Unit I Course material

UNIT I EE1252-POWER PLANT ENGINEERING UNIT I THERMAL POWER PLANTS

N.KARTHIKEYAN

Basic thermodynamic cycles -Various components of steam power plant-Layout Pulverized coal burners- Fluidized bed combustion-Coal handling systems-Ash handling systems-Forced draft and induced draft fans-Boilers-Feed pumps- Super heater- Regenerator- Condenser-Dearearators-Cooling tower.

A thermodynamic cycle consists of a series of thermodynamic processes transferring heat and work, while varying pressure, temperature, and other state variables, eventually returning a system to its initial state The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics This law states that if object A is in thermal equilibrium with object B, and object B is in thermal equilibrium with object C, then object C is also in thermal equilibrium with object A. This law allows us to build thermometers. For example the length of a mercury column (object B) may be used as a measure to compare the temperatures of the two other objects.

The first law of thermodynamics The first law of thermodynamics says that energy cant be destroyed or created. When one energy form is converted into another, the total amount of energy remains constant. An example of this law is a gasoline engine. The chemical energy in the fuel is converted into various forms including kinetic energy of motion, potential energy, chemical energy in the carbon dioxide, and water of the exhaust gas. The second law of thermodynamics The second law of thermodynamics is the entropy law, which says that all physical processes proceed in such a way that the availability of the energy involved decreases. This means that no transformation of energy resource can ever be 100% efficient.

The Third Law of Thermodynamics The Third Law of Thermodynamics refers to a state known as "absolute zero." This is the bottom point on the Kelvin temperature scale. The Kelvin scale is absolute, meaning 0 Kelvin is mathematically the lowest possible temperature in the universe. This corresponds to about -273.15 Celsius, or -459.7 Fahrenheit. Power plants cycle generally divided in to the following groups, (1) Vapour Power Cycle (Carnot cycle, Rankine cycle, Regenerative cycle, Reheat cycle, Binary vapour cycle) (2) Gas Power Cycles (Otto cycle, Diesel cycle, Dual combustion cycle, Gas turbine cycle.) CARNOT CYCLE This cycle is of great value to heat power theory although it has not been possible to construct a Practical plant on this cycle. It has high thermodynamics efficiency.

It is a standard of comparison for all other cycles. The thermal efficiency () of Carnot cycle is as follows: The most efficient heat engine cycle is the Carnot cycle, consisting of two isothermal processes and two adiabatic processes. The Carnot cycle can be thought of as the most efficient heat engine cycle allowed by physical laws. When the second law of thermodynamics states that not all the supplied heat in a heat engine can be used to do work, the Carnot efficiency sets the limiting value on the fraction of the heat which can be so used. = (T1 T2)/T1 Where, T1 = Temperature of heat source T2 = Temperature of receiver In order to approach the Carnot efficiency, the processes involved in the heat engine cycle must be reversible and involve no change in entropy. This means that the Carnot cycle is an idealization, since no real engine processes are reversible and all real physical processes involve some increase in entropy. RANKINE CYCLE The Rankine cycle is a thermodynamic cycle which converts heat into work. The heat is supplied externally to a closed loop, which usually uses water as the working fluid. This cycle generates about 80% of all electric power used throughout the world, including
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virtually all solar thermal, biomass, coal and nuclear power plants. It is named after William John Macquorn Rankine, a Scottish polymath. Steam engine and steam turbines in which steam is used as working medium follow Rankine cycle. This cycle can be carried out in four pieces of equipment joint by pipes for conveying working medium as shown in Fig. 1.1. The cycle is represented on Pressure Volume P-V and S-T diagram as shown in Figs. 1.2 and 1.3 respectively.

Process 1-2: The working fluid is pumped from low to high pressure, as the fluid is a liquid at this stage the pump requires little input energy. Process 2-3: The high pressure liquid enters a boiler where it is heated at constant pressure by an external heat source to become a dry saturated vapour. Process 3-4: The dry saturated vapour expands through a turbine, generating power. This decreases the temperature and pressure of the vapour, and some condensation may occur. Process 4-1: The wet vapour then enters a condenser where it is condensed at a constant
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pressure and temperature to become a saturated liquid. The pressure and temperature of the condenser is fixed by the temperature of the cooling coils as the fluid is undergoing a phase-change. Brayton cycle The Brayton cycle is a thermodynamic cycle that describes the workings of the gas turbine engine, basis of the jet engine and others. It is named after George Brayton (18301892), Actual Brayton cycle:

adiabatic process - Compression. isobaric process - Heat addition. adiabatic process - Expansion. isobaric process - Heat rejection.

The efficiency of the ideal Brayton cycle is Where is the heat capacity ratio.

THERMAL POWER PLANTS LAYOUT

1. A furnace to burn the fuel. 2. Steam generator or boiler containing water. Heat generated in the furnace is utilized to convert water in steam. 3. Main power unit such as an engine or turbine to use the heat energy of steam and perform work. 4. Piping system to convey steam and water. In addition to the above equipment the plant requires various auxiliaries and accessories depending upon the availability of water, fuel and the service for which the plant is intended. The flow sheet of a thermal power plant consists of the following four main circuits: 1. 2. 3. 4. Feed water and steam flow circuit Coal and ash circuit Air and gas circuit Cooling water circuit.

A steam power plant using steam as working substance works basically on Rankine cycle. Steam is generated in a boiler, expanded in the prime mover and condensed in the condenser and fed into the boiler again. The different types of systems and components used in steam power plant are as follows: 1. High pressure boiler 2. Prime mover 3. Condensers and cooling towers 4. Coal handling system 5. Ash and dust handling system 6. Draught system 7. Feed water purification plant
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8. Pumping system 9. Air pre-heater, economizer, super heater, feed heaters. Fig. shows a schematic arrangement of equipment of a steam power station. Coal received in coal storage yard of power station is transferred in the furnace by coal handling unit. Heat produced due to burning of coal is utilized in converting water contained in boiler drum into steam at suitable pressure and temperature. The steam generated is passed through the super heater. Superheated steam then flows through the turbine. After doing work in the turbine pressure of steam is reduced. Steam leaving the turbine passes through the condenser which maintains the low pressure of steam at the exhaust of turbine. Steam pressure in the condenser depends upon flow rate and temperature of cooling water and on effectiveness of air removal equipment. Water circulating through the condenser may be taken from the various sources such as river, lake or sea. If sufficient quantity of water is not available the hot water coming out of the condenser may be cooled in cooling towers and circulated again through the condenser. Bled steam taken from the turbine at suitable extraction points is sent to low pressure and high pressure water heaters. Air taken from the atmosphere is first passed through the air pre-heater, where it is heated by flue gases. The hot air then passes through the furnace. The flue gases after passing over boiler and super heater tubes, flow through the dust collector and then through economiser, air pre-heater and finally they are exhausted to the atmosphere through the chimney. Steam condensing system consists of the following: 1. Condenser 2. Cooling water 3. Cooling tower 4. Hot well 5. Condenser cooling water pump. CHARACTERISTICS OF STEAM POWER PLANT The desirable characteristic for a steam power plant are as follows: 1. Higher efficiency. 2. Lower cost. 3. Ability to burn coal especially of high ash content. 4. Reduced environmental impact in terms of air pollution. 5. Reduced water requirement. 6. Higher reliability and availability.

Various components of steam power plant

Typical diagram of a coal-fired thermal power station 1. Cooling tower 2. Cooling water pump 10. Steam Control valve 11. High pressure steam turbine 19. Superheater 20. Forced draught (draft) fan 21. Reheater 22. Combustion air intake

3. transmission line (3-phase) 12. Deaerator 4. Step-up transformer (3phase) 5. Electrical generator (3phase) 13. Feed water heater

14. Coal conveyor

23. Economiser 24. Air preheater 25. Precipitator 26. Induced draught (draft) fan 27. Flue gas stack

6. Low pressure steam turbine 15. Coal hopper 7. Condensate pump 8. Surface condenser 16. Coal pulverizer 17. Boiler steam drum

9. Intermediate pressure steam 18. Bottom ash hopper turbine

Main components of steam power plant 1. Boiler 2. Turbine 3. Deaerator 4. Heat Exchangers 5. Super Heater 6. Economizers 7. Condenser 8. Feed water heater 9. Electrical generator.

1. Boiler
A boiler is an enclosed vessel that provides a means for combustion heat to be transferred into water until it becomes heated water or steam. The hot water or steam under pressure is then usable for transferring the heat to a process. Water is a useful and cheap medium for transferring heat to a process. When water is boiled into steam its volume increases about 1,600 times, producing a force that is almost as explosive as gunpowder. This causes the boiler to be extremely dangerous equipment that must be treated with maximum care.

Transfer of heat
Heat is transferred from one body to another by means of (1) Radiation, which is the transfer of heat from a hot body to a cold body without a conveying medium, (2) Convection, the transfer of heat by a conveying medium, such as air or water. (3) Conduction, transfer of heat by actual physical contact, molecule to molecule.

Turbine
Turbine that convert the energy from moving stream to mechanical energy. The basic element in a turbine is a wheel or rotor with paddles, propellers, blades, or buckets arranged on its circumference in such a fashion that the moving fluid exerts a tangential force that turns the wheel and imparts energy to it. This mechanical energy is then transferred through a drive shaft to operate a machine, compressor, electric generator, or propeller. Turbines are classified as hydraulic, or water, turbines, steam turbines, or gas turbines. Today turbinepowered generators produce most of the world's electrical energy. Windmills that generate electricity are known as wind turbines.

Deaerator
A deaerator is a device that is widely used for the removal of air and other dissolved gases from the feed water to steam generating boilers. In particular, dissolved oxygen in boiler feed waters will cause serious corrosion damage in steam systems by attaching to the walls of
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metal piping and other metallic equipment and forming oxides (rust). It also combines with any dissolved carbon dioxide to form carbonic acid that causes further corrosion.

Heat Exchangers
Heat exchangers are equipment that transfers heat from one medium to another. The proper design, operation and maintenance of heat exchangers will make the process energy efficient and minimize energy losses. Heat exchanger performance can weaken with time, off design operations and other interferences such as fouling, scaling etc. It is necessary to assess periodically the heat exchanger performance in order to maintain them at a high efficiency level. Heat exchangers may be classified according to their flow arrangement. In parallel-flow heat exchangers, the two fluids enter the exchanger at the same end, and travel in parallel to one another to the other side. In counter flow heat exchangers the fluids enter the exchanger from opposite ends. The counter current design is most efficient, in that it can transfer the most heat. See counter current exchange. In a cross-flow heat exchanger, the fluids travel roughly perpendicular to one another through the exchanger. For efficiency, heat exchangers are designed to maximize the surface area of the wall between the two fluids, while minimizing resistance to fluid flow through the exchanger. The exchanger's performance can also be affected by the addition of fins or corrugations in one or both directions, which increase surface area and may channel fluid flow or induce turbulence.

Super Heater
A super heater is a device in a steam engine that heats the steam generated by the boiler again, increasing its thermal energy and decreasing the possibility that it will condense inside the engine. A super heater is a device used to convert saturated steam or wet steam into dry steam used for power generation or processes. Super heaters increase the efficiency of the steam engine, and were widely adopted 1. A radiant super heater is placed directly in the combustion chamber. 2. A convection super heater is located in the path of the hot gases. 3. A separately fired super heater, as its name implies, is totally separated from the boiler

Condenser
A condenser is a device or unit used to condense a substance from its gaseous to its liquid state, typically by cooling it. The surface condenser is a shell and tube heat exchanger in which cooling water is circulated through the tubes. The exhaust steam from the low pressure turbine enters the shell where it is cooled and converted to condensate (water) by flowing over the tubes as shown in the adjacent diagram.

Such condensers use steam ejectors or rotary motor-driven exhausters for continuous removal of air and gases from the steam side to maintain vacuum. For best efficiency, the temperature in the condenser must be kept as low as practical in order to achieve the lowest possible pressure in the condensing steam. Since the condenser temperature can almost always be kept significantly below 100 oC where the vapor pressure of water is much less than atmospheric pressure, the condenser generally works under vacuum.

Economizers
A boiler economizer is a heat exchanger device that captures the "lost or waste heat" from the boiler's hot stack gas. The economizer typically transfers this waste heat to the boiler's feed-water, but it can also be used to heat domestic water or other process fluids. Capturing this normally lost heat reduces the overall fuel requirements for the boiler. Less fuel compare to money saved as well as less emission - since the boiler now operates at a higher efficiency. This is possible because the boiler feed-water or return water is pre-heated by the economizer therefore the boilers main heating circuit does not need to provide as much heat to produce a given output quantity of steam or hot water. Again fuel savings are the result. Boiler economizers improve a boiler's efficiency by extracting heat from the flue gases discharged.

Feed water heater

In the case of a conventional steam-electric power plant utilizing a drum boiler, the surface condenser removes the latent heat of vaporization from the steam as it changes states from vapour to liquid. The condensate pump then pumps the condensate water through a feed water heater. The feed water heating equipment then raises the temperature of the water by utilizing extraction steam from various stages of the turbine.

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Preheating the feed water reduces the irreversibility involved in steam generation and therefore improves the thermodynamic efficiency of the system. This reduces plant operating costs and also helps to avoid thermal shock to the boiler metal when the feed water is introduced back into the steam cycle.

Electrical generator
In electricity generation, an electrical generator is a device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy, generally using electromagnetic induction. The source of mechanical energy may be a reciprocating or turbine steam engine, water falling through a turbine or waterwheel, an internal combustion engine, a wind turbine, a hand crank, the sun or solar energy, compressed air or any other source of mechanical energy.

PULVERIZED COAL
Coal is pulverized (powdered) to increase its surface exposure thus permitting rapid combustion. Efficient use of coal depends greatly on the combustion process employed. For large scale generation of energy the efficient method of burning coal is restricted still to pulverize coal combustion. The pulverized coal is obtained by grinding the raw coal in pulverising mills. The various pulverising mills used are as follows: 1. Ball mill 2. Hammer mill 3. Ball and race mill 4. Bowl mill. The essential functions of pulverising mills are as follows: 1. Drying of the coal 2. Grinding Proper drying of raw coal which may contain moisture is necessary for effective grinding.

BALL MILL A line diagram of ball mill using two classifiers is shown in Fig. It consists of a slowly rotating drum which is partly filled with steel balls. Raw coal from feeders is supplied to the classifiers from where it moves to the drum by means of a screw conveyor.
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As the drum rotates the coal gets pulverized due to the combined impact between coal and steel balls. Hot air is introduced into the drum. The powdered coal is picked up by the air and the coal air mixture enters the classifiers, where sharp changes in the direction of the mixture throw out the oversized coal particles. The over-sized particles are returned to the drum. The coal air mixture from the classifier moves to the exhauster fan and then it is supplied to the burners.

BALL MILL

BALL AND RACE MILL

In this mill the coal passes between the rotating elements again and again until it has been pulverized to desired degree of fineness. The coal is crushed between two moving surfaces namely balls and races. The upper stationary race and lower rotating race driven by a worm and gear hold the balls between them. The raw coal supplied falls on the inner side of the races. The moving balls and races catch coal between them to crush it to a powder. The necessary force needed for crushing is applied with the help of springs. The hot air supplied picks up the coal dust as it flows between the balls and races, and then enters the classifier. Where oversized coal particles are returned for further grinding, where as the coal particles of required size are discharged from the top of classifier.

BALL AND RACE MILL

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PULVERIZED COAL BURNERS

Burners are used to burn the pulverised coal. The main difference between the various burners lies in the rapidity of air-coal mixing i.e., turbulence. For bituminous coals the turbulent type of burner is used whereas for low volatile coals the burners with long flame should be used. A pulverised coal burner should satisfy the following requirements: 1. It should mix the coal and primary air thoroughly and should bring this mixture before it enters the furnace in contact with additional air known as secondary air to create sufficient turbulence. 2. It should deliver and air to the furnace in right proportions and should maintain stable ignition of coal air mixture and control flame shape and travel in the furnace. 3. The flame shape is controlled by the secondary air vanes and other control adjustments incorporated into the burner. 4. Secondary air if supplied in too much quantity may cool the mixture and prevent its heating to ignition temperature.

Pulverized coal burners

A Pulverised Coal Burner System.

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1. The concept of burning coal that has been pulverized into a fine powder stems from the belief that if the coal is made fine enough, it will burn almost as easily and efficiently as a gas. 2. The feeding rate of coal according to the boiler demand and the amount of air available for drying and transporting the pulverized coal fuel is controlled by computers. 3. Pieces of coal are crushed between balls or cylindrical rollers that move between two tracks or "races." The raw coal is then fed into the pulveriser along with air heated to about 650 degrees F from the boiler. 4. As the coal gets crushed by the rolling action, the hot air dries it and blows the usable fine coal powder out to be used as fuel. 5. The powdered coal from the pulveriser is directly blown to a burner in the boiler. The burner mixes the powdered coal in the air suspension with additional pre-heated combustion air and forces it out of a nozzle similar in action to fuel being atomized by a fuel injector in modern cars. 6. Under operating conditions, there is enough heat in the combustion zone to ignite all the incoming fuel.

The various types of burners are as follows:

1. Long Flame Burner (U-Flame Burner). In this burner air and coal mixture travels a considerable distance thus providing sufficient time for complete combustion [Fig. (a)]. 2. Short Flame Burner (Turbulent Burner). It is shown in Fig. (b). The burner is fitted in the furnace will and the flame enters the furnace horizontally. 3. Tangential Burner. A tangential burner is shown in Fig. (c). In this system one burner is fitted attach corner of the furnace. The inclination of the burner is so made that the flame produced are tangential to an imaginary circle at the centre. 4. Cyclone Burner. It is shown in Fig. (d). This burner uses crushed coal intend of pulverised coal. Its advantages are as follows:

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FLUIDISED BED COMBUSTION (FBC) Need for FBC

Burning of pulverised coal has some problems such as particle size of coal used in pulverised firing is limited to 70-100 microns, the pulverised fuel fired furnaces designed to burn a particular cannot be used other type of coal with same efficiency, the generation of high temp. about (1650 C) in the furnace creates number of problems like slag formation on super heater, evaporation of alkali metals in ash and its deposition on heat transfer surfaces, formation of SO2 and NOX in large amount.

Working Fluidised Bed Combustion

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1. Fluidised Bed combustion system can burn any fuel including low grade coals (even containing 70% ash), oil, gas or municipal waste. 2. Fluidized bed combustion (FBC) is a combustion technology used in power plants. Fluidized beds suspend solid fuels on upward-blowing jets of air during the combustion process. 3. The result is a turbulent mixing of gas and solids. The tumbling action, much like a bubbling fluid, provides more effective chemical reactions and heat transfer. 4. FBC plants are more flexible than conventional plants in that they can be fired on coal and biomass, among other fuels. Types FBC systems fit into essentially two major groups, atmospheric systems (FBC) and pressurized systems (PFBC), and two minor subgroups, bubbling (BFB) and circulating fluidized bed (CFB). FBC Atmospheric fluidized beds use limestone or dolomite to capture sulfur released by the combustion of coal. Jets of air suspend the mixture of sorbent and burning coal during combustion, converting the mixture into a suspension of red-hot particles that flow like a fluid. These boilers operate at atmospheric pressure. PFBC The first-generation PFBC system also uses a sorbent and jets of air to suspend the mixture of sorbent and burning coal during combustion. However, these systems operate at elevated pressures and produce a high-pressure gas stream at temperatures that can drive a gas turbine. Steam generated from the heat in the fluidized bed is sent to a steam turbine, creating a highly efficient combined cycle system.

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Circulating Fluidized Bed combustion

Fine particles of partly burned coal, ash and bed material are carried along with the flue gases to the upper areas of the furnace and then into a cyclone. In the cyclone the heavier particles separate from the gas and falls to the hopper of the cyclone. This returns to the furnace for recirculation. Hence the name Circulating Fluidized Bed combustion. The hot gases from the cyclone pass to the heat transfer surfaces and go out of the boiler.

COAL HANDLING SYSTEMS

Coal delivery equipment is one of the major components of plant cost. The various steps involved in coal handling are as follows

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Coal delivery Unloading Preparation Transfer Outdoor storage Covered storage In plant handling Weighing and measuring Feeding the coal into furnace.

Coal Delivery. The coal from supply points is delivered by ships or boats to power stations situated near to sea or river whereas coal is supplied by rail or trucks to the power stations which are situated away from sea or river. The transportation of coal by trucks is used if the railway facilities are not available. Unloading. The type of equipment to be used for unloading the coal received at the power station depends on how coal is received at the power station. If coal is delivered by trucks, there is no need of unloading device as the trucks may dump the coal to the outdoor storage. Coal is easily handled if the lift trucks with scoop are used. In case the coal is brought by railway wagons, ships or boats, the unloading may be done by car shakes, rotary car dumpers, cranes, grab buckets and coal accelerators. Rotary car dumpers although costly are quite efficient for unloading closed wagons.
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Preparation. When the coal delivered is in the form of big lumps and it is not of proper size, the preparation (sizing) of coal can be achieved by crushers, breakers, sizers driers and magnetic separators.

Transfer. After preparation coal is transferred to the dead storage by means of the following systems: 1. Belt conveyors. 2. Screw conveyors. 3. Bucket elevators. 4. Grab bucket elevators.

3. Bucket elevators.

1. Belt conveyors.

2. Screw conveyors.

4. Grab bucket elevators.

1. Belt conveyor. Fig. shows a belt conveyor. It consists of an endless belt. Moving over a pair of end drums (rollers). At some distance a supporting roller is provided at the middle. The belt is made, up of rubber or canvas. Belt conveyor is suitable for the transfer of coal over long distances. It is used in medium and large power plants. The initial cost of the system is not high and power consumption is also low. The inclination at which coal can be successfully elevated by belt conveyor is about 20. Average speed of belt conveyors varies between 200-300 r.p.m. This conveyor is preferred than other types.
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Advantages of belt conveyor 1. Its operation is smooth and clean. 2. It requires less power as compared to other types of systems. 3. Large quantities of coal can be discharged quickly and continuously. 4. Material can be transported on moderates inclines. 2. Screw conveyor. It consists of an endless helicoids screw fitted to a shaft. The screw while rotating in a trough transfers the coal from feeding end to the discharge end. This system is suitable, where coal is to be transferred over shorter distance and space limitations exist. The initial cost of the system is low. It suffers from the drawbacks that the power consumption is high and there is considerable wear of screw. Rotation of screw varies between 75-125 r.p.m. 3. Bucket elevator. It consists of buckets fixed to a chain Fig. The chain moves over two wheels. The coal is carried by the buckets from bottom and discharged at the top. 4. Grab bucket elevator. It lifts and transfers coal on a single rail or track from one point to the other. The coal lifted by grab buckets is transferred to overhead bunker or storage. This system requires less power for operation and requires minimum maintenance. The grab bucket conveyor can be used with crane or tower as shown in Fig. Although the initial cost of this system is high but operating cost is less.

DEWATERING OF COAL
Excessive surface moisture of coal reduces and heating value of coal and creates handling problems. The coal should therefore be dewatered to produce clean coal. Cleaning of coal has the following advantages: 1. Improved heating value. 2. Easier crushing and pulverising 3. Improved boiler performance 4. Less ash to handle. 5. Easier handling. 6. Reduced transportation cost.

Ash Handling Systems

ASH DISPOSAL A large quantity of ash is, produced in steam power plants using coal. Ash produced in about 10 to 20% of the total coal burnt in the furnace. Handling of ash is a problem because ash coming out of the furnace is too hot, it is dusty and irritating to handle and is accompanied by some poisonous gases. It is desirable to quench the ash before handling due to following reasons: 1. Quenching reduces the temperature of ash. 2. It reduces the corrosive action of ash. 3. Ash forms clinkers by fusing in large lumps and by quenching clinkers will disintegrate. 4. Quenching reduces the dust accompanying the ash. Handling of ash includes its removal from the furnace, loading on the conveyors and delivered to the fill from where it can be disposed off.
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Types of Ash: 1. Fly Ash 2. Bottom Ash 3. Mill Reject

Ash Handling Systems

1. Hydraulic system 2. pneumatic system 3. Mechanical system. The commonly used ash discharge equipment is as follows: 1. Rail road cars 2. Motor truck 3. Barge.

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Mechanical ash handling system. Hydraulic System.

Water jet system.

1. In this system, ash from the furnace grate falls into a system of water possessing high velocity and is carried to the sumps. It is generally used in large power plants. 2. Hydraulic system is of two types namely low pressure hydraulic system used for continuous removal of ash and high pressure system which is used for intermittent ash disposal. 3. In this method water at sufficient pressure is used to take away the ash to sump. Where water and ash are separated. The ash is then transferred to the dump site in wagons, rail cars or trucks. 4. The loading of ash may be through a belt conveyor, grab buckets. If there is an ash basement with ash hopper the ash can falls, directly in ash car or conveying system. Mechanical ash handling system. Fig. shows a mechanical ash handling system. In this system ash cooled by water seal falls on the belt conveyor and is carried out continuously to the bunker. The ash is then removed to the dumping site from the ash bunker with the help of trucks. Pneumatic system. 1. In this system ash from the boiler furnace outlet falls into a crusher where larger ash particles are crushed to small sizes. 2. The ash is then carried by a high velocity air or steam to the point of delivery. Air leaving the ash separator is passed through filter to remove dust etc. so that the exhauster handles clean air which will protect the blades of the exhauster. Water Jetting. Water jetting of ash is shown in Fig. In this method a low pressure jet of water coming out of the quenching nozzle is used to cool the ash. The ash falls into a trough and is then removed.
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DRAFT FANS
The draft system is one of the most essential systems of thermal power plant. The purpose of draught is to supply required quantity of air for combustion and remove the burnt products from the system. To move the air through the fuel bed and to produce a flow of hot gas through the boiler, economiser, preheater and chimney. Types of draft (draught) system 1. Natural draft system. 2. Artificial draft system. 1. Forced draft system. 2. Induced draft system. 3. Balanced draft system. 1. Natural draft system. Natural draft is obtained with the help of tall chimney. A chimney is a vertical tubular structure of building material; brick, steel or reinforced concrete. This is designed once at the initial stage only future expansion is not possible. The air circulation is due to pressure difference and also temperature difference. Normally the pressure in the chimney at top and at bottom is different due to its variation of atmospheric air level. Advantage a. It does not require any external power for producing the draught. b. Chimney keeps the flue gases at a high place in the atmosphere which prevents the contamination of atmosphere in a crowded locality and maintains the cleanliness. c. It has long life. Imitations a. It has been seen that draught produced by chimney is affected by the atmospheric conditions. b. It has no flexibility, poor efficiency and tall chimney is required. 2. Artificial draft system. 1. Forced draft system.

In a forced draught system, a blower is installed near the base of the boiler and air is forced to pass through the furnace, flues, economiser, air-pre heater and to the
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stack. This draught system is known as positive draught system or forced draught system because the pressure of air throughout the system is above atmospheric pressure and air is forced to flow through the system. 2. Induced draft system.

In the induced draught system, the blower is located near the base of the chimney instead of near the gate. The air is sucked in the system by reducing the pressure through the system below the atmosphere. The induced fan sucks the burned gases from the furnace and the pressure inside the furnace is reduced below atmosphere and induces the atmospheric air to flow through the furnace. The action of the induced draught is similar to the action of the chimney. Comparison of forced and induced draught system. 1. The size and power required by the induced draft fan is more than the forced draught because the induced draft fan handles more gases and at elevated temperature. 2. Water cooled bearing are required foe induced draught fan to withstand the high temperatures of the flue gases. 3. When the doors are opened for firing in case of induced draught fan, there will be rush of cold air in to the furnace and this reduces the draught through the system and reduces the heat transmission sufficiency of the surfaces. 3. Balanced draft system.

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1. It is always preferable to use a combination of forced draught and induced draft instead of forced or induced draft system alone. 2. If the forced draft is used alone, then the furnace cannot be opened either for firing or inspection because the high pressure air inside the furnace will try to blow out suddenly and there is every chance of blowing out the fire completely and furnace stop. 3. If the induced draft system is used alone, then also furnace cannot be opened either for firing or inspection because the cold air will try to rush in to the furnace as the pressure inside the furnace is below atmospheric pressure. This reduces the effective draft. 4. To overcome both the difficulties mentioned above either using forced draught or induced draught alone, a balanced draft system is used.

Boilers
Boiler is an apparatus to produce steam. Thermal energy released by combustion of fuel is transferred to water, which vaporizes and gets converted into steam at the desired temperature and pressure. The steam produced is used for: 1. Producing mechanical work by expanding it in steam engine or steam turbine. 2. Heating the residential and industrial buildings 3. Performing certain processes in the sugar mills, chemical and textile industries. Boiler is a closed vessel in which water is converted into steam by the application of heat. Usually boilers are coal or oil fired. A boiler should fulfil the following requirements 1. Safety. The boiler should be safe under operating conditions. 2. Accessibility. The various parts of the boiler should be accessible for repair and maintenance. 3. Capacity. The boiler should be capable of supplying steam according to the requirements. 4. Efficiency. To permit efficient operation, the boiler should be able to absorb a maximum 5. Amount of heat produced due to burning of fuel in the furnace. 6. It should be simple in construction and its maintenance cost should be low. 7. Its initial cost should be low. 8. The boiler should have no joints exposed to flames. 9. The boiler should be capable of quick starting and loading. The performance of a boiler may be measured in terms of its evaporative capacity also called power of a boiler. It is defined as the amount of water evaporated or steam produced in kg per hour. It may also be expressed in kg per kg of fuel burnt or kg/hr/m2 of heating surface.

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According to flow of water and hot gases. 1. Water tube. 2. Fire tube. 1. Water tube.

1) Water tube boilers are designed to circulate hot combustion gases around the outside of a large number of water filled tubes. 2) The tubes extend between an upper header, called a steam drum, and one or lower headers or drums. In the older designs, the tubes were either straight or bent into simple shapes. 3) Newer boilers have tubes with complex and diverse bends. Because the pressure is confined inside the tubes, water tube boilers can be fabricated in larger sizes and used for higher-pressure applications. 4) Small water tube boilers, which have one and sometimes two burners, are generally fabricated and supplied as packaged units. 5) Because of their size and weight, large water tube boilers are often fabricated in pieces and assembled in the field. 6) In water tube or water in tube boilers, the conditions are reversed with the water passing through the tubes and the hot gases passing outside the tubes. 7) These boilers can be of a single- or multiple-drum type. They can be built to any steam capacity and pressures, and have higher efficiencies than fire tube boilers.
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The features of water tube boilers are:

1) Forced, induced and balanced draft provisions help to improve combustion efficiency. 2) Less tolerance for water quality calls for water treatment plant. 3) Higher thermal efficiency levels are possible.

2. Fire tube.

1) Fire tube boilers consist of a series of straight tubes that are housed inside a waterfilled outer shell. 2) The tubes are arranged so that hot combustion gases flow through the tubes. As the hot gases flow through the tubes, they heat the water surrounding the tubes. 3) The water is confined by the outer shell of boiler. To avoid the need for a thick outer shell fire tube boilers are used for lower pressure applications. 4) Generally, the heat input capacities for fire tube boilers are limited to 50 tons per hour or less, but in recent years the size of fire tube boilers has increased. 5) Most modern fire tube boilers have cylindrical outer shells with a small round combustion chamber located inside the bottom of the shell. 6) Depending on the construction details, these boilers have tubes configured in one, two, three, or four pass arrangements. 7) Because the design of fire tube boilers is simple, they are easy to construct in a shop and can be shipped fully assembled as a package unit. 8) These boilers contain long steel tubes through which the hot gases from the furnace pass and around which the hot gases from the furnace pass and around which the water circulates. 9) Fire tube boilers typically have a lower initial cost, are more fuel efficient and are easier to operate, but they are limited generally to capacities of 25 tonnes per hour and pressures of 17.5 kg per cm2

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Feed pumps

1) Boiler feed pumps are an important part of any boiler operation. They control the

amount of water fed to the boiler and the manner in which it is fed 2) A boiler feed water pump is a specific type of pump used to pump feed water into a steam boiler. The water may be freshly supplied or returning condensate produced as a result of the condensation of the steam produced by the boiler. 3) These pumps are normally high pressure units that take suction from a condensate return system and can be of the centrifugal pump type or positive displacement type.

Super heater

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A super heater is a device used to convert saturated steam or wet steam into dry steam used for power generation or processes. There are three types of super heaters namely: radiant, convection, and separately fired. A super heater can vary in size from a few tens of feet to several hundred feet (a few meters or some hundred meters). 1) A radiant super heater is placed directly in the combustion chamber. 2) A convection super heater is located in the path of the hot gases. 3) A separately fired super heater, as its name implies, is totally separated from the boiler

Dearearators
A deaerator is a device that is widely used for the removal of air and other dissolved gases from the feed water to steam-generating boilers. In particular, dissolved oxygen in boiler feed waters will cause serious corrosion damage in steam systems by attaching to the walls of metal piping and other metallic equipment and forming oxides (rust). Water also combines with any dissolved carbon dioxide to form carbonic that causes further corrosion. Most deaerators are designed to remove oxygen. 1. Tray-type deaerator 2. Spray- type deaerator
1) Tray-type deaerator

1. The tray-type (also called the cascade-type) includes a vertical domed deaeration section mounted on top of a horizontal cylindrical vessel which serves as the deaerated boiler feedwater storage tank.

Tray-type deaerator

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1. The typical horizontal tray-type deaerator in Figure has a vertical domed dearation section mounted above a horizontal boiler feed water storage vessel. 2. Boiler feed water enters the vertical deaeration section above the perforated trays and flows downward through the small holes. 3. Low-pressure deaeration steam enters below the perforated trays and flows upward through the small holes. 4. The steam strips the dissolved gas from the boiler feed water and exits via the vent at the top of the domed section. 5. The vent line usually includes a valve and just enough steam is allowed to escape with the vented gases to provide a small and visible telltale plume of steam.
2) Spray- type deaerator

1. The spray-type consists only of a horizontal (or vertical) cylindrical vessel which serves as both the dearation section and the boiler feed water storage tank. 2. As shown in Figure, the typical spray-type deaerator is a horizontal vessel which has a preheating section (E) and a deaeration section (F). 3. The two sections are separated by a baffle(C). Low-pressure steam enters the vessel through a sparger in the bottom of the vessel. 4. The boiler feed water is sprayed into section (E) where it is preheated by the rising steam from the sparger. 5. The purpose of the feed water spray nozzle (A) and the preheat section is to heat the boiler feed water to its saturation temperature to facilitate stripping out the dissolved gases in the following deaeration section.
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6. The preheated feed water then flows into the dearation section (F), where it is deaerated by the steam rising from the sparger system. 7. The gases stripped out of the water exit via the vent at the top of the vessel. The deaerated boiler feed water is pumped from the bottom of the vessel to the steam generating boiler system.

Condenser
A closed vessel in which steam is condensed by abstracting the heat and where the pressure is maintained below atmospheric pressure is known as a condenser. The efficiency of the steam plant is considerably increased by the use of a condenser. In large turbine plants, the condensate recovery becomes very important and this is also made possible by the use of condenser. The steam condenser is one of the essential components of all modern steam power plants. Steam condensers are of two types: 1. Surface condenser. 2. Jet condensers 1. Surface condenser.

Steam surface condensers are the most commonly used condensers in modern power plants. The exhaust steam from the turbine flows on the shell side (under vacuum) of the condenser, while the plants circulating water flows in the tube side. The source of the circulating water can be either a closed-loop (i.e. cooling tower, spray pond, etc.) or once through (i.e. from a lake, ocean, or river). The condensed steam from the turbine, called
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condensate, is collected in the bottom of the condenser, which is called a hot well. The condensate is then pumped back to the steam generator to repeat the cycle.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF A SURFACE CONDENSER

The various advantages of a surface condenser are as follows: 1. The condensate can be used as boiler feed water. 2. Cooling water of even poor quality can be used because the cooling water does not come in direct contact with steam. 3. High vacuum (about 73.5 cm of Hg) can be obtained in the surface condenser. This increases the thermal efficiency of the plant. The various disadvantages of' the surface condensers are as follows: 1) The capital cost is more. 2) The maintenance cost and running cost of this condenser is high. 3) It is bulky and requires more space. 2. Jet condensers

In jet condensers the exhaust steam and cooling water come in direct contact with each other. The temperature of cooling water and the condensate is same when leaving the condensers. Elements of the jet condenser are as follows: 1) Nozzles or distributors for the condensing water. 2) Steam inlet. 3) Mixing chambers: They may be (a) parallel flow type (b) counter flow type depending on whether the steam and water move in the same direction before condensation or whether the flows are opposite. 4) Hot well. In jet condensers the condensing water is called injection water.

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Cooling system
1. Once through wet cooling system. (open loop cooling system) 2. Recirculation wet cooling system. (closed loop cooling system) 3. Dry cooling system i. Direct dry cooling system ii. Indirect dry cooling system 1. Once through wet cooling system. (open loop cooling system)

Open cycle (once through) cooling systems may be used for plants sited beside large water bodies such as the sea, lakes or large rivers that have the ability to dissipate the waste heat from the steam cycle. In the open system, water pumped from intakes on one side of the power plant passes through the condensers and is discharged at a point remote from the intake (to prevent recycling of the warm water discharge). 2. Recirculation wet cooling system. (closed loop cooling system)

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1. In closed cycle wet cooling systems, the waste energy that is rejected by the turbine is transferred to the cooling water system via the condenser. 2. The waste heat in the cooling water is then discharged to the atmosphere by the cooling tower. In the cooling tower, heat is removed from the falling water and transferred to the rising air by the evaporative cooling process. 3. Some of the warm water, typically 1 to 1.5% of the cooling water flow, is transferred to the rising air, and this is visible in the plume of water vapour above towers in times of high humidity. 3. Dry cooling system Dry cooling systems are used where there is insufficient water, or where the water is too expensive to be used in an evaporative system. Dry cooling systems are the least used systems as they have a much higher capital cost, higher operating temperatures, and lower efficiency than wet cooling systems. i. Direct dry cooling system

1. In the direct dry system, the turbine exhaust steam is piped directly to the air-cooled, finned tube, condenser. 2. The finned tubes are usually arranged in the form of an 'A' frame or delta over a forced draught fan to reduce the land area. 3. The steam trunk main has a large diameter and is as short as possible to reduce pressure losses, so that the cooling banks are usually as close as possible to the turbine. The direct system is the most commonly used as it has the lowest capital cost, but significantly higher operating costs. 4. The power required to operate the fans of this system is several times that required for wet towers, being typically 4 to 5 MW for a 420 MW unit.

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ii. Indirect dry cooling system

1. Indirect dry cooling systems have a condenser and turbine exhaust system as for wet systems, with the circulating water being passed through finned tubes in a natural draught cooling tower. 2. The water pipe work allows the towers to be sited away from the station. A variation on this type of indirect system is the system that uses a direct contact condenser in place of the traditional tube type condenser. 3. In the spray condenser, the water from the cooling cycle mixes with the boiler water. The maintenance of the water quality to suit all circuits is critical to the successful operation of the system.

Cooling towers
A cooling tower is equipment used to reduce the temperature of a water stream by extracting heat from water and emitting it to the atmosphere. Cooling towers make use of evaporation whereby some of the water is evaporated into a moving air stream and subsequently discharged into the atmosphere. As a result, the remainder of the water is cooled down significantly

1. Evaporative or wet cooling tower. 2. Non-evaporative or dry cooling tower. i. Air-cooled condenser. ii. Air-cooled heat exchanger. (The above two method are similar as dry cooling system)

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1. Evaporative or wet cooling tower.

1. Cooling towers are able to lower the water temperatures more than devices that use only air to reject heat, like the radiator in a car, and are therefore more cost-effective and energy efficient. 2. Wet cooling towers rely on the latent heat of water evaporation to exchange heat between the process and the air passing through the cooling tower. 3. The cooling water may be an integral part of the process or may provide cooling via heat exchangers. 1. Natural draught (draft) cooling tower. 2. Mechanical draught (draft) cooling tower. 1. Natural draught (draft) cooling tower. 1. Concrete natural draught towers have a large concrete shell. The heat exchange 'fill' is in a layer above the cold air inlet at the base of the shell as shown in the tower sectional view. 2. The warm air rises up through the shell by the 'chimney effect', creating the natural draught to provide airflow and operate the tower. 3. These towers therefore do not require fans and have low operating costs. Natural draught towers are only economic in large sizes, which justify the cost of the large concrete shell. Natural draught towers are the most common towers for large generating units in Europe, South Africa and Eastern USA. 4. They are not used in the drier areas, as their performance is better suited to cooler and more humid areas.
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2. Mechanical draught (draft) cooling tower.

Mechanical draft towers have large fans to force or draw air through circulated water. The waterfalls downwards over fill surfaces, which help increase the contact time between the water and the air - this helps maximize heat transfer between the two. Cooling rates of mechanical draft towers depend upon various parameters such as fan diameter and speed of operation, fills for system resistance etc. 1. Forced draft cooling tower. 2. Induced draft cooling tower.

1. Forced draft cooling tower.

The forced draft tower, shown in the picture, has the fan, basin, and piping located within the tower structure. In this model, the fan is located at the base. During operation, the fan forces air at a low velocity horizontally through the packing and then vertically against the downward flow of the water that occurs on either side of the fan. Vibration and noise are minimal since the rotating equipment is built on a solid foundation. Due high flow of cool air the heat from the water is transferred to the air.

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2. Induced draft cooling tower.

The induced draft tower show in the following picture has one or more fans, located at the top of the tower, that draw air upwards against the downward flow of water passing around the wooden decking or packing. Since the airflow is counter to the water flow, the coolest water at the bottom is in contact with the driest air while the warmest water at the top is in contact with the moist air, resulting in increased heat transfer efficiency.

High Pressure Boilers

The demand for the high power output from the boiler and associated plants has increased in the last ten years. It is a common practice to use high pressure and temperature steam in power plants to increase the efficiency of the plant and to reduce the cost of electricity production. The high pressure boiler which is also known as modern boilers used for power generation are for steam capacities 30 to 650 tons/hr and above with a pressure up to 160 bar and maximum steam temperature of about 540C.

Types of high pressure boiler:1. 2. 3. 4.

La Mont boiler Benson boiler Loeffler boiler Supercharged boiler

(Ref Nag, P.K., book)

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