside diameter. There are many standards in gasket for flanges of pipes. The gaskets for flanges can be divided in major 4 different categories:

1. Sheet gaskets 2. Corrugated metal gaskets 3. Ring gaskets 4. spiral wound gaskets Sheet gaskets are simple, they are cut to size either with bolt holes or without holes for standard sizes with various thickness and material suitable to media and temperature pressure of pipeline. Ring gaskets also known as RTJ. They are mostly used in offshore oil- and gas pipelines and are designed to work under extremely high pressure. They are solid rings of metal in different cross sections like oval, round, octagonal etc. Sometimes they come with hole in center for pressure equalization. Spiral wound gaskets are also used in high pressure pipelines and are made with stainless steel outer and inner rings and a center filled with spirally wound stainless steel tape wound together with graphite and PTFE, formed in V shape. Internal pressure acts upon the faces of the V, forcing the gasket to seal against the flange faces.

Improvements[edit]
Many gaskets contain minor improvements to increase or infer acceptable operating conditions:

A common improvement is an inner compression ring. A compression ring allows for higher flange compression while preventing gasket failure. The effects of a compression ring are minimal and generally are just used when the standard design experiences a high rate of failure.

A common improvement is an outer guiding ring. A guiding ring allows for easier installation and serves as a minor compression inhibitor. In some alkylation uses these can be modified on Double Jacketed gaskets to show when the first seal has failed through an inner lining system coupled with alkylation paint.

Failure reasons[edit]
1. uneven distributed pressing force, the uneven pressing force is caused by a variety of factors, first is the human factor: asymmetric construction of the preload bolt, this factor can eliminate construction; theory on the flange pressed, the sealing surface is absolutely parallel to the practice, however, the centerline of a pipeline can not be absolutely concentric, and thus tighten the bolts on the flange moment, so that the flange discontinuity. Asymmetrical connection, the sealing surface more or less deformed, so that sealed the pressing force is reduced, the running load, prone to leakage. Third, the density of bolt arrangement on the pressure distribution more obvious impact, bolts suffer the closer, the pressure is becoming more uniform. 2. Stress relaxation and torque loss: stress relaxation and the torque loss is the main cause of leakage. Tighten bolts on the flange, due to the vibration of the bodies, the temperature increased or decreased and other factors, the working process of the spiral wound gaskets stress relaxation, the bolt torque will be gradually

decreased, resulting in loss of torque. cause a leak. In general, long bolts, the remnants of the torque, the smaller the diameter the more advantageous to prevent the loss of torque, with long, thin bolt is an effective way to prevent torque loss. In addition, the greater the temperature, the longer the duration, the more serious loss of torque. Heating a certain period of time to make it stretch the bolt, and then to maintain a given torque, is very effective to prevent the loss of torque. There is a gasket is thinner and smaller the loss of torque. In addition to prevent the strong vibration of the machine and the pipe itself, and exclude the impact of adjacent equipment vibration, the impact of the sealing surface is not meaningless, not to beat the bolts tightened, can prevent the loss of torque. 3. Surface not smooth: the sealing surface finish improper also easy to cause leakage. 4. Temperature: the temperature decreases have a greater impact on the leakage. Flanged leak often occurs in the cooling, because the cooling rate of cooling when the flange and bolts do not After cooling, the pressing force of the metal gaskets stress relaxation, combined with the cold contraction of the pipe, resulting in toward the bolt tensile direction force, this force will lead to leaks in, where the low-temperature media occasions when gasket should be noted: 1) low temperature flexible gasket; 2) shim thickness should be as much as possible to take a small flange gap as small as possible ; 3) high strength bolts, so that the strain is small.
TECHNOLOGIES FOR CRITICAL ENVIRONMENTS Coal-fired power plants produce electricity by burning coal in a steam generator that transforms water into high pressure and high temperature steam. The steam flows through a series of steam turbines which drive an electrical generator to produce electricity. The exhaust steam from the turbines is cooled, condensed back into water and finally returned to the steam generator to start the process once again.

ALLOY AND STAINLESS STEELS FOR HIGH PRESSURES AND HIGH TEMPERATURES For this application, we supply tubes and pipes in carbon steel, alloy steel (T/P11, 13CrMo4-5, T/P22, 10CrMo9-10, P36, 15NiCuMoNb564, T/P23, 7CrWVMoNb9-6), high alloy steel (T/P91, X10CrMoVNb9-1, T/P92, X10CrWMoVNb92, X20CrMoV11-1) and stainless steels (TEMPALOY AA-1 and A-3) used for boilers, water walls, feed-water tubes and pipes, super heaters and re-heaters as well as for headers, steam lines, connection pipes and other power plant apparatus required to withstand high temperatures and high pressures. ULTRA SUPER CRITICAL APPLICATIONS Tenaris is currently producing 9% Cr tubular products (ASTM grades 91 and 92 and EN equivalents) used for the fabrication of boiler pressure parts working at temperatures up to 620C. Additionally, for the fabrication of superheaters and re-heaters, in the most advanced Ultra Super Critical (USC) power plants working with steam temperatures above 600C, we offer ASTM A213 S30434 and S30942 grades (TEMPALOY AA-1 and A-3). All these steel grades have elevated creep resistance combined with good resistance to oxidation. QUALITY CERTIFICATIONS All Tenaris products for coal-fired power plants are designed according to the most stringent quality standards and manufactured under the certified quality system (ISO 9001). Quality control procedures include statistical process controls, process and product audits as well as traceability systems covering all manufacturers involved.

em-guided valve & cross-arms seat features an extra wide metal to metal seal on the valve flange. The serrated upper surface on the valve gives a longer non-breathing seal between valve body and insert while the rigid seat cross-arms give greater strength and positive sealing. The strong, thick, valve knock off nut holds the insert tightly reducing flex and breathing which lessens the chance of foreign matter getting between valve and insert. Material is 20CrMnMo / 20CrMnTi forging steel, carburizing and quenching, thickness is 1.5mm - 1.8mm, hardness is HRC58-62, and hardness of the core is HRC27-33. The 55angle and screw thread of the valve have carburized protection, and the whole is phosphorated. The specifications of the valve are API-4#-9#, PJ-482A, etc. The specifications of the seat are API-4#-9#, PJ-451, etc.

Stem-guided Valves & Cross-arms Seats

Three-wing Valves & Full open Seats Valve Parts Instruments & Pumps Hardware Food Machinery

 Auto Parts Non-Standard Parts

Three-wing guided valves and full open seats features greater fluid flow than fourwing valves, the unibody forged valve features greater strength than traditional welded-wing valve. Innovative unibody valve design eliminates snap rings, plates or keepers providing reduced maintenance by snap-on valve inserts and easy installation. Material is 20CrMnMo / 20CrMnTi forging steel, carburizing and quenching, thickness is 1.5mm - 1.8mm, hardness is HRC58-62, and hardness of the core is HRC27-33. The 55angle and screw thread of the valve have carburized protection, and the whole is phosphorated. The specifications of the valve are API-4#-9#, PJ-482A, etc. The specifications of the seat are API-4#-9#, PJ-451, etc.

Double Angle O-ring Valve

The Double Angle O-ring Valve is made with a tough one-piece body to run more hours between change outs. It's made with carburized premium alloy steel to resist wear, provide a positive

seal, and help protect against wash out or damage to the pump. FEATURES Specified for all drilling operations up to and exceeding 5,000 psi Maximum operating temperature is 170F Patented polyurethane insert is noted for its "Double Angle" 55 seal contact surface, which maintains cylinder priming during pump shutdown Sizes fit most mud pumps Shelf life of polyurethane insert is maximum of 5 years Body is a one-piece design, configured to give maximum containment of the insert with minimum use of material

Standard Plate Type Valve

The Standard Plate Type Valve is extremely durable to its premium forged alloy steel body and its unique design. It has been proven by more than 50 years of oilfield service. To prevent dry pistons and liners at startup, the

valve features a patented double angle polyurethane insert that maintains cylinder priming during pump shut-down. The precise control of insert pre-load is accomplished with a flat ground insert retaining plate and split retainers. The insert can be replaced in the field with minimum down time. FEATURES Specified for all drilling operation up to and exceeding 3,500 psi Maximum temperature rating for the standard polyurethane insert is 170F Maximum temperature rating for the Buna-N rubber insert is 225F Available with Buna-N rubber or polyurethane inserts Shelf life of polyurethane insert is maximum of 5 years Shelf life of Buna-N rubber is maximum of 10 years Valves with rubber lipless inserts are rated for pressure up to 2,500 psi
* Note: Baker SPD Double Angle O-ring and Standard Plate Type Valves do not interchange with any other manufacturer.

Four-wing Valves & Full open Seats

KNC PRECISION CASTING offers two style of Four-wing guided valves and full open seats which feature greater fluid flow through the full open seat. The full open seat provides easier valve maintenance and seat pulling,

in valve-over- valve fluid ends. Innovative unibody valve design eliminates snap rings, plates or keepers providing reduced maintenance by snap-on valve inserts and easy installation. This combination will handle lost circulation material better than most conventional style valves and seats while the seating angle greatly improves flow characteristics and the heavy-duty load bearing capacity greatly improves service life. Material is 20CrMnMo / 20CrMnTi forging steel, carburizing and quenching, thickness is 1.5mm - 1.8mm, hardness is HRC58-62, and hardness of the core is HRC27-33. The 55angle and screw thread of the valve have carburized protection, and the whole is phosphorated. The specifications of the valve are API-4#-9#, PJ-482A, etc. The specifications of the seat are API-4#-9#, PJ-451, etc.

Hydraulic Valve Seat Puller and Head

KNC PRECISION CASTING offering all kinds hydraulic valve seats puller from API4#, API5#, API6#, API7#, API8# for stem cross arms and full open valve seats.

The components are made from high quality cast steel for impact and wear resistance. To eliminate danager to fluid ends coused by removing valve seats with a cutting torch and to reduce the posibility of personal injury is our design goal.

Rough Valves & Seats

KNC PRECISION CASTING supplies forged rough and/or semi-manufactured valves & Seats to manufacturers in the United States.

Quotation ? Questions ? Need More Information ?

Pipe Insulation is thermal or acoustic insulation used on pipework.

Contents
[hide]

1 Applications

o o o o

1.1 Condensation control 1.2 Pipe freezing 1.3 Energy saving 1.4 Protection against extreme temperatures

1.5 Control of noise

2 Factors influencing performance 3 Materials

o o o o o o o

3.1 Mineral wool 3.2 Glass wool 3.3 Flexible elastomeric foams 3.4 Rigid foam 3.5 Polyethylene 3.6 Cellular Glass 3.7 Aerogel

4 Heat flow calculations and R-value 5 References 6 External links

Applications[edit]
Condensation control[edit]
Where pipes operate at below-ambient temperatures, the potential exists for water vapour to condense on the pipe surface. Moisture is known to contribute towards many different types of corrosion, so preventing the formation of condensation on pipework is usually considered important. Pipe insulation can prevent condensation forming, as the surface temperature of the insulation will vary from the surface temperature of the pipe. Condensation will not occur, provided that (a) the insulation surface is above the dewpoint temperature of the air; and (b) the insulation incorporates some form of water-vapour barrier or retarder that prevents water vapour from passing through the insulation to form on the pipe surface.

Pipe freezing[edit]
Since some water pipes are located either outside or in unheated areas where the ambient temperature may occasionally drop below the freezing point of water, any water in the pipework may potentially freeze. When water freezes, it expands due to negative thermal expansion, and this expansion can cause failure of a pipe system in any one of a number of ways. Pipe insulation cannot prevent the freezing of standing water in pipework, but it can increase the time required for freezing to occurthereby reducing the risk of the water in the pipes freezing. For this reason, it is recommended to insulate pipework at risk of freezing, and local water-supply regulations may require pipe insulation be applied to pipework to reduce the risk of pipe freezing.[1] For a given length, a smaller-bore pipe holds a smaller volume of water than a larger-bore pipe, and therefore water in a smaller-bore pipe will freeze more easily (and more quickly) than water in a larger-bore pipe (presuming equivalent environments). Since smaller-bore pipes present a greater risk of freezing, insulation is typically used in combination with alternative methods of freeze prevention (e.g., modulating trace heating cable, or ensuring a consistent flow of water through the pipe).

Energy saving[edit]
Since pipework can operate at temperatures far removed from the ambient temperature, and the rate of heat flow from a pipe is related to the temperature differential between the pipe and the surrounding ambient air, heat flow from pipework can be considerable. In many situations, this heat flow is undesirable. The application of thermal pipe insulation introduces thermal resistance and reduces the heat flow. Thicknesses of thermal pipe insulation used for saving energy vary, but as a general rule, pipes operating at more-extreme temperatures exhibit a greater heat flow and larger thicknesses are applied due to the greater potential savings.[2] The location of pipework also influences the selection of insulation thickness. For instance, in some circumstances, heating pipework within a well-insulated building might not require insulation, as the heat that's "lost" (i.e., the heat that flows from the pipe to the surrounding air) may be considered useful for heating the building, as such "lost" heat would be effectively trapped by the structural insulation anyway.[3] Conversely, such pipework may be insulated to prevent overheating or unnecessary cooling in the rooms through which it passes.

Protection against extreme temperatures[edit]

Where pipework is operating at extremely high or low temperatures, the potential exists for injury to occur should any person come into physical contact with the pipe surface. The threshold for human pain varies, but several international standards set recommended touch temperature limits. Since the surface temperature of insulation varies from the temperature of the pipe surface, typically such that the insulation surface has a "less extreme" temperature, pipe insulation can be used to bring surface touch temperatures into a safe range.

Control of noise[edit]
Pipework can operate as a conduit for noise to travel from one part of a building to another (a typical example of this can be seen with waste-water pipework routed within a building). Acoustic insulation can prevent this noise transfer by acting to dampthe pipe wall and performing an acoustic decoupling function wherever the pipe passes through a fixed wall or floor and wherever the pipe is mechanically fixed. Pipework can also radiate mechanical noise. In such circumstances, the breakout of noise from the pipe wall can be achieved by acoustic insulation incorporating a high-density sound barrier.

Factors influencing performance[edit]

The relative performance of different pipe insulation on any given application can be influenced by many factors. The principal factors are:

Thermal conductivity ("k" or "" value) Surface emissivity ("" value) Water-vapour resistance ("" value) Insulation thickness Density

Other factors, such as the level of moisture content and the opening of joints, can influence the overall performance of pipe insulation. Many of these factors are listed in the international standard EN ISO 23993.[citation needed]

Materials[edit]
Pipe insulation materials come in a large variety of forms, but most materials fall into one of the following categories.

Mineral wool[edit]
Mineral wools, including rock and slag wools, are inorganic strands of mineral fibre bonded together using organic binders. Mineral wools are capable of operating at high temperatures and exhibit good fire performance ratings when tested.[4] Mineral wools are used on all types of pipework, particularly industrial pipework operating at higher temperatures.[5]

Glass wool[edit]
Glass wool is a high-temperature fibrous insulation material, similar to mineral wool, where inorganic strands of glass fibre are bound together using a binder. As with other forms of mineral wool, glass-wool insulation can be used for thermal and acoustic applications.[6]

Flexible elastomeric foams[edit]

These are flexible, closed-cell, rubber foams based on NBR or EPDM rubber. Flexible elastomeric foams exhibit such a high resistance to the passage of water vapour that they do not generally require additional water-vapour barriers. Such high vapour resistance, combined with the high surface emissivity of rubber, allows flexible elastomeric foams to prevent surface condensation formation with comparatively small thicknesses. As a result, flexible elastomeric foams are widely used on refrigeration and air-conditioning pipework. Flexible elastomeric foams are also used on heating and hot-water systems.

Rigid foam[edit]
Pipe insulation made from rigid Phenolic, PIR, or PUR foam insulation is common in some countries. Rigidfoam insulation has minimal acoustic performance but can exhibit low thermal-conductivity values of 0.021 W/(mK) or lower, allowing energy-saving legislation to be met whilst using reduced insulation thicknessess. [7]

Polyethylene[edit]
Polyethylene is a semi-flexible plastic foamed insulation that is widely used to prevent freezing of domestic water supply pipes and to reduce heat loss from domestic heating pipes. The fire performance of Polyethylene usually prohibits its use in commercial buildings.

Cellular Glass[edit]
100% Glass manufactured primarily from sand, limestone & soda ash.

Aerogel[edit]

Silica Aerogel insulation has the lowest thermal conductivity of any commercially produced insulation. Although no manufacturer currently manufactures Aerogel pipe sections, it is possible to wrap Aerogel blanket around pipework, allowing it to function as pipe insulation. The usage of Aerogel for pipe insulation is currently limited.

Heat flow calculations and R-value[edit]

Heat flow passing through pipe insulation can be calculated by following the equations set out in either the ASTM C 680[8] or EN ISO 12241[9] standards. Heat flow is given by the following equation:

Where:

is the internal pipe temperature, is the external ambient temperature, and is the sum total thermal resistance of all insulation layers and the internal- and external-surface heat-transfer resistances.

In order to calculate heat flow, it is first necessary to calculate the thermal resistance ("R-value") for each layer of insulation. For pipe insulation, the R-value varies not only with the insulation thickness and thermal conductivity ("kvalue") but also with the pipe outer diameter and the average material temperature. For this reason, it is more common to use the thermal conductivity value when comparing the effectiveness of pipe insulation, and R-values of pipe insulation are not covered by the US FTC R-value rule. The thermal resistance of each insulation layer is calculated using the following equation:

Where:

represents the insulation outer diameter, represents the insulation inner diameter, and represents the thermal conductivity ("k-value") at the average insulation temperature (for accurate results iterative calculations are necessary).

Calculating the heat transfer resistance of the inner- and outer-insulation surfaces is more complex and requires the calculation of the internal- and external-surface coefficients of heat transfer. Equations for calculating this are based on empirical results and vary from standard to standard (both ASTM C 680 and EN ISO 12241 contain equations for estimating surface coefficients of heat transfer). A number of organisations such as the North American Insulation Manufacturers Association and Firo Insulation offer free programs that allow the calculation of heat flow through pipe insulation.

Belt (mechanical)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A pair of vee-belts

flat belt

Flat belt drive in the machine shop at theHagley Museum

A belt is a loop of flexible material used to mechanically link two or more rotatingshafts. Belts may be used as a source of motion, to transmit power efficiently, or to track relative movement. Belts are looped over pulleys. In a two pulley system, the belt can either drive the pulleys in the same direction, or the belt may be crossed, so

that the direction of the shafts is opposite. As a source of motion, aconveyor belt is one application where the belt is adapted to continuously carry a load between two points.
Contents
[hide]

1 Power transmission

o o o o o o o o o o o o

1.1 Pros and cons 1.2 Flat belts 1.3 Round belts 1.4 Vee belts 1.5 Vee belt history 1.6 Multi-groove belts 1.7 Ribbed belt 1.8 Film belts 1.9 Timing belts 1.10 Specialty belts 1.11 Rolling roads 1.12 Flying rope

2 Standards for use

o o o o o

2.1 Selection criteria 2.2 Belt friction 2.3 Belt tension 2.4 Belt wear 2.5 Specifications

3 See also 4 References

Power transmission[edit]
Belts are the cheapest utility for power transmission between shafts that may not be axially aligned. Power transmission is achieved by specially designed belts and pulleys. The demands on a belt drive transmission system are large and this has led to many variations on the theme. They run smoothly and with little noise, and cushion motor and bearings against load changes, albeit with less strength than gears or chains. However, improvements in belt engineering allow use of belts in systems that only formerly allowed chains or gears.

Power transmitted between a belt and a pulley is expressed as the product of difference of tension and belt velocity:[1]

where, T1 and T2 are tensions in the tight side and slack side of the belt respectively. They are related as:

where, is the coefficient of friction, and is the angle subtended by contact surface at the centre of the pulley.

Pros and cons[edit]

Belt drive is simple, inexpensive, and does not require axially aligned shafts. It helps protect the machinery from overload and jam, and damps and isolates noise and vibration. Load fluctuations are shock-absorbed (cushioned). They need no lubrication and minimal maintenance. They have high efficiency (90-98%, usually 95%), high tolerance for misalignment, and are inexpensive if the shafts are far apart. Clutch action is activated by releasing belt tension. Different speeds can be obtained by step or tapered pulleys. The angular-velocity ratio may not be constant or equal to that of the pulley diameters, due to slip and stretch. However, this problem has been largely solved by the use of toothed belts. Temperatures ranges from 31 F (35 C) to 185 F (85 C). Adjustment of center distance or addition of an idler pulley is crucial to compensate for wear and stretch.

Flat belts[edit]

The drive belt: used to transfer power from the engine's flywheel. Here shown driving a threshing machine.

Flat belts were widely used in the 19th and early 20th centuries in line shafting to transmit power in factories.[2] They were also used in countless farming, mining, and logging applications, such as bucksaws, sawmills, threshers, silo blowers,conveyors for filling corn cribs or haylofts, balers, water pumps (for wells, mines, or swampy farm fields), and electrical generators. Flat belts are still

used today, although not nearly as much as in the line shaft era. The flat belt is a simple system of power transmission that was well suited for its day. It can deliver high power at high speeds (500 hp at 10,000 ft/min), in cases of wide belts and large pulleys. But these drives are bulky, requiring high tension leading to high loads, and are poorly suited to close-centers applications, so vee belts have mainly replaced flat-belts for short-distance power transmission; and longer-distance power transmission is typically no longer done with belts at all. For example, factory machines now tend to have individual electric motors. Because flat belts tend to climb towards the higher side of the pulley, pulleys were made with a slightly convex or "crowned" surface (rather than flat) to allow the belt to self-center as it runs. Flat belts also tend to slip on the pulley face when heavy loads are applied, and many proprietary belt dressings were available that could be applied to the belts to increase friction, and so power transmission. Flat belts were traditionally made of leather or fabric. Today some are made of rubber or polymers. Grip of leather belts is often better if they are assembled with the hair side (outer side) of the leather against the pulley, although some belts are instead given a half-twist before joining the ends (forming a Mbius strip), so that wear can be evenly distributed on both sides of the belt. Belts ends are joined by lacing the ends together with leather thonging,[3][4] steel comb fasteners,[5] or glued splices (with thonging being the oldest of the methods). Flat belts were traditionally jointed, and still usually are, but they can also be made with endless construction.

Round belts[edit]
Round belts are a circular cross section belt designed to run in a pulley with a 60 degree V-groove. Round grooves are only suitable for idler pulleys that guide the belt, or when (soft) O-ring type belts are used. The V-groove transmits torque through a wedging action, thus increasing friction. Nevertheless, round belts are for use in relatively low torque situations only and may be purchased in various lengths or cut to length and joined, either by a staple, a metallic connector (in the case of hollow plastic), glueing or welding (in the case of polyurethane). Early sewing machines utilized a leather belt, joined either by a metal staple or glued, to great effect.

Vee belts[edit]

Belts on a Yanmar 2GM20 marine diesel engine.

A multiple-V-belt drive on an air compressor.

Vee belts (also known as V-belt or wedge rope) solved the slippage and alignment problem. It is now the basic belt for power transmission. They provide the best combination of traction, speed of movement, load of the bearings, and long service life. They are generally endless, and their general cross-section shape is trapezoidal (hence the name "V"). The "V" shape of the belt tracks in a mating groove in the pulley (or sheave), with the result that the belt cannot slip off. The belt also tends to wedge into the groove as the load increasesthe greater the load, the greater the wedging action improving torque transmission and making the V-belt an effective solution, needing less width and tension than flat belts. V-belts trump flat belts with their small center distances and high reduction ratios. The preferred center distance is larger than the largest pulley diameter, but less than three

times the sum of both pulleys. Optimal speed range is 10007000 ft/min. V-belts need larger pulleys for their larger thickness than flat belts. For high-power requirements, two or more vee belts can be joined side-by-side in an arrangement called a multi-V, running on matching multi-groove sheaves. This is known as a multiple-V-belt drive (or sometimes a "classical V-belt drive"). V-belts may be homogeneously rubber or polymer throughout, or there may be fibers embedded in the rubber or polymer for strength and reinforcement. The fibers may be of textile materials such as cotton, polyamide (such as Nylon) or polyester or, for greatest strength, of steel or aramid (such as Twaron or Kevlar). When an endless belt does not fit the need, jointed and link V-belts may be employed. However they are weaker and only usable at speeds up to 4000 ft/min. A link v-belt is a number of rubberized fabric links held together by metal fasteners. They are length adjustable by disassembling and removing links when needed.

Vee belt history[edit]

Trade journal coverage of V-belts in automobiles from 1916 mentioned leather as the belt material,[6] and mentioned that the V angle was not yet well standardized.[7] The endless rubber V-belt was developed in 1917 by John Gates of the Gates Rubber Company. Multiple-V-belt drive was first arranged a few years later by Walter Geist of the Allis-Chalmers corporation, who was inspired to replace the single rope of multi-groove-sheave rope drives with multiple V-belts running parallel. Geist filed for a patent in 1925 and Allis-Chalmers began marketing the drive under the "Texrope" brand; the patent was granted in 1928 (U.S. Patent 1,662,511). The "Texrope" brand still exists, although it has changed ownership and no longer refers to multiple-V-belt drive alone.

Multi-groove belts[edit]
A multi-groove or polygroove belt[8] is made up of usually 5 or 6 "V" shapes alongside each other. This gives a thinner belt for the same drive surface, thus it is more flexible, although often wider. The added flexibility offers an improved efficiency, as less energy is wasted in the internal friction of continually bending the belt. In practice this gain of efficiency causes a reduced heating effect on the belt and a cooler-running belt lasts longer in service. A further advantage of the polygroove belt that makes them popular is that they can run over pulleys on the ungrooved back of the belt. Though this is sometimes done with Vee belts with a single idler pulley for tensioning, a polygroove belt may be wrapped around a pulley on its back tightly enough to change its direction, or even to provide a light driving force.[9]

Any Vee belt's ability to drive pulleys depends on wrapping the belt around a sufficient angle of the pulley to provide grip. Where a single-Vee belt is limited to a simple convex shape, it can adequately wrap at most three or possibly four pulleys, so can drive at most three accessories. Where more must be driven, such as for modern cars with power steering and air conditioning, multiple belts are required. As the polygroove belt can be bent into concave paths by external idlers, it can wrap any number of driven pulleys, limited only by the power capacity of the belt.[9] This ability to bend the belt at the designer's whim allows it to take a complex or "serpentine" path. This can assist the design of a compact engine layout, where the accessories are mounted more closely to the engine block and without the need to provide movable tensioning adjustments. The entire belt may be tensioned by a single idler pulley.

Ribbed belt[edit]
A ribbed belt is a power transmission belt featuring lengthwise grooves. It operates from contact between the ribs of the belt and the grooves in the pulley. Its single-piece structure is reported to offer an even distribution of tension across the width of the pulley where the belt is in contact, a power range up to 600 kW, a high speed ratio, serpentine drives (possibility to drive off the back of the belt), long life, stability and homogeneity of the drive tension, and reduced vibration. The ribbed belt may be fitted on various applications : compressors, fitness bikes, agricultural machinery, food mixers, washing machines, lawn mowers, etc.

Film belts[edit]
Though often grouped with flat belts, they are actually a different kind. They consist of a very thin belt (0.5-15 millimeters or 100-4000 micrometres) strip of plastic and occasionally rubber. They are generally intended for low-power (10 hp or 7 kW), high-speed uses, allowing high efficiency (up to 98%) and long life. These are seen in business machines, printers, tape recorders, and other lightduty operations.

Timing belts[edit]

Timing belt

Belt-drive cog on a belt-driven bicycle

Timing belts, (also known as toothed, notch, cog, or synchronous belts) are a positivetransfer belt and can track relative movement. These belts have teeth that fit into a matching toothed pulley. When correctly tensioned, they have no slippage, run at constant speed, and are often used to transfer direct motion for indexing or timing purposes (hence their name). They are often used in lieu of chains or gears, so there is less noise and a lubrication bath is not necessary. Camshafts of automobiles, miniature timing systems, and stepper motors often utilize these belts. Timing belts need the least tension of all belts, and are among the most efficient. They can bear up to 200 hp (150 kW) at speeds of 16,000 ft/min. Timing belts with a helical offset tooth design are available. The helical offset tooth design forms a chevron pattern and causes the teeth to engage progressively. The chevron pattern design is selfaligning. The chevron pattern design does not make the noise that some timing belts make at certain speeds, and is more efficient at transferring power (up to 98%). Disadvantages include a relatively high purchase cost, the need for specially fabricated toothed pulleys, less protection from overloading and jamming, and the lack of clutch action.

Specialty belts[edit]
Belts normally transmit power on the tension side of the loop. However, designs for continuously variable transmissions exist that use belts that are a series of solid metal blocks, linked together as in a chain, transmitting power on the compression side of the loop.

Rolling roads[edit]
Belts used for rolling roads for wind tunnels can be capable of 250 km/h.[10]

Flying rope[edit]
For transmission of mechanical power over distance without electrical energy, a flying rope can be used.[11] A wire or manila rope can be used to transmit mechanical energy from a steam engine or water wheel to a factory or pump located a considerable distance (10 to 100s of meters or more) from the power source. A flying rope way could be supported on poles and pulleys similar to the cable on achair lift or aerial tramway. Transmission efficiency is generally high.

Standards for use[edit]

The open belt drive has parallel shafts rotating in the same direction, whereas the cross-belt drive also bears parallel shafts but rotate in opposite direction. The former is far more common, and the latter not appropriate for timing and standard V-belts, because the pulleys contact both the inner and outer belt surfaces. Nonparallel shafts can be connected if the belt's center line is aligned with the center plane of the pulley. Industrial belts are usually reinforced rubber but sometimes leather types, nonleather non-reinforced belts, can only be used in light applications. The pitch line is the line between the inner and outer surfaces that is neither subject to tension (like the outer surface) nor compression (like the inner). It is midway through the surfaces in film and flat belts and dependent on cross-sectional shape and size in timing and V-belts. Calculating pitch diameter is an engineering task and is beyond the scope of this article. The angular speed is inversely proportional to size, so the larger the one wheel, the less angular velocity, and vice versa. Actual pulley speeds tend to be 0.51% less than generally calculated because of belt slip and stretch. In timing belts, the inverse ratio teeth of the belt contributes to the exact measurement. The speed of the belt is: Speed = Circumference based on pitch diameter angular speed in rpm

Selection criteria[edit]
Belt drives are built under the following required conditions: speeds of and power transmitted between drive and driven unit; suitable distance between shafts; and appropriate operating conditions. The equation for power is: power (kW) = (torque in newton-meters) (rpm) (2 radians)/(60 sec 1000 W) Factors of power adjustment include speed ratio; shaft distance (long or short); type of drive unit (electric motor, internal combustion engine); service environment (oily, wet, dusty); driven unit loads (jerky, shock, reversed); and pulley-belt arrangement (open, crossed, turned). These are found in engineering handbooks and manufacturer's literature. When corrected, the horsepower is compared to rated horsepowers of the standard belt cross sections at particular belt speeds to find a number of

arrays that perform best. Now the pulley diameters are chosen. It is generally either large diameters or large cross section that are chosen, since, as stated earlier, larger belts transmit this same power at low belt speeds as smaller belts do at high speeds. To keep the driving part at its smallest, minimumdiameter pulleys are desired. Minimum pulley diameters are limited by the elongation of the belt's outer fibers as the belt wraps around the pulleys. Small pulleys increase this elongation, greatly reducing belt life. Minimum pulley diameters are often listed with each cross section and speed, or listed separately by belt cross section. After the cheapest diameters and belt section are chosen, the belt length is computed. If endless belts are used, the desired shaft spacing may need adjusting to accommodate standard length belts. It is often more economical to use two or more juxtaposed Vbelts, rather than one larger belt. In large speed ratios or small central distances, the angle of contact between the belt and pulley may be less than 180. If this is the case, the drive power must be further increased, according to manufacturer's tables, and the selection process repeated. This is because power capacities are based on the standard of a 180 contact angle. Smaller contact angles mean less area for the belt to obtain traction, and thus the belt carries less power.

Belt friction[edit]
Main article: Belt friction Belt drives depend on friction to operate, but excessive friction wastes energy and rapidly wears the belt. Factors that affect belt friction include belt tension, contact angle, and the materials used to make the belt and pulleys.

Belt tension[edit]
Power transmission is a function of belt tension. However, also increasing with tension is stress (load) on the belt and bearings. The ideal belt is that of the lowest tension that does not slip in high loads. Belt tensions should also be adjusted to belt type, size, speed, and pulley diameters. Belt tension is determined by measuring the force to deflect the belt a given distance per inch of pulley. Timing belts need only adequate tension to keep the belt in contact with the pulley.

Belt wear[edit]
Fatigue, more so than abrasion, is the culprit for most belt problems. This wear is caused by stress from rolling around the pulleys. High belt tension; excessive slippage; adverse environmental conditions; and belt overloads caused by shock, vibration, or belt slapping all contribute to belt fatigue.

Specifications[edit]

To fully specify a belt, the material, length, and cross-section size and shape are required. Timing belts, in addition, require that the size of the teeth be given. The length of the belt is the sum of the central length of the system on both sides, half the circumference of both pulleys, and the square of the sum (if crossed) or the difference (if open) of the radii. Thus, when dividing by the central distance, it can be visualized as the central distance times the height that gives the same squared value of the radius difference on, of course, both sides. When adding to the length of either side, the length of the belt increases, in a similar manner to the Pythagorean theorem. One important concept to remember is that as D1 gets closer to D2 there is less of a distance (and therefore less addition of length) until its approaches zero. On the other hand, in a crossed belt drive the sum rather than the difference of radii is the basis for computation for length. So the wider the small drive increases, the belt length is higher.

Oil & Grease

Chemical symbol/abbreviations: O&G, FOG (fats, oil, and grease) Form commonly found in stormwater: Motor oil, fuel Related constituents: Total petroleum hydrocarbon - a measure of only petroleum-based substances, mass measurement on the same scale as O&G. Total organic carbon a measure of all organic compounds, unlike O&G in that only the mass of carbon is expressed. Solubility in water: Most sources of oil and grease are insoluble in water. However, agitation can create a temporary emulsion with water. Fatty material from plant and animal sources are made up of lipids which are polar molecules and partially soluble in water. Adverse human impacts: Toxicity varies among different types of oils and greases. Refined oils are generally more toxic than crude oils.[i] Various hydrocarbons found in fuels can pose a wide range of human health problems, from affecting the liver, kidneys and blood to increasing the risk of cancer.[ii] Adverse impacts on the environment: Low levels of oil pollution can reduce aquatic organisms ability to reproduce and survive. [iii] Studies indicate that 0.3 0.6 mg/L of certain aromatic hydrocarbons can be lethal to aquatic organisms,[iv] while chronic concentrations over 50 g/L may be harmful to estuarine species. [v] Oils can also create chemical oxygen demand [hyperlink]. U.S. EPA recommended water quality criteria:

None. EPA recommends water quality criteria for many of the constituents in oil and grease[vi] and many state and federal water quality standards prohibit oil in quantities that produce a film or sheen on the water.[vii] Background: Oil and grease (O&G) is a measure of a variety of substances including fuels, motor oil, lubricating oil, hydraulic oil, cooking oil, and animal-derived fats[viii]. The concentration of these substances is typically measured within a body of water. Lakes, river, stormwater runoff, and wastewater are all monitored for oil and grease. Sources of oil and grease are mainly anthropogenic. Oil and greases need to contained and/or recycled typically to keep them from entering the environment. Domestic cooking oil should be poured into a disposable container and thrown out in the trash. Used motor oil and hydraulic fluids should be disposed of at a local automotive part store or a certified hazardous waste facility.[ix] Spill prevention kits should be used to help to clean up spills that occur at the work place.

PRODUCTS

Clara The StormwateRx Clara is often used as pretreatment to Aquip for removal of oil and grease. For industries with oil and grease loadings, Clara is often the product of choice, as it has oil storage capacity of up to 650 gallons. Aquip The StormwateRx Aquip industrial filtration system uses an innovative enhanced sand filtration process to effectively remove trace oil and grease residue from industrial stormwater runoff. Aquip also reduces the presence of other pollutants such as suspended solids, heavy metals (including dissolved metals), organics, and nutrients, such as ammonia and phosphorus.

CASE STUDIES

Electric Utility This confidential regional electric utility markets wholesale electrical power to customers in the Pacific Northwest from 31 federal hydro projects in the Columbia River Basin, one nonfederal nuclear plant and several other small nonfederal power plants. Between 2008 and 2010, the utility installed the StormwateRx LLC Clara40C Plug-Flow Separators at two of its electrical substations in Washington and a regional maintenance facility in Oregon as a part of its capital improvement program. Pick n' Pull At Pick-N-Pulls 9-acre Rancho Cordova, California store, a Clara 90C Plug-Flow Separator was installed upstream of the outfall to remove oil, floatables, dirt and associated metals from the runoff. Pick-N-Pull chose to install the Clara first to better capture pollutants and to allow for a quick and easy future installation of an Aquipfiltration system.

In response to changing process requirements in power stations, process control valves need to operate remotely and/or automatically. In the case of large steam and water systems, these are typically motor-operated valves (MOV) that have an AC or DC electric motor to provide mechanical power. These motors are mated to a gearbox turning a stem nut that moves the valve stem. One manufacturer of these units utilizes a bronze worm gear working with a steel pinion gear. The stem nuts are typically bronze as well, but the valve stem can be constructed of

410 stainless steel. These parts, as well as the bearings and a limit switch gearbox, all require grease lubrication (Figure 1).

Figure 1. One Type of Motor-operated Valve Actuator

The Benefits of Testing

Testing of grease from MOVs is necessary to identify problems and schedule grease changes. In most applications, the grease can provide quality service for years without any problems; but in the case of nuclear power plants, it is important to be able to quantify the condition of the grease. This is especially true for safety-related valves which must perform as expected when required. Also, valves may be located in areas that can be accessed only during reactor outages that occur approximately every 18 months. Grease testing is necessary to both verify performance and to prevent unnecessary grease changes. While topping-off grease using inspection plugs is generally a straightforward practice, if a total grease change is required, the MOV is often removed from service and replaced. As with oil, unnecessary grease changes can be expensive.

Figure 2. Sampling Motor-operated Valve Actuators

Methods of Testing
Quantifying the condition of the grease has traditionally been accomplished by measuring the stiffness using ASTM penetration tests to determine the NLGI grade or by tactile methods to compare with samples or past experience. Both have limitations. In addition,

full-scale penetration testing to ASTM D217 requires a large amount of grease; and while other variations are available that require less, the amount is still large compared to what can easily be obtained. In-service sampling is often performed using a piece of Tygon tubing inserted into the area close to the actuator worm gears. A thumb is first held over the end of the tube until the tube is close to the area of interest and then, using plunge or jabbing motions, grease is captured in the tube. The factory-fill grease used in some gearboxes is usually an NLGI grade #0 grease. Presumably, a soft grease was preferred because it has sufficient mobility to compensate for the age hardening of the previously used calcium complex-thickened grease. Some power stations prefer a grade #1 grease, while grade #2 greases or oils have been used in MOV actuators gearboxes by other suppliers. Stiffer greases can be an advantage on the stems because of an increased resistance to oil bleeding and water/steam washoff and better wear protection.

Figure 4. Blotter Test Samples

New Grease Equivalent

Traditionally, the grease used in the Figure 2 actuator gearboxes was a calcium complex grease with a naphthenic base oil. This had inherent extreme pressure (EP) characteristics but suffered from age hardening, which is typical of these thickeners. Some power stations

used alternatives and, starting in 1993, users considered types of a newer calcium sulfonate-thickened grease. Calcium sulfonate greases also have inherent EP characteristics plus the added advantages of being resistant to age hardening as well as offering outstanding stability and corrosion protection. Plus, they were being considered as a common grease for the main gearbox, the limit switch gearbox and the stems. However, for safety-related equipment, the older calcium complex grease remained the only approved product. This matter was brought to a head in 2001 when the only approved calcium complex grease was taken out of production. While several calcium sulfonate greases were considered as the replacement, with the expressed need to obtain a long service life, the grease selected contained a Group II hydrotreated base oil with an enhanced oxidation resistance. In 2002, the new grease formulation was approved by the equipment supplier and power generation industry groups. In addition to the other advantages, these greases are compatible with the obsolete grease. Because of the importance of the application, considerable testing was conducted by a number of industry groups. This testing considered not only normal applications, but extreme applications that might be the result of a steam line break. EPRI testing first aged the grease at 150C (302F) for 300 hours and then irradiated the grease to 220 MRAD, followed by environmental qualification testing with steam. The evaluation testing included the following: worked penetration ( and scale), weight loss after aging, dropping point (ASTM D2265), infrared (FTIR) traces, differential scanning calorimetry (HPDSC) and rheometer studies including yield stress, pin-on-disc (POD), and friction and wear studies. The new grease performed well, exceeding the OEM requirements and surpassing the previous grease in almost every regard. To obtain an even better understanding of the performance improvement, the aging equivalent time interval was doubled to twice the standard Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) conditions. The calcium sulfonate grease was aged up to 600 hours at 150C (302F). The 600-hour aged grease was subjected to tests that could be used on the small samples taken from in-service gearboxes. These included high-pressure differential scanning calorimetry (HPDSC), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), blotter chromatography, dropping point, four-ball wear, base number (BN), penetration by three methods, rheological testing and RULER voltammetric testing. As with oils and fluids, at power stations a number of tests are available, but these were selected based on the degradation that might be expected and what characteristics are important for this application. Other grease testing is covered in the article by B. Herguth.

Table 1. HPDSC OIT Time for Aged Grease Samples

Oxidation Stability (HPDSC ASTM D942)

High-pressure differential calorimetry determines the oxidation induction time (OIT) of lubricating greases subjected to oxygen at test conditions of 3.5 MPA (500 psig) and temperatures between 155C and 210C. The longer this OIT, the higher the oxidative stability will be, as shown by the results in Table 1. However, it is unusual that the OIT of the aged greases increased. The reason for this is unknown, but it is possible that the aged greases were less alkaline and, hence, less reactive with the aluminum trays used in this test. In any case, the OIT is very good.

FTIR Testing
FTIR testing is often used with oils to determine oxidation peaks (1,800 to 1,670 cm-1) and to assess the depletion of additives. In the case of Figure 3, the new and used greases showed no significant differences.

Figure 3. FTIR Graph for New and Used Grease

Blotter Test
This test is often used to assess the soot level and remaining detergency of motor oils by

observing the color, appearance and spreading of the oil on the blotter paper. This can also be a useful field test for greases. In Figure 4, the aged greases had darkened considerably, but the stability of the grease with respect to the oil bleeding did not change significantly. More importantly, the grease remained grease-like and did not harden with aging.

Table 2. Dropping Point Values for Series of Aged Grease Samples

Dropping Points (ASTM D2265)

When greases are aged, their stability can be affected. One OEM requirement for this application is that the grease must have a minimum dropping point. This was tested on the new and aged greases with no significant decrease, as shown in Table 2. The results were all above the maximum that could be tested and well above the required minimum.

Table 3. Four-ball Wear Test Values for Series of Aged Grease Samples

Four-ball Wear (ASTM D2266)

Because of the sliding motion between the worm gear teeth, the bearings and the stem nut, it is important that the wear resistance performance will not be affected in service. One measure of this is the four-ball wear, in which a center ball is rotated under load against three stationary lower balls. Less wear (smaller scar) is better. As shown in Table 3, aging had no effect on the wear resistance.

Table 4. BN Values for Series of New and Aged Grease Samples

Base Number (ASTM D974)

Calcium sulfonate greases are different from the traditional fiber-type greases, and one characteristic difference is that they are overbased. This alkalinity reserve can counteract oxidation and the buildup of acids. Base number (BN) typically decreases with oxidation and aging from a higher new oil (grease) value. Table 4 shows that when the 7 pH endpoint is used, there is no significant decrease in the BN and, thus, no indication that the grease has oxidized. When the higher 9.4 pH endpoint is used, it may indicate a slight decrease in oxidative life for the aged batch (K-7-23) from 7.25 to 6.92. There seems to be some batch-to-batch variation in the new grease values, from 7.08 to 10.72.

Table 5. Rheometer Penetration Testing Values for Series of Fresh and Aged Greases

Penetration Test
The stiffness of a grease is often measured using the ASTM cone plunger (penetration) methods, but other methods are available to measure grease mobility including rheological testing using equipment that puts a variable load on the grease samples. These other methods can provide additional data such as the yield point that can be correlated with the ASTM penetration with the added benefit of requiring small sample volumes. The yield point (or yield stress) is the minimum force required to produce flow or when the grease changes from an elastic material to more of a fluid.

More traditional ASTM penetration tests were also performed using two different penetration methods run by different labs (Table 5). Penetration is used by many stations as one of the measurements of grease life (a condemning limit). When the grease hardens into the penetration range of an NLGI #3 grade (220 to 250 mm), the grease is considered to be at the end of its life and needs to be replaced. With the previous calcium complex grease, it was common for the grease to harden, which did occur, to more than a NLGI #3 grade after the 300-hour EPRI aging. The test results in Table 5 show a decrease in the yield stress with aging, good batch-tobatch variation and also a slight softening with aging in the penetration testing. The bounds for the full-scale penetration are within the NLGI limits for a grade #1 (310 to 340 mm) grease. Therefore, even after aging for 600 hours, the grease stayed within its original grade. This indicates that the new-technology grease will likely not harden in service and, thus, provide a longer useful service life. Hardening is considered to be more detrimental than a softening because a softer grease can still provide lubrication, unlike if the grease cakes and tunnels, then the gear lubrication can be compromised.

Table 6. RULER Test Data for Fresh and Aged Grease Samples (0 to 600 hours)

RULER Voltammetric Test Method

The RULER test method is typically used for oils (ASTM D6971, D6810), but the same technique can be applicable to greases. This test quantifies the remaining antioxidant levels that can be related to the remaining service life and/or the oxidation resistance of the formulation. Table 6 shows all the RULER results for the 300-, 450- and 600-hour aged samples, respectively. A moderate depletion of the antioxidants is occurring on the aged greases, and the sample at 600 hours indicates a 82 percent remaining grease life.

Summary
The calcium sulfonate-thickened grease with a Group II hydrotreated base offers a number of performance advantages over the previous calcium complex grease. Reports from various power stations indicate that double and even triple the service lives are being realized in motor-operated valve applications.

Conclusions

1. Even when aged twice as long as the EPRI criteria, the Group II calcium sulfonate grease did not show significant deterioration in performance-based lab tests. This indicates long service lives and considerable cost savings. 2. When aged, the Group II calcium sulfonate grease tends to slightly soften rather than harden like the previous calcium complex grease. 3. The tests that indicate some differences after severe aging of the grease are color, blotter chromatography, yield stress and RULER. 4. The tests that detected change require a small sample volume, suggesting that they can be suitable for in-service condition monitoring when only a small grease sample is available. References This article with complete references can be found online at www.practicingoilanalysis.com. About the Authors Ken Brown is principal. Kevan Slater is a reliability consultant. Wayne Mackwood is a grease technology leader, and Troy Olmsted is a technical customer service representative.
Practicing Oil Analysis (3/2008)