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INTRODUCTION Summary of F a c t o r s I n f l u e n c i n g Comminution C i r c u i t Design The s e l e c t i o n o f a n a p p r o p r i a t e comminution c i r c u i t f o r a s p e c i f i c o r e is one o f t h e most i m p o r t a n t decisions i n t h e design of a processing p l a n t . The importance i s related t o the f a c t t h a t the c a p i t a l and o p e r a t i n g c o s t s f o r c r u s h i n g and grinding plant generally represent, a s is w e l l known, t h e major p o r t i o n of the plant costs. This chapter w i l l , t h e r e f o r e , i d e n t i f y a s many a s possible of the factors which influence the selection of a comminution c i r c u i t . The number of f a c t o r s which w i l l have t o be c o n s i d e r e d f o r any comminution p r o j e c t will depend, among o t h e r t h i n g s , on t h e t y p e o f project. If, f o r example, the p r o j e c t i s a n e n t i r e l y new mining development, t h e n most, if n o t a l l , t h e f a c t o r s i d e n t i f i e d w i l l have t o be analyzed. If t h e p r o j e c t i s a n expansion o f a developed mining o p e r a t i o n o r i f t h e new orebody i s adjacent t o a viable operation, then t h e existing operation w i l l influence t h e choice o f f a c t o r s o r d e s i g n constraints which need to be considered. The e x i s t i n g i n f r a s t r u c -
t u r e o r s u p p o r t i n g systems may be q u i t e a d e q u a t e t o accommodate t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f any expansion o r new development. Hence, t h o s e f a c t o r s may n o t have t o be c o n s i d e r e d . To c o v e r , however, t h e w i d e s t spectrum o f p r o j e c t s , t h e f a c t o r s which have been i d e n t i f i e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r a r e those which will have to be c o n s i d e r e d f o r t h e most complex o f projects, t h a t of developing a n e n t i r e l y new mining o p e r a t i o n . The r a n g e o f f a c t o r s i s a s broad a s t h e range o f d i f f e r e n t o r e types. Thus, each development must be treated with individualized care. The most i m p o r t a n t s t e p i n t h e development i s t h e a n a l y s i s and understanding o f t h e o r e c h a r a c t e r i s tics. The h a r d n e s s o f t h e o r e , i t s abrasiveness, friability, moisture content, grade, mineralization i n c l u d i n g gangue m i n e r a l i z a t i o n , l i b e r a t i o n s i z e , c h e m i s t r y , and o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s should be t h e first t o be a n a l y z e d i n t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n . The n e x t should be t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of f a c t o r s such a s p l a n t s i z e , throughput, location, climate, a c c e s s i b i l i t y , and a v a i l a b i l i t y o f water. The s e l e c t i o n o f samples f o r i n i t i a l bench s c a l e work and b u l k sampling (when needed) f o r f u r t h e r
Single Stage Autogenous Autogenous-Ball Mill Autogenous-Pebble Mill Single Stage Semi-Autogenous Semi-Autogenous-Ball Mill Autogenous-Ball Mill-Crusher
Each circuit has its advantages and disadvantages. However, for any particular ore, a specific evaluation has to be made, and when it is shown that the advantages outweigh the disadvantages, that particular circuit should be given additional scrutiny. This does not mean that each of the above circuits should be tested. Needless to say, this would be extremely time consuming and costly. Relatively simple preliminary tests such as media competency tests and Bond crushing impact tests are available and can be used to eliminate a number of the above possibilities. Discussion of Project Development Sequence as it affects the Choice of Factors under Consideration It is a pre-requisite for a successful plant design that a comminution engineer be specifically assigned to a project to work right from the beginning with the metallurgical staff. The process of gathering design criteria and the evaluation of this data can be done either by the owner's staff or by an independent consulting firm. In either case, the starting point is the geologists8 report. This will delineate the orebody and provide a guide to initial sample acquisition. The quantity of the ore sample is usually limited at this point and studies are done on a bench scale to determine basic starting parameters. These bench scale tests, together with what one may call the "experience factor", will allow the metallurgist to propose a few preliminary flowschemes for treating the ore. At this point a preliminary economic viability study should be
Crusher-Rod Mill-Ball Mill Crusher-Ball Mill-Ball Mill Crusher-Rod Mill-Pebble Mill Crusher-Single Stage Ball Mill
prepared which would take into account some f a c t o r s r e l a t i v e t o p l a n t l o c a t i o n , o r e t y p e , product tonnage and q u a l i t y , even i f many f a c t o r s have t o b e o n l y assumptions W e need t o o r educated guesses. concern o u r s e l v e s w i t h t h i s c r i t e r i a only inasmuch a s i t a f f e c t s t h e comminution system design. The m e t a l l u r g i c a l flowsheet w i l l s p e c i f y t h e f i n e n e s s o f g r i n d r e q u i r e d and perhaps t h e need f o r m u l t i - s t a g e g r i n d i n g with i n t e r m e d i a t e concentration steps between grinding stages. Based on t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n , the comminution engineer should conduct the appropriate Bond For t h e purpose g r i n d a b i l i t y tests. of t h i s i n i t i a l f e a s i b i l i t y study, a c o n v e n t i o n a l , crushing-rod m i l l - b a l l m i l l c i r c u i t can b e assumed. T h i s i s a practical first step and f a c i l i t a t e s the evaluation process when c o n s i d e r i n g a l t e r n a t i v e schemes. Samples should a l s o b e s e n t a s soon as possible to an accredited l a b o r a t o r y f o r media competency tests and abrasion index testing. Assuming, o f c o u r s e , t h a t t h e i n i t i a l economic e v a l u a t i o n was f a v o u r a b l e , a more d e t a i l e d f u l l s c a l e f e a s i b i l i t y s t u d y should now be s t a r t e d .
will require a This study thorough i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f a l l t h e f a c t o r s . Depending upon t h e l o c a t i o n and s i z e o f t h e p r o j e c t and t y p e o f d e p o s i t , t h e development w i l l r e q u i r e the acquisition of a larger r e p r e s e n t a t i v e sample, o r sequence of samples, more thorough bench s c a l e work, and perhaps a pilot scale investigation. Many plant d e c i s i o n s w i l l have t o be made a t this point by the comminution engineer. H e should by t h e n have t h e r e s u l t s of t h e media competency tests. The d e c i s i o n w i l l have t o be reached a s t o which comminution c i r c u i t s should be t e s t e d and a l s o a s t o t h e l e v e l of e f f o r t r e q u i r e d . Each c i r c u i t t e s t e d w i l l have t o be evaluated taking into account economic, m e t a l l u r g i c a l , and pract i c a l considerations with regard t o equipment sizing. The final
s e l e c t i o n should be t h e consensus of t h e b e s t knowledge a v a i l a b l e ( 1 , 2). IDENTIFICATION OF FACTORS P r o p e r t i e s o f t h e Orebody o r S e l e c t e d C i r c u i t Feed Geological I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f D r i l l Core and Bulk Samples. The i n i t i a l information gathering process should s t a r t with the geologists1 report. Sampling methods for feasibility studies depend on geological c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e deposit. Initial sample acquisition methods may v a r y and s h o u l d b e a d a p t e d t o each p a r t i c u l a r d e p o s i t , but a t t h i s s t a g e of t h e p r o j e c t development, t h e m e t a l l u r g i s t would most l i k e l y have diamond d r i l l c o r e samples and p o s s i b l y s u r f a c e g r a b samples o r t r e n c h samples t o t e s t f o r development o f d e s i g n p a r a m e t e r s ( 3, 4). The f a c t o r o f i n t e r e s t t o a comminution engineer, from the g e o l o g i s t s 1 r e p o r t , would be t h e identification of mineral c o n s t i t u e n t s present, t h e i r r e l a t i v e q u a n t i t y and d e g r e e o f d i s s e m i n a t i o n , t h e number o f d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e o r e z o n e s and t h e main c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of each. The f o l l o w i n g f a c t o r s s h o u l d be e v a l u a t e d t o p r o v i d e t h e i n i t i a l background i n f o r m a t i o n f o r f u r t h e r d e c i s i o n making. M i n e r a l o ~ i c a l Analysis. Examination o f m i n e r a l s ~ e c i m e n s can d e t e r m i n e the i d e n t i t y , character, grain s i z e r a n g e and middling a s s o c i a t i o n s of t h e o r e m i n e r a l s and c o n s t i t u e n t s of gangue rock ( 3 , 4 1. Such i n f o r m a t i o n w i l l provide l i b e r a t i o n s i z e analyses f o r primary, intermediate o r r e g r i n d a p p l i c a t i o n s of g r i n d i n g and t h e appropriate concentration steps. The examination method g e n e r a l l y u s e d is based on r e f l e c t e d l i g h t optical microscopy for polished s e c t i o n s o r stereoscopy f o r mineral
Bond g r i n d a b i l i t y t e s t s , a b r a s i o n tests, and autogenous media competency t e s t s . It should b e emphasized that all the aforementioned t e s t s r e q u i r e a small amount o f sample. The r e s u l t s , w h i l e o b v i o u s l y used a s t o o l s t o o b t a i n f i n a l q u a n t i t a t i v e design parameters, a l s o enable the metallurgical staff t o c h a r t a c o u r s e of a c t i o n through a better understanding o f t h e o r e characteristics. Analysis of t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n should e v e n t u a l l y narrow the number of circuit options available.
It s h o u l d b e emphasized t h a t i f a n orebody i s n o t homogenous (and what o r e i s ? ) t h e d i s t i n c t o r e t y p e s s h o u l d b e sampled s e p a r a t e l y . Bond g r i n d a b i l i t y t e s t s , a b r a s i o n tests and media competency tests should b e r u n on e a c h o r e t y p e which t h e mining p l a n shows could b e , a t any t i m e , a major p o r t i o n o f t h e m i l l feed. It i s recommended t h a t each t y p e o f o r e be t e s t e d s e p a r a t e l y . Testing of i n d i v i d u a l ore types w i l l give an i n d i c a t i o n a s t o t h e degree o f f l u c t u a t i o n t h a t c a n b e expected i n mill performance. Testing of c o m p o s i t e s should b e done i n t h e p i l o t t e s t i n g phase (6).
Physical Properties (hardness, friability, grain size distribution). The f i r s t v i s u a l o b s e r v a t i o n s c a n immediately g i v e a n i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e h a r d n e s s , b l o c k i n e s s and f r i a b i l i t y o f t h e o r e and o f t h e amount o f primary fines or clay-type constituents, and other physical properties. These o b s e r v a t i o n s c a n p r o v i d e c l u e s t o p o s s i b l e problems i n c r u s h i n g , s c r e e n i n g and g r i n d i n g and can influence flowsheet design. Examples a r e : t h e a v o i d a n c e o f s l i m e generation when processing tin, tungsten, lead, chromite, o r tantalum o r e s ; t h e r e l e a s e o f molybdenite a t a c o a r s e g r i n d from f r a c t u r e p l a n e s i n a blocky granodiorite; the e l i m i n a t i o n of problems i n a f i n e c r u s h i n g p l a n t by u s e o f semia u t o g e n o u s g r i n d i n g when p r o c e s s i n g a clayey ore. However, f u r t h e r t e s t samples s h o u l d b e made a v a i l a b l e f o r
Design Requirements Review o f C i r c u i t Feed Parameters (mine o u t p u t , p r o d u c t i o n s c h e d u l e s , t h r o u g h p u t and s i z e a n a l y s i s ) . It i s essential that the comminution engineer have a clear overall u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e p r o j e c t and i t s conception. He s h o u l d b e f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e mining p l a n s , s c h e d u l e s , m i n i n g r a t e s , minj.ng methods and equipment s i z e s , e t c . These c a n a f f e c t t h e s i z e and/or choice of processing equipment, particularly f o r c r u s h i n g o r primary m i l l i n g , a s w e l l a s o p e r a t i n g h o u r s i n primary o r f i n e crushing, necessity f o r ore s t o r a g e , manpower r e q u i r e m e n t s and t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e crushing o r grinding plant. The primary c r u s h e r i s normally
r e q u i r e d t o o b t a i n Bond work i n d i c e s f o r rod m i l l i n g and b a l l m i l l i n g and lump samples c a p a b l e o f g e n e r a t i n g 7.7 cm ( 3 i n . ) cubes a r e n e c e s s a r y If a n f o r c r u s h e r impact t e s t s . economic ore deposit has been e s t a b l i s h e d and p r e l i m i n a r y bench s c a l e work shows promising r e s u l t s , f u r t h e r sampling w i l l b e needed. A l s o , i f p r e l i m i n a r y media competency t e s t s have i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e o r e h a s autogenous or semi-autogenous potential, samples have to be obtained t o t e s t t h i s further. For e i t h e r a n open p i t o r underground mining o p e r a t i o n , p r e l i m i n a r y mine development work o f t e n c o n s i s t s of driving adits o r shafts i n t o the deposit. Typically f o r autogenous m i l l t e s t i n g , 22,700 45,400 k g (2550 t o n s ) o f r e p r e s e n t a t i v e sample f o r each o r e type a r e r e q u i r e d for p r o c e s s i n g t h r o u g h a 1.7-1.8 m (5-1/2 o r 6 f t . ) diameter p i l o t m i l l . The samples should be run-of-mine p r e p a r e d i n t h e normal manner by d r i l l i n g and b l a s t i n g t o a b o u t a 20.3 cm ( 8 i n . ) t o p s i z e .
Review Of Requirements for Testing Various Circuits. The and q u a n t i t y o f sample may v a r y . It cannot b e s t r e s s e d - o f t e n -enough t h a t any p r o c e s s f o r a n y g i v e n orebody i s o n l y a s r e l i a b l e a s t h e sample upon A company would which i t i s based. be well advised t o i n v e s t t h e time and money t o o b t a i n p r o p e r samples. The q u a n t i t y of sample required cannot be d e f i n e d . The t y p e o r d e p o s i t and t h e m i n e r a l i z a t i o n w i l l d i c t a t e t h e sampling programme needs.
A s h a s been a l r e a d y mentioned i n a previous section, preliminary samples a r e usually obtained as d r i l l i n g progresses t o d e l i n e a t e t h e orebody. The c o r e s a r e s p l i t i n h a l f and one h a l f g o e s f o r m e t a l l u r g i c a l testing. Sometimes s u r f a c e g r a b sampling o r t r e n c h i n g is a l s o used a t t h i s point t o g e t material for preliminary testwork. Generally, (50 lb.) o f sample is 22.7 kg
The r e l a t i v e c o s t s o f o b t a i n i n g s a m p l e s , t e s t i n g them and t h e time taken a r e significant f a c t o r s i n t h e of c i r c u i t t o b e i n v e s t i g a t e d . Identification of Contiguous Processes, t h e i r Requirements and Inter-relationships with Identified Comminution S t e p s . Each p i e c e o f comminution equipment has its inherent characteristics. Thus, o n e s a y s t h a t rod m i l l s p r o d u c e fewer fines than ball mills; closedcircuiting reduces overgrinding; autogenous m i l l s break o r e a l o n g g r a i n b o u n d a r i e s and c o n s e q u e n t l y c a n l i b e r a t e values a t coarser s i z e s . These b a s i c t e n e t s , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e particular properties of the ore, i n f l u e n c e t h e comminution e n g i n e e r ' s thinking when he is selecting equipment which must produce a product that has characteristics compatible with those required i n t h e feed f o r t h e subsequent c o n c e n t r a t i o n process. If a n o r e h a s t h e t e n d e n c y t o slime, t h e c i r c u i t may i n c o r p o r a t e
by u s i n g s o p h i s t i c a t e d i n s t r u mentation t o t a r e t h e m i l l . by g r i n d i n g a number o f o r e s w i t h known power consumption and establishing an empirical r e l a t i o n s h i p between p i l o t m i l l power and a c t u a l g r i n d i n g power.
I n c a s e s where t h i s k i n d o f p i l o t m i l l c a l i b r a t i o n is n o t p o s s i b l e , t h e Bond g r i n d a b i l i t y work i n d e x method o f f e r s a n e x c e l l e n t power d e t e r m i n a n t f o r an ore. Determination o f Power Requirements. Determination o f power requirement may c e a s e w i t h Bond g r i n d a b i l i t y work, and i n some c a s e s w i t h s m a l l e r and more homogenous o r e b o d i e s t h a t u t i l i z e t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l c r u s h i n g and g r i n d i n g f l o w s h e e t t h i s may be t h e c a s e . The more common p r a c t i c e is t o r u n a p i l o t p l a n t and t o u s e o t h e r means t o v e r i f y t h e Bond numbers. Many firms have developed l a b o r a t o r y t e c h n i q u e s t h a t have been c o r r e l a t e d t o e x i s t i n g o p e r a t i o n s and r e f i n e d over the years a s an a l t e r n a t i v e s u c c e s s f u l method f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e power requirements. When p i l o t p l a n t m i l l s a r e used t o o b t a i n s p e c i f i c grinding power, care should be exercised t h a t t h e m i l l i s i n balance and that the tests are run s p e c i f i c a l l y t o obtain grinding data. For autogenous g r i n d i n g , e s p e c i a l l y , a thorough test programme i s needed. Most i n s t a l l a t i o n s now have a 1.71.8 m (5-112-6 ft.) d i a m e t e r test m i l l and r e q u i r e 22,700-45,400 kg (25-50 t o n s ) of o r e f o r one test programme. These tests c a n a l s o be done a t t h e mine s i t e and w i t h v e r y l a r g e and v a r i e d d e p o s i t s t h i s may make sense. However, i t i s p r o b a b l y more economical t o s h i p t h e sample t o an established laboratory t h a t has the people and the methodology
Thus, u n i t power r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r many c o n v e n t i o n a l c i r c u i t s c a n b e determined by Bond g r i n d a b i l it y procedures, by v a r i o u s l a b o r a t o r y m i l l s which have been c a l i b r a t e d and r e l a t e d t o e x i s t i n g p r o d u c e r s and i f need b e by p i l o t p l a n t t e s t i n g . For autogenous a p p l i c a t i o n s preliminary power may b e o b t a i n e d from 450 mm m i l l t e s t s but a s a r u l e p i l o t p l a n t work s h o u l d be run. Circuit Selection versus AvailPower ,Requirement a b i l i t y , Mode o f G e n e r a t i o n , C o s t and S p l i t between C r u s h i n g and grind in^ f o r Various C i r c u i t s . Needless t o s a y , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f a few a r e a s i n t h e w o r l d , power i s t h e most c r i t i c a l i t e m i n any g r i n d i n g c i r c u i t evaluation. A s mentioned b e f o r e , t h e comminution c i r c u i t i s p r o b a b l y t h e m a j o r u s e r o f power i n a n y m i n e r a l processing plant. While cost a n a l y s i s may show t h a t a c i r c u i t which i s l e s s e f f i c i e n t i n t h e u s e o f power c a n be more economical o v e r a l l ( 7 , 131, t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f f u t u r e rapid escalation of power costs r e q u i r e s a c a r e f u l examination a s t o how power consumption c o u l d b e k e p t t o a minimum. This i s r e a l l y i m p o r t a n t i f one c o n s i d e r s t h a t u n i t power consumption c a n b e 25% h i g h e r f o r semi-autogenous m i l l c i r c u i t s and perhaps 100% h i g h e r for fully a u t o g e n o u s m i l l c i r c u i t s compared t o c o n v e n t i o n a l c r u s h i n g and g r i n d i n g circuits. M e t a l consumption w i l l n a t u r a l l y b e less b u t w i t h p r i m a r y a u t o g e n o u s g r i n d i n g , o n l y a b o u t 60% of t h e t h e o r e t i c a l s a v i n g s can b e
r e a l i z e d because o f h i g h e r l i n e r and feed c h u t e wear i n comparison w i t h a conventional c i r c u i t (14). Availa b i l i t y w i l l b e 90% o r l e s s f o r f u l l y a u t o g e n o u s g r i n d i n g and up t o 92% h a s been a c h i e v e d f o r semi-autogenous grinding. J.H. B a s s a r e a r ( 15 ) r e p o r t e d on t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f Cyprus Pima Mining Co. where c o n v e n t i o n a l and semi-autogenous m i l l s o p e r a t e on i d e n t i c a l o r e . The comparison i s f o r a f o u r - y e a r t i m e p e r i o d , 1974-1977. It showed t h a t l i n e r consumption was 6.7% more and media consumption 14.5% more w i t h t o t a l s t e e l consumption being 13.5% higher for the c o n v e n t i o n a l c i r c u i t compared t o t h e SAG m i l l c i r c u i t ; however, power consumption was 15.5% lower. Thus, f o r t h i s comparison, e x t r a s t e e l costs incurred by one circuit b a l a n c e d t h e e x t r a power c o s t f o r t h e other circuit. Unit power consumption for p e b b l e m i l l i n g c a n g e n e r a l l y be a s e f f i c i e n t a s b a l l m i l l i n g i f one c o n s i d e r s t h e power t h a t is used t o g r i n d p e b b l e s a s w e l l ( 1 4 ) . However, i n r e a l terms t h e maximum power drawn by a g i v e n m i l l s i z e used f o r pebble m i l l i n g i s o f t h e o r d e r o f 50% o f t h e power used by t h e same m i l l i f i t were used a s a b a l l m i l l and hence t h e t o n n a g e p r o c e s s e d would be h a l f . Rod m i l l - b a l l m i l l c i r c u i t s have t h e h i g h e s t u n i t power e f f i c i e n c y and o f f e r 95% o r g r e a t e r a v a i l a b i l i t y . T h i s is a l i t t l e lower t h a n a s i n g l e s t a g e b a l l m i l l o r a b a l l mill-ball mill circuit (which o f f e r s 97%) because of down-time for rod charging. Primary ball mill circuits, which accept crusher p r o d u c t a s f e e d , have a n i n h e r e n t l y lower u n i t power e f f i c i e n c y compared to normal secondary ball mill i n s t a l l a t i o n s and a f a c t o r o f 10-205 h a s t o b e added t o t h e s t a n d a r d power calculation. Grate discharge b a l l m i l l s , a r e c a p a b l e o f consuming 15% more power t h a n o v e r f l o w b a l l mills f o r t h e same u n i t power e f f i c i e n c y but maintenance costs and a v a i l a b i l i t y would b e l e s s f a v o u r a b l e (2, 14).
complications. Many o f t h e s e are a result of the responsiveness o f autogenous m i l l i n g t o feed v a r i a t i o n . The o r e t e l l s t h e m i l l how it w a n t s t o be ground as t h e s a y i n g g o e s . If t h e o r e breaks along g r a i n boundaries e a s i l y , t h e m i n e r a l v a l u e s can b e l i b e r a t e d a t a c o a r s e r g r i n d and w i t h h i g h e r e f f i c i e n c y t h a n w i t h media grinding. With o t h e r o r e s a l o t o f s l i m e s may b e g e n e r a t e d . Another t h i n g t h a t c a n be o v e r l o o k e d i n t h e a u t o g e n o u s p l a n t d e s i g n is t h a t f o r a given product s p e c i f i c a t i o n t h e m i l l may have a 50%-100% s w i n g i n f e e d r a t e depending upon ore sizing, h a r d n e s s , and o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which w i l l have t o be accommodated by the metallurgical circuits downstream. C e r t a i n l y t h e need f o r b e t t e r b l e n d i n g f o r f e e d homogeneity t o a u t o g e n o u s m i l l s i s more o b v i o u s , a s w e l l a s t h e need f o r c l o s e m o n i t o r i n g o f c i r c u i t performance. Generally with autogenous o r semi-autogenous g r i n d i n g t h e r e i s a six-month t o two-year l e a r n i n g c u r v e b e f o r e t h e o p e r a t i n g p r i n c i p l e s and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e w e l l understood. A d d i t i o n a l l y some a d j u s t m e n t s t o t h e p r o c e s s f l o w s h e e t might h a v e t o b e made ( 1 4 ) . On t h e p l u s s i d e , i f a n o r e is wet and s t i c k y and a r e a l problem f o r c r u s h i n g and s c r e e n i n g e x i s t s , a SAG m i l l may b e t h e answer and can override all other considerations (15). The cost benefit of time and relative production l o s s e s o r g a i n s f o r such a c h o i c e h a s t o be worked o u t . Rod m i l l s have been c h o s e n i n many c a s e s b e c a u s e o f t h e i r i n h e r e n t f e a t u r e o f g r i n d i n g down t h e t o p s i z e p r e f e r e n t i a l l y and g e n e r a t i n g less f i n e s than primary b a l l m i l l s . This can a f f e c t magnetic recovery a s i n t h e t a c o n i t e f l o w s h e e t s where c o b b e r wet drum magnets f o l l o w t h e f i r s t grinding step. It i s a m e t a l l u r g i c a l axiom t h a t v a l u a b l e m i n e r a l s s h o u l d b e r e c o v e r e d from t h e s t r e a m a s soon a s they a r e liberated. Ideally multiple grinding steps, each f o l l o w e d by a b e n e f i c i a t i o n s t e p ,
P l a n t s with m u l t i - u n i t s i n g l e s t a g e primary m i l l s a r e more c a p i t a l intensive than p l a n t s with two-stage g r i n d i n g . This is because primary m i l l s r e q u i r e expensive feeding and ore s t o r a g e systems, g e n e r a l l y w i t h more l i n e s i n f i n e c r u s h i n g and screening. However, singles t a g e comminution c i r c u i t s c o s t l e s s t o o p e r a t e as o p e r a t i n g labour is l e s s and maintenance is lower (21). Since pebble m i l l media h a s lower d e n s i t y , pebble m i l l s a r e l a r g e r and more expensive f o r t h e same power a s b a l l m i l l s , but the u n i t operating c o s t s a r e usually l e s s (21). Semi-autogenous m i l l s draw more power t h a n autogenous m i l l s o f t h e same s i z e and t h e r e f o r e a r e l e s s expensive t o i n s t a l l f o r t h e same throughput. D. J. Barratt ( 13) attempted to demonstrate comparative c a p i t a l c o s t , o p e r a t i n g c o s t and s p a c e requirements f o r semi-autogenous and conventional c i r c u i t s o v e r a range o f throughputs up t o 72,600 mtpd (80,000 s t p d ) u s i n g typical circuit designs and equipment s i z e s . While t h i s paper requires updating to r e f l e c t t h e l a r g e r equipment s i z e s c u r r e n t l y i n u s e and higher power costs, it demonstrates t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n c o s t f o r g r i n d i n g equipment and t h e space advantage a t h i g h e r throughputs o f f e r e d by semiautogenous c i r c u i t s . In fact, the semi-autogenous-ball mill c i r c u i t h a s proved t o be a s u c c e s s f u l and p o p u l a r c h o i c e . It h a s a good t o l e r a n c e f o r f e e d
C o n s i d e r a t i o n s f o r Both Large and Small P l a n t s w i t h Regard t o P l a n t L o c a t i o n , S i t e Topography and Layout, Accessibility, C l i m a t e and P r e c i p i t a t i o n , M a t e r i a l s T r a n s p o r t a t i o n and Handling, Capital and Operating Costs, Economical Evaluation and P a r t s Inventory. Proper f a m i l i a r i z a t i o n with t h e geographic location, climate, physical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e mine s i t e , a c c e s s i b i l i t y and precipitation is paramount when designing a comminution plant. Whereas t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e orebody cannot be a l t e r e d , t h e p h y s i c a l layo u t o f t h e p r o c e s s p l a n t and e q u i p ment s e l e c t i o n c a n b e a d a p t e d t o a l l o w a d v a n t a g e t o b e t a k e n o f more equitable conditions. For instance under arctic c o n d i t i o n s a compact p l a n t d e s i g n i n one building o f f e r s a n opportunity t o conserve energy and provide c o m f o r t a b l e working c o n d i t i o n s , e.g. Fox Mine and Arvik. Primary c r u s h i n g , l o c a t e d c l o s e t o t h e mine which may b e a t a h i g h a l t i t u d e and subject to avalanches, could be s e p a r a t e d from t h e f i n e c r u s h i n g and grinding plant by underground conveyor t o a safer p o i n t a t a lower
Rod mill-ball m i l l combination. This conventional taconite f lowsheet was selected a s the base for economic comparisons. Autogenous-ball mill circuit. It showed a 16% lower c a p i t a l c o s t and a 15% lower operating c o s t compared t o the base case. Autogenous-pebble m i l l c i r c u i t . Pebbles were extracted from the autogenous m i l l . This f lowsheet gave lower operating costs, but the capital costs were
Autogenous-ball mill-crusher (ABC) c i r c u i t . It was found t h a t by c r u s h i n g approximately 5%-10% o f t h e c r i t i c a l m a t e r i a l , based on crude f e e d r a t e , a 20% i n c r e a s e i n throughput could be attained. It was a l s o found t h a t t h e f i n e n e s s o f g r i n d could be c o n t r o l l e d by v a r y i n g t h e amount and t h e s i z e o f m a t e r i a l crushed. This f l o w s h e e t had t h e lowest c a p i t a l c o s t of all tested. However, t h e s i n g l e s t a g e g r i n d i n g c i r c u i t had a much lower o p e r a t i n g c o s t and s o the A B C f lowsheet was eliminated. Single-stage autogenous circuits. Liberation characterist i c s of t h i s ore indicated the possibility t h a t a single-stage g r i n d i n g c i r c u i t could produce t h e r e q u i r e d c o n c e n t r a t e grade. A s i n g l e - s t a g e autogenous m i l l g r i n d i n g i n c l o s e d - c i r c u i t with wet drum magnets and c y c l o n e s r e q u i r e d c o n s i d e r a b l y more power than any o f t h e o t h e r f l o w s h e e t s tested. This alternative generated a 14% lower c a p i t a l c o s t and a 27% lower o p e r a t i n g c o s t compared t o t h e base c a s e , i n s p i t e of t h e higher u n i t power consumption. T h i s lower operating cost returned the i n c r e a s e d c a p i t a l i n 2.7 y e a r s . Compared t o t h e A B C flowsheet, the capital c o s t was h i g h e r
Ore type: whether t h e o r e is a low-grade porphyry o r h i g h e r g r a d e massive s u l p h i d e . Region: whether p l a n t d e s i g n a l l o w s f o r t h e p r o c e s s i n g of wet, sticky ores originating from open p i t s i n a r e a s o f h i g h rainfall, frozen ore during prolonged w i n t e r s o r , i n a more equitable climate, multi-stage c r u s h i n g and s c r e e n i n g by t a k i n g advantage o f t h e o p e r a t i n g c o s t maxim t h a t it i s "cheaper t o c r u s h t h a n t o grindt1. Throughput : whether a p a r t i c u l a r concept f o r equipment s e l e c t i o n and p l a n t d e s i g n a t d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s o f throughput can demonstrate savings in c a p i t a l and o p e r a t i n g c o s t s , minimize p r o d u c t i o n l o s s e s and problems a t s t a r t - u p and show a more a t t r a c t i v e r a t e o f r e t u r n on investment compared t o a l t e r natives.
Ore c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s : whether t h e o r e i s hard and a b r a s i v e o r s o f t and p o s s i b l y clayey. T e c h n o l o ~ y : whether t h e r e a r e l i m i t a t i o n s placed on equipment s i z i n g and t h e number of u n i t s employed by t h e c u r r e n t s t a t e of t e c h n o l o g i c a l development, e.g. m i l l s h e l l , head and g e a r design o r competent rod l e n g t h . Power c o s t : whether u n i t power consumption f o r one concept i s more o r l e s s i n comparison t o a l t e r n a t i v e s and i n t h e l a s t a n a l y s i s c o n t r i b u t e s toward a higher o v e r a l l operating cost. Sampling: whether t h e c o s t s incurred for development, c o l l e c t i o n and t e s t i n g of bulk samples o f s i g n i f i c a n t o r e t y p e s orebody can within an demonstrate a s a t i s f a c t o r y r a t e of r e t u r n on i n v e s t m e n t compared to alternatives after c o n s i d e r a t i o n of o t h e r c a p i t a l costs.
northern Mexico, for instance, s i n g l e - s t a g e b a l l m i l l i n g h a s found g r e a t e r acceptance than rod m i l l - b a l l m i l l combinations over a span o f Some 40 y e a r s . Even though multi-stage c r u s h i n g and screening i s r e q u i r e d t o p r e p a r e b a l l m i l l feed, i t i s claimed t h a t s a v i n g s i n o p e r a t i n g c o s t and i n c r e a s e d a v a i l a b i l i t y (up t o 98%) can o f f s e t higher capital costs a s s o c i a t e d with t h e e x t r a s c r e e n i n g and materials handling capacity r e q u i r e d f o r p r e p a r a t i o n of a f i n e r feed. Typical p l a n t s range i n throughput from ASARCO S i l v e r B e l l a t 11,800 mtpd ( 13,000 s p t d ) through t o h v a l S i e r r i t a a t 83,400 mtpd (92,000 stpd). C i t i e s S e r v i c e ' s P i n t o Valley plant u t i l i z e s 5.5 m d i a . x 6.4 m (18 f t . d i a . x 21 f t . ) b a l l m i l l s i n t h e f i r s t i n s t a l l a t i o n of t h i s m i l l s i z e i n North America f o r such an application. Throughput i s 43,000 mtpd (47,500 s t p d )
Until 1967, conventional c r u s h i n g and g r i n d i n g had been t h e normal c a n d i d a t e f o r p r o c e s s i n g both massive s u l p h i d e and porphyry-type copper o r e s , w i t h t h e number o f s t a g e s being dependent upon o p e r a t o r preference and cost analysis. Commissioning o f autogenous and semiautogenous c i r c u i t s i n North America began i n New Mexico i n 1967 and s i n c e t h e n o t h e r p l a n t s have come on s t r e a m i n B r i t i s h Columbia, Arizona and Colorado. For t h e purposes o f t h i s p a p e r , d i s c u s s i o n o f molybdenum o r e s w i l l be i n c l u d e d under porphyry-type o r e s , even though t h e y a r e u s u a l l y associated with g r a n i t i c stocks. Conventional p r a c t i c e h a s v a r i e d depending upon o p e r a t o r p r e f e r e n c e and t o some e x t e n t d i f f e r e n c e s can be a s s i g n e d r e g i o n a l boundaries. In t h e porphyry copper province of southwestern United States and
Rod m i l l - b a l l m i l l combinations a r e t h e normal choice f o r massive s u l p h i d e o r e s and, u n t i l 1971, were also selected for large tonnage porphyry copper and molybdenum o r e s i n Canada. S i g n i f i c ant ~ . l a n t sa r e a s follows: Gibraltar 37,200 mtpd ( 4 1,000 s t p d ) , Endako 25,400 mtpd (28,000 s t p d ) , Brenda 27,200 mtpd (30,000 s t p d ) , w i t h exceptions t o single-stage b a l l milling practice i n Arizona being ASARCO Mission 20,400 mtpd (22,500 s t p d ) , ANAMAX Twin B u t t e s 36,300 mtpd (40,000 s t p d ) and Magma Copper Company I s San Manuel The p l a n t 58,000 mtpd (64,000 s t p d ) prime o b j e c t i v e i n designing p l a n t s to t r e a t t h e low-grade o r e s of B r i t i s h Columbia d u r i n g t h e 1960's was, and s t i l l i s , t o minimize capital and o p e r a t i n g c o s t s and maximize throughput by i n s t a l l i n g t h e l a r g e s t p r a c t i c a l p i e c e of equipment t h e n i n e x i s t e n c e , e.g. 4.1 m d i a . (13-1/2 f t . ) rod mills and i n t h e 1 9 7 0 f s , 5.0 m d i a . (16-1/2 f t . ) b a l l mills. A n added benefit was p r o v i s i o n o f a compact p l a n t s i z e which i s important when considering energy and h e a t i n g c o s t s i n a cold climate.
UV I n d u s t r i e s I n c . , F i e r r o , New Mexico (221, processed a s u l p h i d e copper o r e c o n t a i n i n g magnetite and g a r n e t . The high specific gravity of these
B.C.
lowest cost
estimated
operating
ii)
e a s e w i t h which t h e g r i n d c o u l d b e c o n t r o l l e d by a crusher f o r reduction o f critical size ease with which the selected equipment and plant size f i t t e d into the selected plant s i t e comparable capital cost estimate to that for single-stage b a l l milling.
i i i ) , Single-stage autogenous g r i n d i n g t o produce a minus 60 mesh f i n i s h e d p r o d u c t with a crusher t o reduce trommel o v e r s i z e t o minus 25 mm. iv) Primary a u t o g e n o u s g r i n d i n g to produce a product s u i t a b l e f o r pebble m i l l i n g with a crusher t o reduce trommel o v e r s i z e t o minus 25 mm. Single-stage semi-autogenous g r i n d i n g w i t h two l e v e l s of b a l l a d d i t i o n , 227 kg and 453 kg.
v)
Preliminary t e s t i n g o f a l t e r n a t i v e s narrowed o p t i o n s t o flows h e e t s i i i ) and v ) ( w i t h 453 k g of balls). Analysis o f r e s u l t s showed t h a t t h e semi-autogenous c i r c u i t c o u l d p r o c e s s a b o u t 3% more t h r o u g h p u t f o r t h e same power consumption and g r i n d i n t h e product b u t a t a c o s t o f 0.42 k g / t (0.84 l b . / t o n ) g r i n d i n g media. Comparative c a p i t a l and operating costs were estimated f o r a p l a n t capacity of 18,100 mtpd (20,000 s t p d ) using e i t h e r single-stage b a l l milling or single-stage autogenous with a c r u s h e r t o
The p l a n t was d e s i g n e d t o p r o c e s s 13,600 mtpd ( 1 5 , 0 0 0 s t p d ) with three l i n e s i n t h e grinding c i r c u i t , e a c h r a t e d a t 218 mtph I n i t i a l production (240 s t p h ) i n t h e a u t o g e n o u s mode was n o t s u c c e s s f u l s i n c e power consumpin t i o n was h i g h , 49 kw-hr./ton No. 1 m i l l , and t h r o u g h p u t was one t h i r d o f t h e d e s i g n e d r a t e . A f t e r t h r e e months* o p e r a t i o n , s t e e l b a l l s were added t o e a c h m i l l and t h r o u g h p u t i n c r e a s e d t o t h e designed r a t e . Power consumption was a b o u t 2 4 kw-hr. /ton, ball consumption was 0.75 k g / t (1.5 l b . / t o n ) and t h e b a l l c h a r g e by volume a v e r a g e d 7%. The c y c l o n e o v e r f l o w s i z i n g was 63.2% minus 200 mesh compared to 75.4% with autogenous grinding.
Highmont Mining Corporation, Highland V a l l e y , B.C., c o n d u c t e d p i i o t p l a n t t e s t s i n 1970 t o i n v e s t i g a t e a u t o g e n o u s and semiautogenous grinding with variations in ball loading, coupled with secondary ball milling for preparation of f l o t a t i o n feed. The e f f e c t o f o p e r a t i n g t h e primary m i l l a u t o g e n o u s l y i n closed-circuit with a cone c r u s h e r was a l s o s t u d i e d . In these tests the critical o v e r s i z e from t h e m i l l d i s c h a r g e was s c r e e n e d o u t and c r u s h e d t o p a s s 13 mm. From t h e s e s t u d i e s , i t was e s t i m a t e d i n 1981 ( 2 8 ) t h a t an operating c o s t saving o f Can. $0.25/st was p o s s i b l e through elimination of the p r i m a r y m i l l b a l l c h a r g e and a r e d u c t i o n i n l i n e r wear compared to predictions for semia u togenous grinding. The payback a r i s i n g from t h i s s a v i n g
21
and N a n i s i v i k ( l e a d ) h a v e u n i t c e l l s i n t h e g r i n d i n g c i r c u i t which a c c e p t as f e e d t h e combined d i s c h a r g e from an open-circuit rod m i l l and a closed-circuit b a l l m i l l (29, 30). At Minera Real de Angeles, in Mexico, two S.A. d e C.V. 4.57 m d i a . x 6.1 m ( 1 5 f t . d i a . x 2 0 f t . ) r o d m i l l s were i n s t a l l e d f o r a 10,800 mtpd ( 11,900 s t p d ) p l a n t t r e a t i n g l e a d - z i n c - s i l v e r o r e and a r e believed t o be t h e l a r g e s t i n current u s e on s u c h o r e s .
A t t h e p r e s e n t time, it is believed t h a t t h e r e a r e no operations in North America which employ a u t o g e n o u s , semi-autogenous o r p e b b l e mills. Research, however, h a s been conducted for potential projects (18).
Gold, S i l v e r and Mercury The p r o c e s s i n g o f gold and s i l v e r o r e s i n North America h a s traditionally made use of c o n v e n t i o n a l c r u s h i n g and g r i n d i n g methods. Rod m i l l - b a l l m i l l , twostage b a l l m i l l o r single-stage b a l l m i l l c i r c u i t s a r e t o b e found. Tube m i l l s are s t i l l used i n some o f t h e o l d e r mills, e. g. Pamour P o r c u p i n e and Dome Mines, O n t a r i o ( 3 1 ) . In each c a s e where g o l d is formed e i t h e r as c o a r s e n a t i v e p i e c e s o r i n c o a r s e g r a i n e d s u l p h i d e s , i t i s r e c o v e r e d by gravity concentration i n t h e grinding c i r c u i t i n a d d i t i o n t o recovery of f i n e r v a l u e s by c y a n i d a t i o n . Jigs are the most common types of equipment u s e d and are u s u a l l y p l a c e d t o intercept the b a l l m i l l discharge prior to classification. One exception t o t h i s p r a c t i c e is a t Homestake, Lead, South Dakota, where r i f f l e d l a u n d e r g o l d t r a p s are used. Lime and sodium c y a n i d e a r e almost universally used in the dissolution of precious metals. There is c o n s i d e r a b l e a d v a n t a g e i n a d d i n g them t o t h e g r i n d i n g c i r c u i t s i n c e high d i s s o l u t i o n r a t e s usually r e s u l t from a g i t a t i o n and o x y g e n a t i o n o f t h e pulp during t h e grinding
The Niobec I n c . c o n c e n t r a t o r a t Honore, Quebec, Canada ( 3 4 ) , employs a c o n v e n t i o n a l r o d m i l l - b a l l mill circuit using DSM screens instead o f cyclones t o c l o s e t h e b a l l m i l l circuit. Rod m i l l f e e d is prepared by open-circuit crusher without any surge capacity in between. C o n c e n t r a t i o n by f l o t a t i o n follows desliming i n cyclones.
St.
L a t e r i t e s ( N i c k e l , Aluminum, e t c . ) L a t e r i t e s v a r y w i d e l y from one l o c a t i o n t o a n o t h e r b u t s h a r e many common c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which are o f i n t e r e s t t o t h e comminution e n g i n e e r . are weathered ores Laterites containing a high percentage of ultra-fines, usually with high amounts o f m o i s t u r e ( b o t h s u r f a c e and combined) and w i t h v a r i o u s q u a n t i t i e s of s o l i d rock inclusions. Such r o c k is e i t h e r r e j e c t e d o r processed depending o n i t s m i n e r a l c o n t e n t . Even i f t h e s e b o u l d e r s are d i s p o s e d of, t h e y may s t i l l h a v e t o b e
24
screened, crushed, scrubbed o r d r i e d to facilitate handling and to maximize m i n e r a l r e c o v e r y . The s t i c k y n a t u r e o f t h e o r e i s t h e main c o n s i d e r a t i o n when d e s i g n i n g crushing and s c r e e n i n g f a c i l i t i e s . One p l a n t ( 3 5 ) u s e s w o b b l e r f e e d e r s a n d a r u b b l e r , which is a t u m b l i n g autogenous mill fitted with p e r i p h e r a l g r a t e d i s c h a r g e s a n d low lifters. This design avoids breaking the boulders and cleans their s u r f a c e s t o release h i g h e r g r a d e fines for processing. Residual boulders are d i s c a r d e d t o waste through the open-ended discharge trunnion. F a c t o r s which i n f l u e n c e g r i n d i n g plant design depend on product r e q u i r e m e n t s a n d are d i c t a t e d by Nickelsubsequent processing needs. bearing laterites, employing p y r o m e t a l l u r g i c a l recovery methods, d o n o t h a v e t o b e ground. For hydrometallurgical processing, g r i n d i n g is done d r y i n b a l l m i l l s . Drying o f t h e material t o w i t h i n 2 . 0 to 2.5% surface moisture is necessary. Proper design f o r air sweeping t h e m i l l , d u s t c o l l e c t i o n , m i l l a i r temperature c o n t r o l and c h a t removal have t o be g i v e n s p e c i a l consideration. Material which is t o o dry (i.e. less t h a n 2.0% s u r f a c e moisture) can be d i f f i c u l t t o control when w i t h d r a w i n g from b i n s . In the aluminum industry, b a u x i t e is f i r s t crushed and t h e n ground wet i n b a l l m i l l s u s i n g t h e return caustic liquor from the e v a p o r a t o r s as t h e l i q u i d medium.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Limonitic o r g o e t h i t i c i r o n o r e s a r e processed i n t o d i r e c t shipping lump o r e o r s i n t e r f e e d fines. Proper selection of screens and c r u s h e r s and c a r e f u l design o f t h e material h a n d l i n g components ( b i n s , transfer points) is of utmost i m p o r t a n c e . The o r e s o f V e n e z u e l a a t Ferro-Minera O r i n o c o are s c r e e n e d a n d crushed i n cone crushers. In the r a i n y season s c r e e n i n g and handling
6.
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P r a c t i c e s , presented a t t h e SMEAIME F a l l Meeting, Denver CO., November 1981. and Rimmer, H.W., F l a v e l , M.D. P a r t i c l e Breakage S t u d i e s i n an Impact Crushing Environment, p r e s e n t e d a t t h e SME-AIME Annual Meeting, Chicago, IL., February 1981.
F l a v e l , M.D. and Rowland Jr., C. A., Selecting Circuits to Prepare Beneficiation Circuit Feed from Primary Crusher Product, presented a t t h e SMEAIME F a l l Meeting, Denver, CO., November 1981
Rey, M. and Formanek, V., Some Factors affecting S e l e c t i v i t y i n t h e D i f f e r e n t i a l F l o t a t i o n of Lead-Zinc Ores, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e presence o f Oxidized Lead ~ i n e r a l s , P r o c e e d i n ~ so f t h e 5 t h I n t e r n a t i o n a l Mineral P r o c e s s i n g Congress, The Institution of Mining and Metallurgy. London, 1960. Thornton, E., The E f f e c t o f Grinding Media on Flotation s e l e c t i v i t y , Proceedings of t h e 5 t h Annual Meeting, Canadian Mineral Processors, Ottawa , January 1973. Iwasaki, I., Reid, K. J . , Lex, H.A. and Smith, K.A. The E f f e c t o f Autogenous and B a l l M i l l Grinding on Sulphide F l o t a t i o n , p r e s e n t e d a t t h e SME-AIME F a l l Meeting, Denver, CO., November 1981. H a r r i s , C.C. and A r b i t e r , N., Grinding M i l l Scale-up Problems, Mining En~ineering, January 1982. MacPherson , A. R. and Turner, R. R., Autogenous Grinding from T e s t Work t o Purchase o f a Commercial Unit, Chapter 13, Mineral P r o c e s s i n g P l a n t Design, Bhappu, 2nd Edition, Mular , Editors.
UV Industries, Inc., private communication w i t h c o n c e n t r a t o r s t a f f , November 1979.
Rowland Jr., C.A. and Kjos, D.M., Rod and Ball Mills, Chapter 12, Mineral P r o c e s s i n g Plant Design, 2nd Edition, Mular, Bhappu, E d i t o r s . MacPherson, A.R., A Simple Method t o P r e d i c t t h e Autogenous Grinding M i l l Requirements f o r Processing Ore from a New Deposit, Society of Mining Engineers, AIME, Transactions Vol. 262, September 1977. B a r r a t t , D.J., Semi-Autogenous Grinding: A Comparison w i t h t h e Conventional Route, CIM B u l l e t i n November 1979. Kjos, D.M. , Grinding C i r c u i t s Current S t a t u s and Projected Future Developments, a n A l l i s Chalmers p u b l i c a t i o n , p r e s e n t e d a t t h e 52nd Annual ~ e e t i no~ f t h e Minnesota S e c t i o n , AIME, Duluth, MN. , January 1979. Bassarear , J. H. Semi-Autogenous
Mine, and
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S t a f f , Lornex Mining C o r p o r a t i o n Ltd., Western Miner, August 1972 Canadian Mineral Processors (B.C. S e c t i o n ) , F a l l Meeting ( m i n u t e s by Wright Engineers Limited S t a f f ) , November 1972. McManus, J., G r i n d i n g Copper Ores in British Columbia, P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e Autogenous Grinding Seminar, Volume 2, Trondheim, Norway, May 1979. Semi-Autogenous C h r i s t i e , D. J . , Grinding at Simi lkameen Concentrator, Proceedings of t h e Auto~enous Grinding Seminar, Volume 1 , Trondheim, Norway, May 1979. Sibbald, C.V., Concentrator, March 1981. The
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Practice in Canada, Chapter 7 , C I M S p e c i a l Volume 16, P i c k e t t , E d i t o r . AIME World Symposium o n Mining and M e t a l l u r g y o f Lead and Z i n c , Volume 1 , Rausch and M a r i a c h e r , Editors. Milling Practice in Canada, C h a p t e r 4 , C I M S p e c i a l Volume 16, P i c k e t t , E d i t o r . Sisselman, R., New McDermitt mine j o i n t v e n t u r e emerges a s dominant f o r c e i n U.S. mercury production, Engineering and Mining J o u r n a l , December 1975. T a l b o t t , L.W. and H a r t z o g , L.D., Semi-Autogenous G r i n d i n g a t t h e DeLamar S i l v e r Mine, p r e s e n t e d a t t h e SME -AIME Annual Meeting, Las Vegas, NV., F e b r u a r y 1980. Milling Chapter Practice in Canada, 10, C I M S p e c i a l Volume
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