Rheology, ow behaviour and heat transfer of ice slurries:

a review of the state of the art

V. Ayel, O. Lottin*, H. Peerhossaini
Laboratoire de Thermocine tique, CNRS UMR 6607, Ecole Polytechnique de lUniversite de Nantes, BP 50609, 44306 Nantes, France
Received 25 October 2001; received in revised form 23 February 2002; accepted 26 February 2002
Abstract
This paper reviews recent studies on rheology, ow behaviour and heat transfer of two-phase aqueous secondary
refrigerants (ice slurries). The diculties in measuring their rheological properties for which standard rheometers prove
to be poorly adapted are analysed. Special attention is paid to vane-in-cup rheometers, which can make it possible to
determine the yield stress. Pressure losses in cylindrical tubes have been measured by many authors. Even if the results
generally agree with two-phase ow theory, divergences in sensitivity to the solid fraction can be observed. The strati-
cation observed by some authors for small-Reynolds-number ows and its eects on the pressure drop are addressed.
In a last part, information concerning numerical values of the heat transfer coecient of ice slurries are summarized.
Heat transfer coecients depend on many parameters, but are largely inuenced by the ow regime. A geometry of
heat exchanger is then proposed, which has already been eective for single-phase ows, and which may enhance heat
transfer in ice slurry ows. # 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd and IIR. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Two-phase secondary refrigerant; Ice slurry; Rheology; Heat transfer; Pressure loss; Survey
Rhe ologie, pertes de charge et transferts de chaleur des coulis
de glace : une revue de le tat de lart
Re sume
Cet article passe en revue des etudes recentes concernant la rheologie, le comportement des ecoulements et le transfert
thermique des frigoporteurs diphasiques aqueux (coulis de glace). Les dicultes de mesure des proprietes rheologiques,
pour lesquelles des rheome`tres courants save`rent mal adaptes, sont analysees. Une attention particulie`re est portee sur les
rheome`tres du type vane-in-cup qui permettent de determiner la contrainte seuil dun materiau. Les pertes de charge
lineaires dans des canalisations cylindriques ont ete mesurees par de nombreux auteurs. Meme si les resultats sont
generalement conformes a` la theorie des ecoulements diphasiques, on peut observer des divergences quant a` la sensibilite a`
la concentration en glace. La stratication, observee par quelques auteurs pour des ecoulements a` faible nombre de Rey-
nolds, et ses eets sur la chute de pression sont etudies. Dans une dernie`re partie, les valeurs numeriques du coecient de
transfert thermique des coulis de glace sont recapitulees. Les coecients de transfert thermique dependent de nombreux
0140-7007/03/$20.00 # 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd and IIR. All rights reserved.
PI I : S0140- 7007( 02) 00016- 6
International Journal of Refrigeration 26 (2003) 95107
www.elsevier.com/locate/ijrefrig
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +33-240-683-153; fax: +33-240-683-141.
E-mail address: olivier.lottin@polytech.univ-nantes.fr (O. Lottin).
parame`tres, mais sont fortement inuences par le regime decoulement. Nous proposons enn un type dechangeur de
chaleur, dont lecacite a deja` ete remarquee pour des ecoulements monophasiques, et il pourrait saverer tout a` fait adapte
a` des ecoulements de coulis de glace. # 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd and IIR. All rights reserved.
Mots cles : Caloporteur diphasique ; Coulis ; Rhe ologie ; Transfert de chaleur ; Chute de pression ; Base de donne es ; Enque te
1. Introduction
Cold distribution by means of secondary refrigerant is
an alternative solution to direct expansion systems,
which require large quantities of refrigerant. Ice slurries
exploit the latent heat of ice and are much more ecient
heat carriers than single-phase uids; their high apparent
heat capacity results in lower mass ow rates and tem-
perature changes. Also, they are suitable for cold storage.
However, because of the presence of solid particles within
the carrying uid, the owof slurries is highly constrained.
It is thus necessary to determine the rheological nature of
these uids for a better ow control in distribution plants.
At the present state of the art, the data and opinions of
dierent authors are often divergent, so that reliable
conclusions on the rheology and ow behaviour of ice
slurries are dicult to draw. However, the technological
advantages of ice slurries and their potential economic
impact are great enough to warrant a critical review of
past work, the suggestion of new research areas, and the
search for new design geometries.
This paper rst focuses on the rheology of the liquid
ice mixtures and assesses recent studies on ice slurries.
In the second part we address the ow and pressure
losses of slurries in cylindrical pipes by examining some
previous work on the subject. Then, the stratication
phenomenon observed by some authors for small-Rey-
nolds-number ows and its eects on pressure drops are
treated. In the last part we study the numerical values
and the evolutions of the heat transfer coecients in
rectilinear cylindrical type geometries and we propose a
promising design geometry that enhances transport
phenomena between the ice slurries and a solid wall.
2. Rheological behaviour of ice slurries
Liquidsolid mixtures are often considered as non-
Newtonian; Table 1 gives examples of non-Newtonian
models that can be used to characterise slurries. It
should be noted that some of these models could be
satisfactory on a restricted range of shear rates but
completely inappropriate on wider ranges.
Common to most of these models is a yield stress
below which no ow is observed. The value of the yield
stress depends strongly on the solid particle fraction:
Nguyen and Boger [1] suppose that the yield stress is
linked to the interaction and attraction among particles,
giving rise to structures larger than the primary crystals;
the yield stress then represents the breaking limit of these
structures. Similarly, Barnes [2] suggests that the yield
stress is a consequence of microstructural reorganization
Nomenclature
C thermal conductivity (W m
1
K)
d particle diameter (m)
D tube diameter (m)
f friction factor
Fr Froude number
Gz Graetz number
h heat transfer coecient (W m
2
K)
H height of the vane (m)
He Hedstrom number
K constant of proportionality
L tube length (m)
n power index
Nu Nusselt number
Pr Prandtl number
Re Reynolds number
T torque (N m)
V velocity (m s
1
)
x
s
mass fraction of solids (wt.%)
,
.
shear stress (s
1
)
P pressure drop (Pa)
l specic heat (J kg
1
K
1
)
j viscosity (Pa s)
, density (kg m
3
)
tt shear rate (Pa)
tt
0
yield stress (Pa)

s
volume fraction of solids (%)
Subscripts
ai antifreeze (initial value)
b Bingham
c Casson
D-B DittusBolter
exp experimental
m average (for solidliquid mixture)
MAX maximum
s solid
w water-antifreeze (uid)
96 V. Ayel et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 26 (2003) 95107
in the stagnant mixture into a structure allowing ows.
In spite of this, the real denition of the yield stress is
still a subject of discussion. For instance, the Bingham
model can lead to an overestimation of the yield stress if
not properly used. One sees in Fig. 1 that if a nonlinear
shear stress and shear rate behaviour is represented by a
linear function t f ,
.
, then the apparent yield stress is
higher than its real value. The yield stress cannot be con-
sidered as a fundamental property of the material as long
as its value depends on the model or on the viscometer [1].
3. Measurement of the rheological properties of ice slurries
Rheological measurements with ice slurries require
signicant care, making experimentation dicult. There
are many reasons for these diculties; some specic to
ice slurries and some linked to the general features of
liquidsolid mixtures:
frictions generated by the apparatus during
rheological measurement will induce warming of
the sample and modication of its ice content;
the low viscosity of the carrying uid requires
small gap to allow accurate measurements; on
the other hand, the relatively large ice crystals
(from 10 mm to a few hundred mm) require much
larger gap;
the stratication of solid particles, according to
their shape and size, does not permit to keep
samples homogeneous;
end eects (stresses on surfaces that ideally should
not be considered in measurement) are not easy to
take into account in stress-eld calculations;
glides between solid particles and wall, or even
within the tested material, may signicantly
complicate measurements.
The carrying uid in ice slurries can generally be
considered as Newtonian, as can slurries themselves if
the ice mass fraction remains low. Authors are in good
agreement that the ice mass fraction limit separating
Newtonian and non-Newtonian behaviours is between 6
and 15% (Table 2). Christensen and Kaueld [5] propose
a correlation for apparent viscosity:
j j
w
1 2.5
s
10.05
2
s
0.00273exp16.6
s

1
Many authors attempted to reduce or suppress strati-
cation in ice slurries during rheological measurements:
pumping systems can remove particles from the upper
parts of the apparatus to inject them in the lower parts;
helical grooves may prevent stratication in rotating
viscometers at higher shear rates. Klein et al. [9] studied
the stratication rate of particles according to the height
of the vessel, considering the intermediate level at which
the particle concentration would remain, for some time,
constant and equal to the initial concentration.
Other authors tried to minimize the end eects. In
rotating viscometers for instance, the higher part of the
bob is not immersed in the sample while the lower part
can be dug so as to insert an air bubble during
measurement, which minimises stress transfer to the
bob. This method is eective with viscoplastic uids that
tend to maintain the bubble but will be delicate to
implement with ice slurries [10].
Barnes [11] studied glide in two-phase liquidsolid
mixtures inside viscometers. He explains that a narrow
layer of the carrying uid free of particles (depletion
zone), establishes between the wall and the uid. This
depletion zone acts as a lubricant. According to Barnes,
glides can explain the thixotropy phenomenon men-
tioned by some authors. Nguyen and Boger [12] report
that glide eects are all the more signicant when the
solid fraction is high or the particles are occulated. On
Table 1
Rheological non-Newtonian models that can be used for ice
slurries.
Tableau 1
Mode` les rhe ologiques non-newtoniens pouvant e tre utilise s pour
les coulis de glace
Models Equations
Ostwald t K
0
,
.
n
0
,
.
50
Bingham t t
0
j
B
,
.
t > t
0
,
.
0 t - t
0
Herschel-Buckley t t
0
K
0
,
n
0
t > t
0
,
.
0 t - t
0
Casson t t
1,2
0
j
c

1,2
h i
2
t > t
0
,
.
0 t - t
0
Fig. 1. Comparison of yield stress values given by a linear
(Bingham) and a non-linear model.
Fig. 1. Comparaison de la contrainte de cisaillement entre un
mode` le line aire (Bingham) et un mode` le non line aire.
V. Ayel et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 26 (2003) 95107 97
the other hand, glide eects can be reduced by using a
larger gap between the rotating and xed part of the
viscometer or a larger tube diameter. Barnes [13] esti-
mates that the gap must be at least 20 times greater than
the average particle diameter, provided that this dia-
meter stays below 0.25 mm. This ratio increases for
higher particle diameters.
Nguyen and Boger [12] compared the eciency of
viscometers used with liquidsolid mixtures. The cone
plate and plateplate viscometers are proscribed because
the distance between the cone or the upper plate and the
lower plate is smaller than the particle size. Further-
more, the liquid will be expelled from the lower plate.
According to Yoshimura and Prudhomme [14], who
carried out experiments in order to compare 3 types of
viscometers (parallel plate, bob-in-cup and vane-in-cup
viscometers), the parallel plate viscometers are the least
appropriate apparatus for the determination of the yield
stress. The capillary viscometer is ecient in the sense that
it simulates the ow of the mixture in a pipe. It is also less
aected by the melting of the ice during the process (the
uid crosses the tube, unceasingly regenerated at the entry
of the viscometer), but the measurements are distorted on
the one hand by the end eects (pressure drops in the input
and output of the tube) and on the other by the glide
eects, which cause the particles to concentrate in the
center of the tube [12].
Vane-in-cup viscometers are sometimes used for
rheological measurements with liquid-solid mixtures.
Their external cylinders are similar to those of bob-and-
cup viscometers but the bob is replaced by vanes (Fig. 2),
generally four of them. According to Barnes [13], vane-
in-cup viscometers have several advantages:
since the inner cylinder is replaced by some uni-
formly moving uid, glide eects are minimised;
due to their reduced thickness, the vanes create
little disturbance within the sample;
the gap can be suciently wide compared to the
size of the particles.
However, vane-in-cup viscometers are well adapted
for high-viscosity mixtures, which ice slurries are not
when the ice mass fraction is low. Furthermore, one can
often use them only to measure the yield stress; while
the vane rotates at constant speed, one observes a max-
imum value of the torque that corresponds to the tran-
sition between elastic and plastic behaviour. The
relation between the maximum torque and the yield
stress is:
T
MAX

D
3
2
H
D

1
m
!
t
0
2
Table 2
Rheological behaviour of ice slurries
Tableau 2
Comportements rhe ologiques des coulis de glace
Authors Descriptions of the
slurries
Viscosimeters Results
Bel and Lallemand [3] x
s
-33% Bob-and-cup Newtonian uid for x
s
-12%
d-400 m (for x
s
=12%, j=28 mPa s).
Ben Lakdhar and Lallemand [4] x
s
-28% Ostwald rheometer Newtonian uid for x
s
-6%.
d-400 m (horizontal tube: Non Newtonian uid for x
s
56%.
L=2.15 m,
Di=14.7 mm)
When x
s
>13%, j
app
becomes
dependent on the slurry behaves then
like a pseudoplastic uid.
Christensen and Kaueld [5] x
s
-35%
d-100 m
Ostwald rheometer Newtonian uid for x
s
-15%
(in streamline ow).
Bingham uid (or pseudoplastic)
for x
s
>15%. j
coulis
>j
eau
.
Jensen et al. [6] x
s
-30% horizontal pipes Newtonian uid for x
s
-0.15%.
d-200 m 12.8-Di -20.7 mm Bingham uid for x
s
>0.15%.
L=212 m
Doetsch [7] x
s
-45% Ostwald rheometer Newtonian uid for x
s
-10%.
(horizontal tube: Casson uid for x
s
>20%.
Di=102238 mm)
Royon [8] Slurry stabilized
x
s
=45%
d-300 mm
Bob-in-cup, with broad air-gap,
and vertical grooves
Newtonian uid whose viscosity
depends on the temperature.
98 V. Ayel et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 26 (2003) 95107
where H is the immersed height and D the external dia-
meter of the vane; m is a parameter characterising the
end eects, equal to 3 or 6 depending on whether or not
the vane is completely immersed in the sample. The
main design parameters for accurate measurements have
been summarised by Nguyen and Boger [15]. Barois et
al. [16] added a vibrating membrane inside a vane-in-
cup viscometer to reduce stratication.
4. Distance ow and pressure drop in cylindrical ducts
According to Darby [17], the ow of suspensions can
be classied in three categories:
in homogeneous ows, the particle fraction is
large and the average particle diameter is much
smaller than the characteristic length of the
pipe; the dispersion can then be considered as a
uniform single-phase uid.
In heterogeneous ows, the average particle size
is no longer negligible compared to the charac-
teristic length of the pipe, and the particle
fraction is lower or the density of the solid
phase is very dierent from that of the carrying
uid.
In saltated ows, two phases of dierent den-
sities are clearly separated and the particles
accumulate at the bottom or at the top of the
pipe, thus constituting a bed of suspensions.
Generally, practical ows are often a combination of
homogeneous and heterogeneous ows.
Quemada [18] listed the parameters that dierentiate
these three kinds of ows:
the geometric characteristics of the suspensions:
the particle drag coecient depends on a Rey-
nolds number whose characteristic length may
include one or more ratios describing particle
shape and orientation in the ow;
the concentration of particles: interactions
increase with solid fraction, having an eect
starting from 2 to 3% [19];
the density: adding solid particles changes the
density of the mixture, the Reynolds number
and the stratication speed. It has a dominating
inuence on the saltation of the particles.
The model suggested by Darby [17] indicates that in a
constant-velocity ow, the pressure drops are always
higher in a two-phase mixture than in the carrying uid
only. In Fig. 3, the dashed line represents the evolution
of the linear pressure drop according to the velocity in a
pipe lled with the carrying uid only. There is a cri-
tical deposit rate V
m2
that ensures minimum displace-
ment of the solid particles and can be interpreted as the
transition between saltated and heterogeneous ows.
This transition velocity was observed with most of the
slurries and corresponds to a minimum of the pressure
drop. It may be useful to approach this velocity, but at a
velocity higher than the critical deposit rate, in order to
minimise the pressure drop and to avoid stratication.
Concerning the ice slurries ows, it is noted (Table 3)
that in many cases [3,4,6,2027], the evolution of the
pressure drop corresponds well to the general behaviour
Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of a vane-in-cup viscometer.
Fig. 2. Diagramme dun viscosime` tre de type vane-in-cup.
Fig. 3. Pressure gradient plotted versus mean velocity for the
various ow regimes (x
s
represents ice fraction) [17].
Fig. 3. Pertes de charge en fonction de la vitesse moyenne pour
die rents re gimes de coulement x
s
repre sente la fraction de
glace) [17].
V. Ayel et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 26 (2003) 95107 99
Table 3
Pressure drop in ows of ice slurries
Tableau 3
Pertes de charge des e coulements de coulis de glace
Authors Description of the slurries Geometries Comments
Ben Lakhdar and Lallemand [4] x
s
-28% Horizontal pipe (P/L) increases with V
m
and x
s
growing
d-400 mm Di=15 mm (at 28%, up to 10 times its value at 0%.
L=0.5 m
Grandum and Nakagomi [20]
s
-75% Horizontal pipe (P/L) increases with V
m
and x
s
.
needle type cristals Di=6 mm (P/L) >(P/L)
water
, but the dierence is
L=1 m reduced with increasing V
m
.
Snoek et al. [21]
s
-31% Horizontal pipes (P/L) >(P/L)
water
for weak V
m
, but the
d
m
=12.5 mm 20-Di -100 mm dierence is reduced with increasing V
m
.
d
MAX
=40 mm L=23.8 m (P/L) increases with
s
, and deviates
from (P/L)
water
.
Inaba [22] x
s
-20% Horizontal pipe (P/L) increases with V
m
and x
s
growing.
d
m
=7 mm Di=75 mm (P/L) >(P/L)
water
, but the dierence is
reduced with increasing V
m
.
Meewisse and Ferreira [23]
s
-27% Horizontal pipe (P/L) increases with
s
growing.
d
m
=0.010.1 mm Di=25 mm
Jensen et al. [6] x
s
-30% Horizontal pipes (P/L) increases with V
m
, but is less
dependent on V
m
for x
s
>10%.
d-200 mm 12.8-Di -20.7 mm (P/L) remains constant for x
s
-15% and
L=212 m increases for x
s
>15%.
Bel and Lallemand [3] x
s
-33% Horizontal pipe (P/L) increases with V
m
, but is less
d-400 mm Di=15 mm dependent on V
m
for x
s
>10%.
L=1 m (P/L) is constant for x
s
-10% and
increases beyond.
Stutz and Reghem [24] Polypropylene particles Horizontal pipes (P/L) decreases with Re

s
-30% Di=2550 mm The curves show the same tendencies as for
d=3 mm Bel and Lallemand [3].
Fr=U
2
/(Dg(1,
s
/,
w
))
For Fr>15, the ow is heterogeneous
(fully suspended.
For 0.2-Fr-15, the ow is with moving bed.
For Fr-0.2, the ow is with stationary bed.
Takahashi et al. [25]
s
-20% Horizontal pipe (P/L) increases with V
m
.
d
m
=12.5 mm Di=49.7 mm (P/L)=(P/L)
water
for V
m
>1.5 m s
1
.
d
MAX
=20 mm L=12 m (P/L) remains constant for
s
increase.
Sellgren [26]
s
=1315% Horizontal pipe Same conclusion as for Takahashi:
d
m
=12 mm Di=105 mm (P/L)=(P/L)
water
for V
m
>1.5 m s
1
,
and also for Kawashima et al. [33].
d
MAX
=40 mm L=25 m (P/L)=(P/L)
water
for V
m
>1 m s
1
.
Winters and Kooy [27]
s
-22% Horizontal pipes (P/L) increases with V
m
.
Di=515.2 mm (P/L)5(P/L)
water
for any value of
s
.
L=7.62 m
Liu et al. [28]
s
-39% Horizontal pipe (P/L) increases with V
m
.
(DP/L) decreases with
s
Zhao et al. [29] 50-d-500 mm Di=8.83 mm For 2-
s
-30% and for V
m
>0.3 m s
1
,
L=9.95 m (P/L)=1.11.3. (P/L)
water
.
Knodel and France [30]
s
-15% Horizontal pipes (P/L) decreases with
s
(up to 30%
d
m
=5 mm Di=2550 mm when
s
=10%).
(continued next page)
100 V. Ayel et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 26 (2003) 95107
described by Darby [17]. Jensen et al. [6] and Bel and
Lallemand [3] observed no change in the pressure drop
with changing ice mass fraction provided it remained
lower than 1015%. For Winters and Kooy [27], the
pressure drop measured with the slurry is even very
close to that obtained with the carrying uid for ice
mass fraction not exceeding 22%. Snoek and Joanis [21]
made the assumption that the ice slurry friction factor
could be determined from the knowledge of the water-
only and waterglycol (liquid only) friction factors, and
developed a correlation for this. On the other hand, in
some works, like these of Liu et al. [28], Knodel and
France [30] and Knodel et al. [31], the pressure drop
decreases with an increase in the ice fraction, which
seems to be contrary to general studies on two-phase
ows. Knodel et al. explain this observation by a
decrease in the ow turbulence caused by interactions
between the uid and the particles. According to them,
there is a critical ice fraction beyond which the pressure
drop remains constant (30% in this case). Knodel et al.
[31] found that for small tubes, Reynolds numbers ran-
ging from 38,000 to 74,000 and when x
s
was above 4%,
they could write:
f
0.18Re
0.2
0.946 3
Knodel and France [30] observed that when the pipe
diameters are low, the number of interactions between
the wall and particles increases, which tends to intensify
friction and to decrease the damping of turbulence. Liu
et al. [28] conrm this hypothesis and argue that the
solid particles bring a coherent structure to the uid,
thus decreasing the energy dissipated by viscous fric-
tions. They propose a correlation:
P 15.135V
1.931
m

0.02227
s
4
where V
m
is the mean velocity and
s
is the solid
volume fraction.
5. Flow stratication
The forces acting on a single particle in a ow are
(Fig. 4): the gravitational force, which is toward the
bottom, the buoyancy force, and the drag force of the
uid on the particle; the latter is a function of the velo-
city dierence between the solid and liquid phases. Its
direction is mainly that of the ow, with an added
component in the direction opposed to that of the par-
ticle sedimentation (if a movement of sedimentation is
induced). The drag force can slow down or even prevent
saltation. Some other forces acting on the particles that
are more complex to determine arise from the inter-
action among particles and between the particles and
the walls. Their direction is random, but it tends to slow
down the saltation rate, and due to the non-uniformity
of the movements it acts on the whole eld of saltation.
The stratication velocity thus depends on several
parameters:
The particle size and shape: these parameters act
primarily on the drag coecient of the uid on
the ice crystals. The drag force can be reduced to
its simpler expression for rigid spherical particles,
Table 3 (continued)
Authors Description of the slurries Geometries Comments
Knodel et al. [31]
s
-11% Horizontal pipe (P/L) decreases with
s
.
d
m
=23 mm Di=24 mm (P/L)=(P/L)
water
for
s
-2%, then
L=4.596 m decreases and becomes constant for
s
>4%.
Egolf et al. [32].
s
-27% Horizontal pipe
Di=10 mm
L=10 m
(P/L) decreases with the progression
in the pipe, which means with decreasing
s
(ice melting phenomena).
Fig. 4. Forces acting on an ice particle in a ow eld.
Fig. 4. Forces agissant sur une particule de glace dans un uide en
ecoulement.
V. Ayel et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 26 (2003) 95107 101
but their inuence is more complex when their
shape is far from spherical. The eect of the par-
ticle shape on the drag coecient results in a
modication of the critical velocity for saltation.
Generally, this factor is taken into account in cal-
culations by coecients of nonsphericity.
The particle weight: the average rate of saltation
is proportional to the relative density of the
crystals and of the carrying uid.
The solid concentration: interactions between
particles and the particles wakes slow down the
saltation rate. On the other hand, a high mass
fraction of ice may induce occulation of the
crystals. Agglomerations of particles will trap
uid, and the whole will move at sedimentation
velocities higher than those of the single parti-
cles. These formations are controlled by the
nature of the ow. As long as the relative inu-
ence of occulation and particle interaction will
be unknown, stratication of ice crystals will
remain dicult to describe.
To approach an optimal ow by minimizing the
pressure drop, one has to be as close as possible to the
laminated ow mode (see Fig. 3). However, this presents
the risk that the ow will be in a laminated or stationary
bed mode, which would increase solid friction between
the particles and the walls. According to Takahashi et
al. [25] and Kawashima et al. [33], pressure drops in ice
slurry ows are higher than those in pure liquid at low
speeds, because ice particles accumulate at the top of the
horizontal pipe, sometimes even forming solid blocks.
These phenomena disappear at higher speeds (V
m
>1.6
m s
1
). For Inaba [22], the eects of the drag force
depend on the particle size: the smaller particles accu-
mulate at the top of the tube while the larger ones, on
which the drag is more signicant, remain below. Snoek
et al. [21] observed that below the velocity V
m2
, solid
friction is more signicant, and the bypass section of the
carrying uid (with V
uid
>V
ice
) is reduced. Pressure
drops thus increase even at reduced speeds. In the same
way, Winters and Kooy [27] studied V
m2
, which seems
to be dependent on x
s
(for x
s
=7.5%, V
m2
=0.12 m s
1
,
while for x
s
=12%, V
m2
=0.18 m s
1
). They also
observed contacts between the ice particles and the wall
for ow rates lower than 0.3 m s
1
.
Sasaki et al. [34] studied the particle-uid relative
velocity, which tends to increase with increasing average
ow speed, thus preventing particle settlement.
6. Cooling coil performance
Table 4 gathers the informations available on the heat
transfer coecient h or the Nusselt number Nu
[3,5,6,23,29,31,3540]. As a general rule, the majority of
observations show that h or Nu increase with the ow
rate (velocity, mass ow rate or Reynolds). Only Knodel
et al. [31] an Snoek and Bellamy [35] observed that Nu
decreases with increasing x
s
. Meewisse and Ferreira [23]
propose a correlation for the calculation of the Nusselt
number in laminar ow of ice slurries in circular tubes:
Nu 38.3Gz
0.15
x
0.52
s
5
where Gz
RePrD
4z
is the Graetz number, and z is the
axial distance along the tube. Re and Pr are respectively
the Reynolds and the Prandtl numbers, calculated with
the average properties of the ice slurry. The viscosity
was evaluated with the correlation (1) of Christensen
and Kaueld [5]. This equation is valid for 3-
Re-2000, and 0-x
s
-35%.
Harada et al. [37] give the following empirical equation:
NuPr
1,3
j
jT
w

0.14
1.61 10
2
Re
088
6
where Nu
hD
l
w
, Pr
C
m
j
w
l
w
and Re
,
m
V
m
D
j
w
. This equa-
tion predicts the heat transfer coecient in an asym-
metric suspension ow, for 8000-Re-50,000, 0.01-
x
s
-0.1 and 0.0024-d/D-0.071. The experimental data
are correlated within 15% error.
Jensen et al. [6] decomposed their correlation in three
parts:
For x
s
>1%:
Nu
1
Nu
w
10.42Re
0.81
w
He
014
7
For x
s
-0.15%:
Nu
2
Nu
w
1 8
For 0.15-x
s
-1%:
Nu ANu
1
1 ANu
2
9
where Nu
hD
l
w
, A
x
s
0.0015
0.0085
, and He
D
2
,
w
t
0
j
2
w
is the
Hedstrom number (t
0
is the critical shear stress). Nu
w
is
calculated from the correlation of Homan:
Nu
w
0.0237Re
0.81
w
Pr
0.39
w
10
Using these correlations, the heat transfer coecients
can be evaluated within 20% of the Jensen et al. [6]
measured values, and 90% of the calculated values is
within the limits of 10% of the measured values.
Christensen and Kaueld [5] give the following
correlations for describing their experimental data:
102 V. Ayel et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 26 (2003) 95107
Table 4
Heat transfer measurements in ice slurries.
Tableau 4.
Mesures des transferts de chaleur des coulis de glace
Authors Description of the
slurries
Geometries Comments
Christensen and x
s
-30% Horizontal pipes V
m
>V
m2
(saltation). 0.7-V
m
-2.5 m/s.
Kaueld [5] x
ai
=10% (imposed ux) h increases with V
m
and x
s
(with more inuence for x
s
).
(ethanol) Di=21.6 mm
L=1 m
The ux (between 6 and 14 kW) has only little
inuence on the transfers.
For V
m
=1 m/s: 2000 (x
s
=5%)-h-6000 W/m
2
K
(x
s
=30%).
For V
m
=2 m/s: 3000 (x
s
=5%)-h-9000 W/m
2
K
(x
s
=25%).
Jensen et al. [6] x
s
=530% Horizontal pipes 0.5-V
m
-1.5 m/s.
d=0.010.2 mm (imposed ux) h increases with V
m
and x
s
.
x
ai
=10% Di=121620 mm The ux does not have any inuence on the transfers.
(ethanol) L=1 m For V
m
=0.5 m/s: 1500 (x
s
=5%)-h-3500 W/m
2
K
(x
s
=30%).
For V
m
=1.5 m/s: 3500 (x
s
=5%)-h-5000 W/m
2
K
(x
s
=25%).
Knodel et al. [31] x
s
-11% Horizontal pipe 2.8-V
m
-5.0 m/s.
d=23 mm (imposed ux) Nu decreases with x
s
.
Di=24 mm For Re=55,000: 380 (x
s
=10%)-Nu-440 (x
s
=0%).
L=4.96 m For
Re
=58,000: 420 (x
s
=10%)-Nu-500 (x
s
=0%).
Meewisse and
s
-35% Heat exchangers at nal h increases with
s
.
Ferreira [23] d=0.010.1 mm
(CaCl
2
, NaCl, ethanol,
cooling sites 250 (x
s
=0%)-h(CaCl
2
, NaCl)-2500 W/m
2
K
(x
s
=30%).
ethylene-glycol) 250 (x
s
=0%)-h(ethanol, ethylene-glycol)
-2200 W/m
2
K (x
s
=30%).
Snoek and Bellamy [35]
s
=433% Horizontal pipe Comparison of h with the correlation of:
d=0.5 mm (imposed ux) h
exp
,h
D-B
where h
D-B
0.023
l
D
Re
0.8
Pr
0.4
.
x
ai
=810% Di=15.74 mm
(ethylene-glycol) L=2 m decreases with Re and
s
. 0.7--1.
Stamatiou et al. [36]. x
s
-10% Flat plat heat exchanger Nu increases with x
s
and with decreasing Re.
x
ai
=6.2% (NaCl) 0.61*0.31*0.025 m For Re(Dh)=1600, 50 (x
s
=0%)-Nu-80 (x
s
=4%).
For Re(Dh)=3350, 80 (x
s
=0%)-Nu-120 (x
s
=8%).
Zhao et al. [29]
s
=225% Horizontal pipe K (global heat transfer coecient between air and
x
ai
=46% Di=8.83 mm ice slurry) increases with
s
.
d=0.050.5 mm V=0.41 m/s 33 (
s
=5%)-K(V=0.8 m/s)-46 W/m
2
K (
s
=25%).
Harada et al. [37] Glass particles Horizontal pipes h is always 1030% greater than h
water
over the
d=0.061 mm Di=141925 mm whole range of Reynolds numbers.
Resin particles For a stationary bed ow, h increases because of the
d =0.8 mm presence of a much higher uid velocity.
Stutz et al. [38] Polypropylene particles Horizontal pipes with Fr-25 for those applications.
(n=869 kg/m
3
)

s
-10%
dierent roughness.
Di=22 mm
For low roughness: h increases with the pressure drop,
but it has only little inuence for x
s
>5%.
d=3 mm L=1.5 m For high roughness: h keeps approximately the same
values for x
s
>5%.
The velocity and temperature elds are largely aected
by the presence of solid particles for x
s
-510%.
Ben Lakhdar and x
s
-35% Horizontal pipe 0.1-V
m
-0.6 m/s.
Lallemand [3] x
ai
=11% (imposed ux) h increases with Re and x
s
.
(continued next page)
V. Ayel et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 26 (2003) 95107 103
x
s
- 5% :
Nu
Nu
w
1 11
x
s
>5%:
Nu
Nu
w
1 0.103x
s
2.003Re
0.192
30xs
30

x
0.339
Re
10000

s
12
where Re and Nu are calculated with the properties of
the ice slurry, and Nu
w
is calculated with the properties
of the carrier uid, using the average velocity. Eq. (1)
was used to evaluate the viscosity. This model estimates
the measured values within 35%, and 75% of the
measurements are estimated within 30%. The validity
of the correlation is limited to tubes with an inner dia-
meter between 18 and 25 mm. Christensen and Kaueld
[5] suggest that the melting of ice crystals close to the wall
reduces the temperature gradient through the boundary
layer, which can explain the increase in the heat transfer
coecient.
Ben Lakhdar et al. [39] and Inaba [22] studied the
evolution of the Nusselt number with the length covered
in the heat exchanger. The value of Nu decreases slowly
with the progression of the slurry in the heat exchanger,
and tends towards the values of Nu corresponding to
the single phase ow. Kawanami et al. [40] studied the
evolution of the heat transfer coecient h in a heat
exchanger, formed by a tube bended at 180

in a vertical
plane. At the concave wall, h increases with the velocity
of the ow. For velocities higher than 0.4 m s
1
, h
decreases according to the angle of the bend, whereas
for velocities close to 0.1 m s
1
, h decreases then stays
constant. At the convex wall, h decreases according to
the angle of the bend, but for velocities close to 0.1 m
s
1
, it tends to be in general greater than that for the
other velocity conditions at the area from 0 to about
120

. The friction of ice crystals against the wall, caused

by their stratication, could explain these phenomena.
The increase in the velocity of ice slurry ow causes an
increase in the accumulation of the ice particles in the heat
transfer area of the concave wall, as well as the decrease
of the depletion zone thickness, owing to the mixing
eects based on both the centrifugal and the inertial
forces.
Flow geometries that can combine the low-pressure
losses of laminar ows and ecient mixing would be
particularly adapted to ows of ice slurry. An example
of such geometries consists of a series of bent tubes with
planes of curvature at a90

angle with respect to the

previous tube, thus creating alternating Dean ows
whose chaotic characteristics can enhance mixing and
heat transfer (Fig. 5). The counterrotating secondary
ows called Dean roll-cells appear in curved duct due
to the centrifugal force, that pushes the uid particles
against the concave wall. If the curvature plane of the
curved ducts maintains the same orientation (as in a
helical coil), the ow has the same structure at the
Table 4 (continued)
Authors Description of the
slurries
Geometries Comments
(ethanol) Di=38 mm
L=0.5 m
h (x
s
=0%)=500 W/m
2
C, h (x
s
=35%)=
2000 W/m
2
K.
Ben Lakhdar et al. [39] x
s
-39% Horizontal pipe V
m
=1.64 m/s.
x
ai
=5% (ethanol) Di=20 mm
L=18 m
h decreases with the progression in the pipe, which
means with decreasing x
s
(ice melting phenomena)
h (L=0 m)=9000 W/m
2
K, h (L=18 m)-1000 W/m
2
K.
Kawanami et al. [40] x
s
-20%
x
ai
=10%
Rectangular curved pipe For the concave wall: h increases with V
m
and x
s
(mixing eect based on both the centrifugal force and
the inertia force).
R
bend
=170190 mm
D
im
=2060 mm
For V
m
=0.1 m/s: 500 (x
s
=0%)-h
conc
-700 W/m
2
K
(x
s
=20%)
For V
m
=0.8 m/s: 800 (x
s
=0%)-h
conc
-1100 W/m
2
K
(x
s
=20%).
For the convex wall, h increases with x
s
, but it is
constant through all the velocity range (the ice particles
ow along the convex wall is detached from the wall by
buoyancy force).
For V
m
=0.1 m/s: 400 (x
s
=0%)-h
conv
-800 W/m
2
K
(x
s
=20%).
For V
m
=0.8 m/s: 600 (x
s
=0%)-h
conv
-800 W/m
2
K
(x
s
=20%). h
conv
(x
s
=10%)=500 W/m
2
K.
104 V. Ayel et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 26 (2003) 95107
entrance and at the exit of the coil, i.e. a regular Dean
ow. On the other hand, if each bend is turned 90

compared to the preceding one, the Dean roll-cells

formed in an elbow are broken by the subsequent one,
which imposes a dierent orientation on them. In a coil
composed of a series of elbows with alternating curva-
ture planes, the uid particles follow chaotic trajec-
tories, even for small Reynolds numbers, allowing better
homogenisation of the particle distribution and tem-
peratures within the uid. This phenomenon increases
heat transfer considerably, provided that the Reynolds
numbers stay low [41]. It is then possible to improve the
eciency of heat exchangers used with high viscosity
uids without increasing the velocity and the pressure
losses.
In a numerical study, Mokrani et al [42] used a reduced
model to compute the ow in a helical and a chaotic coil,
and observed the distribution at the exit plane of 40,000
passive tracer injected at a point in the input section. Fig. 6
shows that for a tracer injection at the centre of the input
section and a Reynolds number of 40, the mixing is far
more homogeneous in the chaotic coil than in the helical
one, and this only after 10 bends. At the output of the
chaotic coil the particles are in close to total apparent
disorder, whatever the injection position of the particles.
On the other hand, in the helical coil the particles follow
the trajectories of the regular Dean roll-cells, which do
not evolve in the ow direction.
Mokrani et al. [43] also found experimentally that at
very low Reynolds numbers (Re=63) the chaotic coil
has a heat transfer eciency 28% greater than the heli-
cal coil. This type of coil could probably be adapted to
the ows of ice slurries, either to allow ecient mixing
of ice particles all along the distributing pipes, or to
optimize heat transfer in some heat exchangers. Fig. 7
shows that the temperature prole at the outlet of the
chaotic coil, for a Reynolds number of 63, is at and does
not exceed a temperature dierence of 3 K, while it reaches
12 K for the helical coil under the same conditions.
7. Conclusions
The rheological study of ice slurries suers from a ser-
ious handicap, since no current apparatus has really
Fig. 6. Images of the injected tracer after passing through dif-
ferent numbers of bends, for both helical and chaotic congur-
ations [42].
Fig. 6. Images du let de traceur de forme par le coulement en
fonction du nombre de coudes et de la position dinjection, pour la
conguration he licodale et la conguration chaotique [42].
Fig. 7. Temperature prole at the exit of the two heat exchan-
gers for two measurements, and for Reynolds number 63 [43].
Fig. 7. Prols de tempe rature a` la sortie des deux e changeurs de
chaleur pour deux mesures et pour un nombre de Reynolds de 63
[43].
Fig. 5. Dean-roll-cells in a curved duct.
Fig. 5. Cellules de Dean dans une conduite incurve e.
V. Ayel et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 26 (2003) 95107 105
proved satisfactory: vane-in-cup rheometers, which seem
in general well adapted to liquidsolid two-phase systems,
do not allow precise measurement of any rheological
characteristics except the yield stress. These diculties are
due to the low viscosity of the carrying uid, to the size of
the crystals and to the stratication problem (which
could be perhaps be solved by small recirculation
pumps). The capillary rheometer can be used to measure
the linear pressure drops in a cylindrical pipe according
to the average speed of the mixture and to the ice frac-
tion, as many authors did, but viscosity measurements
will be disturbed by glide eects and end eects. In any
case, opinions seem to converge on the proposition that
the pressure drop increases with average speed and tends
to approach that of the carrying uid. On the other hand,
dierent authors do not agree on the behaviour of ice
slurries with ice fraction, probably because of dierent
ow reorganisation patterns in dierent regimes. Studies
of the stratication regimes conrm Darbys [17] theory
of a critical deposit rate that increases as the solid
fraction increases.
Although the experimental conditions are dierent,
the heat transfer coecients seem to follow the same
behaviour overall, from the point of view of the orders
of magnitude of the numerical values as well as their
evolutions according to various parameters.
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