Corrosion 1

27
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CORROSION
The Process of constant eating up of the metals from their

surface by the action of surrounding is known as corrosion of
metals. Only noble metals are not corroded from the
surrounding. Example of corrosion:
(i) Rusting of Iron.
(ii) Appearance of Green film of copper plate.
(iii) Corrosion of boiler plates
Types of Corrosion: There are two types of corrosion:

(i) Atmospheric Corrosion
(ii) Immersed Corrosion
(i) Atmospheric Corrosion: This type of corrosion occurs

when metal are come in contact with air and take place due
to active gases and moisture.
The active gases (O2, Co2, H2S, and SO2) react with metal
and form metal salts. Iron reacts with oxygen and water forming
hydrated oxide. In the presence of Co2, A green layer of film will
be formed on copper. Atmospheric corrosion also happens due
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to moisture. It reacts with metal in the presence of oxygen and

Co2. The suspended particle is increased the rate of corrosion.
Dust, carbon are the suspended particle.
Immersed Corrosion: When metal are present in water or other

liquid for sometime. Then it reacts and corroded. The rate of
corrosion depends on:
(i) Nature and concentration of cation and anion.
(ii) Concentration of dissolved oxygen.
(iii) Temperature
(iv) Nature of corrosion product
Theory of Corrosion: Corrosion depends on following two
theories:
(i) Direct Chemical Action Theory: Corrosion is only
happened due to presence of acid particle like carbonic
acid (CO3). Rusting of Iron is due to moisture, oxygen and
carbon-dioxide. The iron converts in ferrous bicarbonate
which is further oxidized to basic ferric carbonate.
Fe + O + CO2 + H2O Fe +(HCO3)2
2Fe (HCO3)2 + H2O + O
2Fe(OH) CO3 +2Co2 +2H2O
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2Fe (OH) Co3 + H2 2Fe (OH)3 + 2CO2
Iron first reacted with oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water

and forms ferrous bicarbonate. It converts in Ferric carbonate.
After reaction with water, it becomes rust.
(ii) Electro Chemical Theory: This is due to uneven surface

of reactive metals like Iron behaves in small cell, In which
O2, CO2, H2O are electrolytes.
At anode : Fe Fe+2 + 2e-
At Cathode : H2CO3 HCO-3 + H+
H2O OH- + H+
The overall reaction by electrolytic method:
4Fe+2 + O2 + 4H2O 2Fe2O3 + 8H+
Fe2O3 + XH2O Fe2O3 X H2O
(Rust)
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PROTECTION OF METAL: The process of preventing the

metallic surfaces from being corroded by their surrounding is
known as protection of metals.
1. Alloy: Alloys resist corrosion better than metals. The
corrosion takes place only on the surface of metal. The metal
is alloyed at the surface only to form protective film. Steel is
an example of alloy.
2. Metallic Coating: The life of metal can be improved by

applying coating of some corrosion resistance metals on their
surface. The metallic coating is generally done by Zn, Ni,
Tin, Copper, Aluminium and Chromium. These coatings act
as a barriers and stop the effect of gases. But before apply
metallic coating, we should do some pretreatment.
Pretreatment: The surface of metal should be cleaned before

applying coating. It should be free from dust .There is no film
of compound should exist on surface.
(i) Hot alkali solution is used to remove greasy spots.
(ii) Dilute acid (HCl, H2So4) are used to remove the films of
metal salts. These are also removed by rubbing.
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HOT Dipping: The metal to be coated is passed through a bath

of molten coating metal and thickness of the coating metal is
adjusted by adding out the excess of coating metal with roller.
These are non uniform. There are two methods:
1. Galvanising: It is the process of coating of Iron with a thin
coat of zinc.
2. Tinning: it is coating of tin over the iron.
(a) Spraying: It is done on bridges, tanks, ships, and tower.
(b) Clading: Duralium claded with aluminium produces a
material which combines the strength of alloys copper
cladded steel is used in electrical industry. Alclad steel is
used in aircraft industry.
Electroplating: The rate of dissolution at the anode and rate of

deposition at the cathode are equal. It is a process of depositing
a noble metal on another metal by electrolytic method.
CEMENTATION: The metal is surrounded from all sides by

the powerdered metal to be coated and packed in a box. It is
heated for a long time to a temp below the point of fusion. The
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superior metal diffuses in the article and form alloy and prevent
corrosion. The cementation of Zn with Iron is called
SHERADIZING and with aluminium is called colorizing.
CATHODIC PROTECTION: This method is to force the

metal to be protected to behave like cathode.
i. Anode Sacrificial Protection: In this method, the
metallic plate is connected by wire to more anodic
metal. Therefore all corrosion is concentrated on more
active metal. Due to this, more active metal gets
corroded slowly, while original metal remains safe. Due
to this, it is called sacrificial protection. Metals
employed as sacrificial anode are magnesium, zinc,
Aluminium and their alloy. In cathodic protection, an anode of

more strongly reducing metals is sacrificed to maintain the
object.
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ii. Impressed Cathodic Protection: In this method, an

impressed current is applied in opposite direction to
nutrilize the corrosion current and convert the corroding
metal from anode to cathode. A sufficient D.C. current
is applied to an insoluble anode and dip in the soil.
Then connected to the metallic structure
be protected. In this electrons are supplied from an external

cell so that object itself becomes cathodic and is not oxidized.
It is useful for large structures for long terms operation.
FUEL AND COMBUSTION
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Fuel is a combustible substance containing carbon which

on burning in air produces large amount of heat that can be used
economically for domestic and industrial purpose..
Classification of Fuels: There are three types of Fuels:

i. Solid Fuels
ii. Liquid Fuels
iii. Gaseous Fuels
Primary Coal: Wood, Peat, Lignite, Bituminous, Anthracite etc.

Natural Gas, crude Petroleum, Gasoline.
Artificial Coal: Water gas, Producer gas, coal gas, oil gas,
biogas.
Analysis of coal: In coal, we determine ash, moisture, volatile

matter and fixed carbon present in coal.
(a) Determination of Moisture: Weight accurately some
quantity of coal in Crucible lid. . Place crucible inside an
electric hot air oven at temp. 1050C. It remains for one hour.
Then taken out and cooled;
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Weight of the empty crucible = m1g.

Weight of crucible + Coal sample = m2g
Weight of crucible + anhydrous coal left as residue = m3g
Weight of coal sample = (m2-m1) g
Loss in weight = (m2-m3) g
% of moisture = m2-m3 / m2-m1 X 100
(b)Similarly determine volatile matter

% volatile = Weight of volatile matter removed
Weight of moisture free coal
ASH: Weight of ash formed X 100

Weight of dry coal
(c) Percentage of Fixed Carbon: The percentage of carbon
alone in the sample of coal is called percentage of carbon. To
get carbon, the sum of percentage of moisture, volatile
matter, ash is subtracted from 100. This gives percentage of
carbon.
IMPORTANCE:
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i. Moisture tells us about amount of water, lesser the

moisture, better the quality of coal. It increases the
transport charge.
(ii) Ash: Due to ash
i. Calorific value is decreased.
ii. The removal and disposal of ash is problem.
Volatile matter: A large percentage of volatile matter indicates

that a large proportional of fuel is changes into gas. It produces
smoke.
ULTIMATE Analysis: It is perfect method to determine

carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur, oxygen.
(a) Determination of carbon and hydrogen: Weight of coal
sample taken = m gm. It consist a known quantity of coal is
burnt and passes through two bulbs. In which one contain
CaCl2 and other containing KOH. Due to increase in the wt
of CaCl2 represent water, while KOH represent CO2.
Wt. of coal sample = m gm
Wt. of KOH sample = a gm
Wt of CaCl2 bulb = b gm
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Amount of carbon = 12/44 X a gm,

Percentage of carbon = 12a/44m X 100
Amount of hydrogen = 2/18b gm
% of Hydrogen = 2/18 X b/m X 100
(b) Determination of % of Nitrogen: A powdered coal is

treated with conc. H2So4 in the presence of K2SO4. It is
heated in KJeldahl15 flask till the solution becomes clear. The
nitrogen converted into (NH4)2 So4. The ammonia produced
is absorbed in a known quantity of standard H2So4. The
amount of acid neutralized by ammonia.
Let weight of coal taken = m gm.
Weight of NH3 calculated = a gm
Weight of nitrogen = 14a/17 gm
%of nitrogen = 14a/17 X 100
(c) % of Sulphur: A known quantity of powdered coal is heated

nitric acid. The sulphur becomes sulphuric acid. It reacts with
BaSo4.
Wt of coal taken = m gm
Wt of BaSo4 = a gm
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Amount of sulphur in BaSo4 = 32a/233

% of sulphur = 32a/233m X 100
(d) Determination % of oxygen: We add percentage of carbon,

hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur and sum is subtracted from 100.
IMPORTANCE: It helps in classify of coal. The combination

of ‘CHONS’.
1. Carbon: Greater the %of carbon, greater calorific value.

2. Hydrogen: Lesser the % of H, Better the quality of coal.
3. Oxygen: High oxygen coals are characterized by high
moisture, low calorific value and absence of cooking powder.
Greater percentage of oxygen in not suitable.
4. Sulphur: It is also undesirable. It pollutes the atmosphere.
UNIT S of Heat: C.G.S. Calorie is amount of heat required to

raise the temp. of one gram of water through one degree.
S.I. Unit: S.I. unit of heat is joule.
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Calorific value of fuel: It is totally quantity of heat produced by

complete combustion of a unit mass of fuel in air when products
of combustion are cooled down to a definite temp.
Higher calorific value: It is defined as total amount of heat

produced when one unit mass of the fuel has been burnt
completely and products of combustion are called down to room
temp.
Net or Lower calorific value: It is difference between gross

calorific value and latent heat of water vapour.
Theoretical value:
Hydrogen – 34500
Carbon – 8000
Sulphur – 2240
H.C.V. = 1/100 [8080C + 34500 (H- 0/8) + 22405] Kcal/k
L.C.V = H.C.V – 9/100 H x 587 Kcal/Ks
Solid Fuels:
1. Wood: It is obtained form forest. It consist mainly [C1H1O].
It also contains some resins, waxes, inorganic matters.
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Composition: Carton = 50%; Oxygen = 73%, Hydrogen = 6%,

Ashes = 0.5 to 15%, Nitrogen = 1.2%
It burns with a long luminous and smoky flame and very
little around of ash. It calorific values 3500-4400 Kcal/Kg.
2. Peat: When wood is changing into coal, Peat is first stage its
colour brown to black.
Composition: Carbon – 56%, Nitrogen = 15%, Oxygen = 35%,

Hydro = 5%, Sulphur = 0.5%.
Calorific value of Peat is 4500-5400 Kcal/Kg. It is
unsuitable for industry.
3. Lignite: It contains two parts (I) Brown Coal (ii) Black coal.
In black sample, carbon content is greater than brown.
Composition: Carbon = 60-70%; Sulphur – 1.5%, Oxygen =

15.1g Nitrogen = 1.5%, Hydrogen = 5%, Ash = 4%
Calorific value of Lignite is 5500-7000K. It is household
fuel and for steam raisins in boiler.
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4. Bitumines coal (ii) Anthracite coal. There are also artificial

solid fuels.
(i) Charcoal (ii) Coke
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GASEOUS FUEL:
(i) Natural gas: It is important gaseous fuel which is
obtained from underground. Crude oil. A mixture of
gaseous and volatile constituent of petroleum is called
natural gas. It is mainly contained methane, ethane other
hydrocarbon. It is also called marsh gas. LPG is a mixture
of propane and butane.
Properties:
1. It is a mixture of methane (70-90%), ethane, propane, butane
and other like Co2, H2S1N2 and gases.
2. It is excellent gaseous fuel and burn with blue flame.
3. Its calorific value is 1200 Kcal. Per cubic meter.
Use:
1. It can be sued for generation of electricity by using fuel.
2. It is used for manufacturing black carbon.
WATER GAS: It is a mixture of carbon monoxide and

hydrogen. It gives blue flame and mixture of C and H2.
C+2H2O CO+ H2O-29000cal
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This reaction is exothermic: At temp. 10000C, steam reacts. C

to form CO2.
2H2O+C 2H2O+ CO2-19000Cal.
When temp. Below 10000C, the steam blast is stopped. An air

blast is passed through the red hot bed of coke for some time to
raise the temp. Upto 14000C.
Properties:
1. The composition of water gas-CO= 44%, H2= 48%, CO2 =
3%. N = 45%, CH4 = 0.5%.
2. It burns with non luminous flame.
3. It has high calorific value of 3200 Kcal/Cubic meter.
4. It is mixed with hydrocarbon is called carbureted water gas
which is good used for lighting.
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5. It is good heating fuel.
Use:
(i) It is used in manufacture of CH3OH. Coke.
(ii) It is used for welding
(iii) It is used for obtaining H2 on commercial scale. It is used
for lighting and heating fuel.
BIO GAS: It is a mixture of methane, carbon dioxide,

hydrogen, hydrogen sulphide. Biogas contains 65% of methane
gas. It is obtained by anaerobic fermentation of animal waste.
Like animal dung in the presence of water and bacteria. Animal
dung and plant wastes contain a lot of carbon compounds like
carbohydrates, proteins and fats.
Manufacture: The raw material is a mixture of cattle dung and

water. Fixed dome type consists of a well shaped, under ground.
Its domes act as gas holder for bio gas. There is gas outlet “S” at
the top on value.
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There is an inlet chamber in left side and outlet chamber in

right side. The inlet chamber is connected to a mixing tank. M
while outlet chamber is connected to overflow chamber.
Properties:
1. CH4 = 65%, H2 = 7.4%, CO2 = 35%, N2 = 2.6%.
2. It is obtained by anaerobic fermentation.
3. The formation value is more than dry dung.
4. The cattle dung and water are mixed in equal proportional in
mixing tank to prepare slurry. The dome being left free from
the collection of bio gas. It takes 50 to 60 day for new gas
plant to become.
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Operative: Due to formation, bacteria in the presence of water,

bio gas become. Due to large quantity of bio gas, it exerts
pressure in diagster tank and slurry comes out from overflow
tank. The bio gas which is collected in the dome of the diagster
is taken out through outlet.
Use:
i. Biogas is used for cooking food.
ii. It burns with smoke and hence does not produce air
pollution.
iii. It has high calorific value.
iv. It is very clean and convenient to use.
v. It is cheaper in use.
vi. It is used for running engine.
vii. It is used for street lighting.
PRODUCER’S GAS: It is a mixture of carbon mono-oxide

nitrogen. It calorific value is low.
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Manufactures: It is prepared due to red hot coke. The furnace

in which gas is produced called produced. There is a
arrangement for blowing air inside and extra arrangement for
ash.
C+ O2 CO2 + 97 Kcal
CO2 + C 2CO-39K Cal
COMPOSITION: CO = 30%, N2 = 50%
H2 = 8-12%
Properties: It is poisonous gas, insoluble in water, its calorific

value of gas is 1200 Kcal/Cubic meter
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.
Use:
i. It is used as heating fuel for furnace.
ii. It is used to provide reducing atmosphere.
iii. It is used for heating iron retorts.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD FUEL:
1. It should high calorific isalue.
2. It should low moisture content.
3. It should be readily available in bulk at lowest.
4. It should posses moderate ignitation temp.
5. Its cost of storage in bulk should be low.
6. It should not undergo spontaneous combustion.
7. Its combustion easily controllable.
8. Its product of combustion should not harmful.
9. It should be easily transport.
Advantages of Gaseous fuel:
(i) The gaseous fuels do not produce any ash.
(ii) The nature of flame can be regulated to oxidizing.
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(iii) They can be lighted easily.

(iv) They are conveyed to the place of need.
(v) They are economical than solid and liquid.
(vi) They burn with more efficiency and high flame is
obtained.
LUBRICANTS
A lubricant is a substance which reduces for of friction

between two relatively moving surface sin contacts with each
other.
Effects: It reduces the force of friction. The lubricants form a

thin film between the suding surfaces and keep them apart. It
reduces the force of friction between the sliding surfaces.
2. It reduces the expansion of metal by local frictional heal.
3. It minimizes the power loss due to friction.
4. It absorbs shock between bearing and other engine parts.
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5. It acts as seal.
6. It acts as coolant, which cool the engine. There are three types
of lubrication.
7. Hydrodynamic lubricants: In these types of lubrication. The
moving surfaces are separated by filter of thicker than 5000A0.
The moving parts never touch other under fluid lubrication. If
the rate of relative motion between two moving surfaces is
moderate, there is sufficient amount of supply of lubricant.
Minerals oil are used for this purpose.
2. Boundary lubrication: When an oil film is subjected to a

high load, the speed of moving parts gets reduced. The film
decreases in thickness to a point where a fluid lubricant breaks
down. The fiction force in presence of a boundary film is
usually about of forty times than under fluid lubrication. Films
of ferrous oxide Feo, MgAl2O4 are used. Graphite is largely used
a solid lubricant. It provides a surface layer on metals and the
friction between metal surfaces is minimized.
Extreme Pressure Lubricant: These are those lubricants is

which both temp. and pressure are extremely high when surface
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are sliding under conditions of boundary lubrication, some

metals function still pressure. Extreme Pressure lubrication is
that substance which reacts within metal surfaces at high tem.
These consist of minerals oil with the addition of compounds
containing sulphur or chlorine or phosphorus atom under some
condition, graphite, MOS2 (holybraclisulphide and born nitride
are used.
Types:
i. Solid lubricant
ii. Semi solid
iii. Liquid.
Solid lubricants: Graphite, zincoxide, molybdenum disulphide

are used solid lubricant.
a) Graphite: It is soapy to touch and elastics. It is not affected
by acid, alkalies or heat. It does not catch fire easily when it
is mixed with watch it is called aqua dog and mixed with oil,
called oil dag.
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Zinc oxide is also an effective lubricant. It is mixed with oil

and lubrication for those machines which used for food
processing.
Semi solid lubricants: These are used where does not stick to
sliding surface. They are used for bearing working under high
temperature. The examples of senisolid are greerse, Vaseline,
waxes.
LIQUID:
(i) Vegetable oil
(ii) Animal Oil
(iii) Mineral oil
(iv) Synthetic oil
(iv) Blended oil
SELECTION of lubricants: The properties of a properly

selected lubricant should not change under service condition:
1. Lubricants for cutting tools: Cutting fluid are lubricants
used in machining, cutting, turning and grinding of metals.
The main functions of cutting fluids are (a) the cool the metal
work piece (c) To reduce power consumption.
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2. Lubricants for Gears: They should posses’ good oiliness,

high resistance to oxidation and high load carrying capacity.
3. Lubricants for delicate instruments: Delicate instruments
like watches, clocks and sewing machine are not exposed to
high temp. There For vegetable oil, palm oil are used.
4. Lubricants for steam engine: Lubrication of the steam
engine cylinders is done by ejection of lubrication by oil drop
wise. The oil posses high viscosity. It should not hydrolyze in
presence of steam at high temp.
5. Lubricant for steam turbines: These are compounded oil
containing additives which provide high oxidation stability,
corrosion resistance.
1. Viscosity: It is defined as opposition offered by liquid. It is

also defined as the tangential force in newton required to move
1m2 of liquid over another surface with velocity 1cm./s. It
measures internal friction between moving parts sliding each
other. A good lubricant body at high temp. The apparatus used
for measurement viscosity is called viscometer.
2. Viscosity index: This properly changes with temp. The
rate of change of viscosity of oil with temp is known as
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viscosity index. A good lubricant should have www.visces

index, therefore change of viscosity with temp. is very small. At
low temp viscosity will increase in such that the oil well fails to
move into the machine parts.
3. FLASH POINT: It is defined as the lowest temp. at which
it gives sufficient amount of vapours as to form an inflammable
mixture with air and vapour. It gives a flash upon application of
flame. Fire point of a liquid is the lowest temp. to which the oil
must be heated to burn continuously when a test flame is applied
to it. The fire point of a lubricant is higher than flash point.
4. Pour point and cloud point: It is the temp. below which
oil can not be used as a lubricant. A good lubricant should have
low pour point. The can be used for a longer span of temp. the
cloud point is that temp. at which the cloudiness appears due to
separation of wax from the oil.
5. Neutralization value: It is an indication of acidic an basic
impurities in the lubricant. It is also defined as milligrams of
kilo of oil.
Cause:
(I) Product of oxidation of oil.
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(ii) Contamination of oil by SO2 from combustion of fuel.

(iii) Additive used in improving the properties of oil. A good
lubricant should have low and value because it the acid value a
high, the acid will correct the machine parts.
Emulsification: It is property of absorbing dust particle and

other impurities of oil. Emulsion act as abrasive and responsible
for wear and tear of and. It should not remain for a ling time and
should break quickly. It is useful when lubricating oil is used in
the presence of water in the machinery. Thick oil has high steam
emulsion should be low viscous emulsion oil. Steam emulsion
should be low.

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27

unique institutes.org Technical

The Process of constant eating up of the metals from their

Types of Corrosion: There are two types of corrosion:

(i) Atmospheric Corrosion: This type of corrosion occurs

unique institutes.org Technical

to moisture. It reacts with metal in the presence of oxygen and

Immersed Corrosion: When metal are present in water or other

unique institutes.org Technical

2Fe (OH) Co3 + H2 2Fe (OH)3 + 2CO2

Iron first reacted with oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water

(ii) Electro Chemical Theory: This is due to uneven surface

unique institutes.org Technical

PROTECTION OF METAL: The process of preventing the

2. Metallic Coating: The life of metal can be improved by

Pretreatment: The surface of metal should be cleaned before

unique institutes.org Technical

HOT Dipping: The metal to be coated is passed through a bath

Electroplating: The rate of dissolution at the anode and rate of

CEMENTATION: The metal is surrounded from all sides by

unique institutes.org Technical

CATHODIC PROTECTION: This method is to force the

Aluminium and their alloy. In cathodic protection, an anode of

unique institutes.org Technical

ii. Impressed Cathodic Protection: In this method, an

be protected. In this electrons are supplied from an external

FUEL AND COMBUSTION

unique institutes.org Technical

Fuel is a combustible substance containing carbon which

Classification of Fuels: There are three types of Fuels:

Primary Coal: Wood, Peat, Lignite, Bituminous, Anthracite etc.

Analysis of coal: In coal, we determine ash, moisture, volatile

unique institutes.org Technical

Weight of the empty crucible = m1g.

(b)Similarly determine volatile matter

ASH: Weight of ash formed X 100

unique institutes.org Technical

i. Moisture tells us about amount of water, lesser the

Volatile matter: A large percentage of volatile matter indicates

ULTIMATE Analysis: It is perfect method to determine

unique institutes.org Technical

Amount of carbon = 12/44 X a gm,

(b) Determination of % of Nitrogen: A powdered coal is

(c) % of Sulphur: A known quantity of powdered coal is heated

unique institutes.org Technical

Amount of sulphur in BaSo4 = 32a/233

(d) Determination % of oxygen: We add percentage of carbon,

IMPORTANCE: It helps in classify of coal. The combination

1. Carbon: Greater the %of carbon, greater calorific value.

UNIT S of Heat: C.G.S. Calorie is amount of heat required to

S.I. Unit: S.I. unit of heat is joule.

unique institutes.org Technical

Calorific value of fuel: It is totally quantity of heat produced by

Higher calorific value: It is defined as total amount of heat

Net or Lower calorific value: It is difference between gross

unique institutes.org Technical

Composition: Carton = 50%; Oxygen = 73%, Hydrogen = 6%,

Composition: Carbon – 56%, Nitrogen = 15%, Oxygen = 35%,

Composition: Carbon = 60-70%; Sulphur – 1.5%, Oxygen =

unique institutes.org Technical

4. Bitumines coal (ii) Anthracite coal. There are also artificial

unique institutes.org Technical

WATER GAS: It is a mixture of carbon monoxide and

unique institutes.org Technical