THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Brain

Spinal Cord
Peripheral Nerves

Figure 3.1: Three Functions of the Nervous System

The nervous systems three main functions are to receiver information (input), integrate that information with past experiences (processing), and guide actions (output).

Figure 2.6

FIGURE 2.6 (a) Central and peripheral nervous systems. (b) Spinal nerves, cranial nerves, and the autonomic nervous system.

Two Divisions of the Autonomic System

Sympathetic: Arouses body; emergency system Parasympathetic: Quiets body; most active after an emotional event

Figure 2.8

FIGURE 2.8 Sympathetic and parasympathetic branches of the autonomic nervous system. Both branches control involuntary actions. The sympathetic system generally activates the body. The parasympathetic system generally quiets it. The sympathetic branch relays its messages through clusters of nerve cells outside the spinal cord.

Figure 2.7

FIGURE 2.7 Subparts of the nervous system.

Researching the Brain

Computed Tomographic Scanning (CT): Computer-enhanced X-ray image of the brain or body Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): Uses a strong magnetic field, not an X-ray, to produce an image Functional MRI (fMRI): MRI that also records brain activity Positron Emission Tomography (PET): Computer-generated color image of brain activity, based on glucose consumption in the brain

Cerebral Cortex
Definition: Outer layer of the cerebrum Cerebrum: Two large hemispheres that cover upper part of the brain Corticalization: Increase in size and wrinkling of the cortex Cerebral Hemispheres: Right and left halves of the cortex Corpus Callosum: Bundle of fibers connecting cerebral hemispheres

Figure 2.22

Four Types of Messengers:

1. Neurotransmitters: released by terminal buttons of neurons and detected by receptors in the membrane of another cell a short distance away. Neuromodulators: released in large amounts from the terminal buttons, but diffused throughout part of the brain, affecting many neurons Hormones: produced by endocrine glands, released into extracellular fluid - stimulate cell receptors on membrane surface or deep within nuclei of cells, including neurons Pheromones: chemicals released into the environment through sweat, urine, or secretions of special glands. Most receptors in nose of other animals, but may also be detected in skin or other organs

2.

3.

4.

Frontal Lobe
Location- In the anterior most part of the brain (under the forehead) Function:
Determines our consciousness of our environment. Determines how we initiate and respond to our environment. Daily decisions in our daily lives. Controls emotional responses and expressive language. Assigns meanings to the words we use. Involves word association. Controls memory for habits and motor activities. Emotional control center. Links:
http://www.waiting.com/brainfunction.html http://www.radiology.wisc.edu/Med_Students/neuroradiology/ fmri/sld012.htm

Parietal Lobe
Location- Near the back and top of the head (Near the back and top of the head) Functions:
Contains the location for visual attention. Contains the location for touch perception. Controls goal directed voluntary movements. Controls the manipulation of objects. Integrates different senses to allow for understanding a single concept. If not functioning correctly epileptic behavior can occur. Links: http://www.bcm.tmc.edu/neurol/challeng/pat31/summar y.html http://www.eqi.org.au/newsletter/glossary.html

Illustration of the Occipital Lobe

Link: Traumatic Brain Injury Research http://www.neuroskills.com/index.html?main=tbi/boccipit.shtml

Occipital Lobe
Location- Located in the most posterior (Back of the head). Functions:
Center of the visual perception center. Contains the primary visual cortex. Receives projections from the lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus. Numerous visual functions. Links:
http://www.geocities.com/CapeCanaveral/Launchpad/3937/sight. htm http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~lngbrain/cglidden/occipital.html http://www.headinjuryrehab.org/occipital_lobe.htm

Temporal Lobe
Location- at the side of the head and above the ears Functions:
Auditory sensation and perception Organization and categorization of verbal material Long term memory Personality and sexual behavior Organization of sensory input The brain has two temporal lobes, one on each side of the brain The two are interchangeable, so if one is damaged, the other is usually able to takeover the other's duties Link:
http://www.Geocities.Com/CapeCanaveral/Launchpad/3937/tempor al.Htm

Biological Foundations of Psychology Divisions of the Brain

www.psychol.uni-giessen.De/abteil/differen/ 02abiol_skript_version.ppt

The Brain Stem

(Medulla oblongata, the Midbrain, and the Pons.)
Medulla Oblongata Location:
Last part of the brain before reaching the spinal cord. Continuation of the spinal cord

Function:
Many cranial nerves enter and leave the brain through the Medulla. Centers for cough, gag, swallow, and vomit. Cardiac Center. Respiratory Center.

Links: http://www.waiting.com/brainfuncthree.html http://www.neuroskills.com/index.html?main=tbi/bbstem.s html http://kidshealth.org/kid/body/brain_noSW_p4.html

Illustration of the Medulla Oblongata

http://www.brainexplorer.org/brain_atlas/Brainatlas_Midbrain.shtml

Midbrain
Location: The Midbrain is located in the anterior most continuation of the brain stem that still maintains the tubular structure of the spinal cord (at the top of the brainstem) Functions: The top portion contains important nuclei for visual and auditory systems It is here that these pathways cross so that each half of the brain controls the opposite side of the body Deep within the brain stem is the reticular formation within which lies the basic life support systems The bottom portion contains nuclei for the cranial nerves that control eye movement and the lower portion of the brain The Substania Nigra is found here. It is a large red nucleus involved in movement Links: http://home.epix.net/~tcannon1/physio.html http://www.med.harvard.edu/AANLIB/home.html

 Location: The Pons (meaning "bridge") lies above the medulla, and is so named because many axons cross sides within this region of the hindbrain Functions: Arousal Assists in Controlling Autonomic Functions Relays Sensory Information Between the Cerebrum and Cerebellum Sleep Features of the pons are: a) basis pontis, b) middle cerebellar peduncle, and c) the superior cerebellar peduncle All are linked to the cerebellum which sits on the posterior side of the pons. Damage to any of the structures would result in impaired coordination of movement and/or posture Links: http://psych.athabascau.ca/html/Psych402/Biotutorials/po ns www.bigchalk.com

Pons

Cerebellum
Location: Two peach-size mounds of folded tissue at the base of the brain Overlies the pons Functions: The cerebellum ("little brain") has convolutions similar to those of cerebral cortex, only the folds are much smaller. Like the cerebrum, the cerebellum has an outer cortex, an inner white matter, and deep nuclei below the white matter New skills are learned by trial and error and then coded into the cerebellar memory Coordinates movement of muscles and joints by synthesizing data from the brain stem, the spinal cord, and another brain areas such as cerebral cortex The cerebellum fine tunes our motor activity or movement Links: http://web.sfn.org/content/Publications/BrainBackgrounders/ce rebellum.htm http://thalamus.wustl.edu/course/cerebell.html

Thalamus
Location: The Thalamus is shaped like two footballs; each is located deep in the hemispheres of the forebrain A large mass of gray matter deeply situated in the forebrain. There is one on either side of the midline Functions: It relays to the cerebral cortex information received from diverse brain regions. Sort of a requisite 'last pit stop' for information going to cortex Axons from every sensory system (except olfaction) synapse here as the last relay site before the information reaches the cerebral cortex Information from all sensory receptors except smell is processed in the thalamus before being sent to the cerebral cortex Links: http://psych.athabascau.ca/html/Psych402/Biotutorials/20/thal amus.shtml http://www.pubs.royalsoc.ac.uk/phil_bio/news/thalamus.html

Hypothalamus
Location: The hypothalamus is a midline, structure, shaped like a funnel below the thalamus It connects to the pituitary gland Functions: The hypothalamus has many regulating functions The autonomic nervous system, emotions and behavior, body temperature, hunger, thirst, sleep-waking cycles Controls the release of hormones under its control: growth, prolactin, thyroid, corticotropin, and gonadotropins Regulation of sex hormones, blood pressure, body temperature, water balance, respiration, and food intake, while it also plays a role in regulating complex moods, such as anger, placidity, and fatigue. Links: http://k-2.stanford.edu/InfoPackets/EndoSys.3.0.html
http://www.isat.jmu.edu/users/klevicca/neuroconn/The_Brain/Brai n_Function/Limbic_System/hypothalamus.html

Hippocampus
Location: The Hippocampus is tucked out of sight on the medial side of the temporal lobe Its shape resembles that of a 'seahorse' Functions: Stores and processes memories Helps find memories Affects emotions The hippocampus helps to encode memories, and then helps to find them when you want to remember something Main relay station that determines whether a new memory should go into long-term storage or be deleted after its shortterm usefulness is over Links: http://www.morphonix.com/software/education/science/brain/ game/specimens/hippocampus.html

Illustration of Hippocampus

Basal Ganglia
Location- The basal ganglia surrounds the thalamus and is
enclosed by the cerebral cortex and cerebral white matter. The name includes: caudate, putamen, nucleus accumbens, globus pallidus, substantia nigra, subthalamic nucleus

Functions:
Controls voluntary movements and establishing postures. Controls voluntary limb movement, eye movement, and cognition. Lesions in specific nuclei tend to produce characteristic deficits. One well-known disorder is Parkinson's disease, which is the slow and steady loss of dopaminergic neurons in synapses. Links: http://thalamus.wustl.edu/course/cerebell.html
http://www-hbp.usc.edu/Projects/basal.htm http://www.sci.uidaho.edu/med532/basal.htm

When the Brain Fails to Function Properly

Association Cortex: Combine and process information from the five senses Aphasia: Speech disturbance resulting from brain damage

When the Brain Fails to Function Properly (cont'd)

Brocas Area: Related to language and speech production If damaged, person knows what s/he wants to say but cant say the words Wernickes Area: Related to language comprehension If damaged, person has problems with meanings of words, NOT pronunciation

Subcortex
Hindbrain (Brainstem) Medulla: Connects brain with the spinal cord and controls vital life functions such as heart rate and breathing Pons (Bridge): Acts as a bridge between medulla and other structures

Influences sleep and arousal

Cerebellum: Located at base of brain

Regulates posture, muscle tone, and muscular coordination

Figure 2.25

FIGURE 2.25 This simplified drawing shows the main structures of the human brain and describes some of their most important features.

Forebrain
Structures are part of the Limbic System: System within forebrain closely linked to emotional response Thalamus: Relays sensory information to the cortex; switchboard Hypothalamus: Regulates emotional behaviors and motives (e.g., sex, hunger, rage, hormone release) Amygdala: Associated with fear responses Hippocampus: Associated with storing memories; helps us navigate through space

Figure 2.26

FIGURE 2.26 Parts of the limbic system. Although only one side is shown here, the hippocampus and the amygdala extend out into the temporal lobes at each side of the brain. The limbic system is a sort of primitive core of the brain strongly associated with emotion.

Endocrine System
Glands that pour chemicals (hormones) directly into the bloodstream or lymph system Pituitary Gland: Regulates growth via growth hormone

Too little means person will be smaller than average

Hypopituitary Dwarfs: As adults, perfectly proportioned but tiny

Too much leads to giantism

Excessive body growth

Endocrine System
Acromegaly: Enlargement of arms, hands, feet, and facial bones Too much growth hormone released late in growth period

Andre the Giant

Endocrine System Concluded

Pineal Gland: Regulates body rhythms and sleep cycles. Releases hormone melatonin, which responds to daily variations in light. Thyroid: In neck; regulates metabolism. Hyperthyroidism: Overactive thyroid; person tends to be thin, tense, excitable, nervous. Hypothyroidism: Underactive thyroid; person tends to be inactive, sleepy, slow, obese.

Figure 2.27

The Adrenal Glands

Adrenals: Arouse body, regulate salt balance, adjust body to stress, regulate sexual functioning; located on top of kidneys Releases epinephrine and norepinephrine (also known as adrenaline and noradrenaline)

Epinephrine arouses body; is associated with fear Norepinephrine arouses body; is linked with anger

Figure 3.2: The Neuron

Neurons
The Basic Unit of the Nervous System
Estimated 10-12 billion or higher! Large number of neurons= more complex nervous system. One Neuron can connect to as many as 75 more neurons. Pyramidal neuron located in Hippocampus. Three Types of Neurons: Afferent or Sensory- run from sense organs to central nervous system. Efferent or motor- run from the central nervous system to the muscles. Interneurons or multipolarFound within the brain and are multiply connected to other neurons.

Parts of the Neuron

Dendrites- All of the fibrous extensions of the cell body except the axon. They give the Neuron its characteristic shape. Cell Body- The part of the neuron containing the nucleus, cell membrane and contributing organelles ( endoplasmic reticular, Golgi apparatus, and mitochondria. Axon- Conducts information from the neuron cell body to the synaptic terminals to trigger synaptic transmission. Axons also transport chemical substances from the cell body to the synaptic terminals. Myelin- A fatty sheath of insulation that covers larger axons. Not all neurons have myelin. Synapse- Points of functional contact between axon terminals and other cells.
Chemical Synapse Electrical Synapse

Neural Communication
A neurons cell membrane is a semipermeable barrier molecules that pass through carry either a positive or negative charge Polarized cell membrane when the cell pumps positively charged molecules out through its membrane, making the inside more negative than the outside Some positively charged molecules are able to pass through openings called channels, located along axons and dendrites as act as gates

Action Potential
A wave of electrochemical changes traveling down an axon when a neuron becomes depolarized
Changes in the environment around the cell can depolarize part of its membrane, causing the gates to open and allowing positively charged molecules to rush in The sequence continues, creating a wave of changes in electrochemical potential that spreads down the axon

Threshold
the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

Figure 3.3: The Beginning of an Action Potential

Myelin
A fatty substance that wraps around some axons and increases the speed of action potentials

Figure 3.5: Communication Between Neurons

Axon
Function: Carries signals away from the cell body. Type of Signal Carried: The action potential, an all-ornothing electrochemical signal that shoots down the axon to vesicles at the tip of the axon, releasing neurotransmitters.

Dendrite
Function: Detects and carries signals to the cell body. Type of Signal Carried: The postsynaptic potential, which is an electrochemical signal moving toward the cell body.

Synapse
Function: Provides an area for the transfer of signals between neurons, usually between the axon of one cell and the dendrite of another. Type of Signal Carried: Chemicals that cross the synapse and reach receptors on another cell.

Neurotransmitter
Function: A chemical released by one cell that binds to the receptors on another cell. Type of Signal Carried: A chemical message telling the next cell to fire or not to fire its own action potential.

Receptor
Function: Proteins on the cell membrane that receive chemical signals. Type of Signal Carried: Recognizes certain neurotransmitters, thus allowing it to begin a postsynaptic potential in the dendrite.

Accidents
Physical injury of your neurons

Drugs and alcohol bind important receptors on neurons

Repeated binding causes the neuron to die

Drugs = neuron death

Alcohol damages dendrites - can repair after abstinence

Alcohol blocks receptors and slows down transmission

What do you think can change neurons and their connections?

Accidents Drugs Alcohol Disease

The study of physiology has made possible for better understanding of human behavior and function, as well as, the function and behavior of other species we share our world with.