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Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach

Seventh Edition in SI Units
Yunus A. Cengel, Michael A. Boles McGraw-Hill, 2011

Chapter 9 GAS POWER CYCLES

Mehmet Kanoglu
University of Gaziantep
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Objectives
Evaluate the performance of gas power cycles for which the working fluid remains a gas throughout the entire cycle. Develop simplifying assumptions applicable to gas power cycles. Review the operation of reciprocating engines. Analyze both closed and open gas power cycles. Solve problems based on the Otto, Diesel, Stirling, and Ericsson cycles. Solve problems based on the Brayton cycle; the Brayton cycle with regeneration; and the Brayton cycle with intercooling, reheating, and regeneration. Analyze jet-propulsion cycles. Identify simplifying assumptions for second-law analysis of gas power cycles. Perform second-law analysis of gas power cycles.
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AN OVERVIEW OF RECIPROCATING ENGINES

Basic Components of IC Engines
Inlet valve (air) Exhaust valve (gas)

Cylinder, piston, inlet valve and exhaust valve. Piston moves from the top dead center (TDC) to the bottom dead center (BDC). Clearance volume, Vc is a spacing between the top of the piston and the valves heads when the piston is at the end of the delivery stroke. Swept volume or displacement volume, Vs is the volume between TDC and BDC.

TDC

bore

piston BDC

AN OVERVIEW OF RECIPROCATING ENGINES Engine Classification

Reciprocating internal combustion (IC) engines are classified into two general categories, depending on how the combustion process in the cylinder is initiated, i.e.: a) Spark-ignition (SI) engines; b) Compression-ignition (CI) engines.

Stroke (Vswept)

Vc

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AN OVERVIEW OF RECIPROCATING ENGINES

Description of SI Engines Run on liquid fuel such as gasoline or petrol, which is mixed with air. The air-fuel mixture enters the cylinder and is compressed to a highest pressure and temperature. A spark from a spark-plug ignites the combustible air-fuel mixture. It burns and combustion gases are produced. The high pressure of the gases pushes the piston downwards, producing a power stroke of the piston. The crankshaft transforms the reciprocating motion into rotational motion (rpm), which is carried by gears and drive shaft systems to the wheels, causing the vehicle to move.

AN OVERVIEW OF RECIPROCATING ENGINES

Description of CI Engines Run on diesel liquid fuel. The fresh atmospheric air enters the cylinder in which it is compressed to about 1/22 of its original volume, causing its temperature to raise to about 540C or higher. Diesel fuel is then injected into the compressed air. The heat of compression of the air causes the diesel to burn. Thus producing high temperature combustion gases. The combustion gases pushes the piston downward during the power stroke of the piston. As in the SI engines, the reciprocating motion is transformed into rotational motion.

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AN OVERVIEW OF RECIPROCATING ENGINES

IN BOTH ENGINES, THE COMBUSTION GASES ARE EVENTUALLY EXHAUSTED OUT OF THE CYLINDER SO THAT FRESH-AIR MIXTURE CAN BE INDUCED INTO THE CYLINDER TO CONTINUE THE THERMODYNAMICS CYCLES therefore working on an open cycle is the characteristics of all internal combustion engines since the working fluid does not undergo a complete thermodynamic cycle.

AN OVERVIEW OF RECIPROCATING ENGINES

Classification by Cycles Reciprocating internal combustion engines operate either on two-stroke or fourstroke cycle. Four-stroke Cycle Most automotive engines operate on a 4-stroke cycle. Every fourth piston stroke is the power stroke. The crankshaft makes two revolutions to complete the cycle. Four-stroke Cycle The sequence of events in this cycle is as follows: Intake stroke: The intake valve opened. The piston moving downward, allowing the air fuel mixture to enter the cylinder. Compression stroke: The intake valve closed. The piston is moving upward, compressing the mixture.

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AN OVERVIEW OF RECIPROCATING ENGINES

Classification by Cycles Four-stroke Cycle Power stroke: The ignition system delivers a spark to the spark plug to ignite the compressed mixture. As the mixture burns, it creates high pressure that pushes the piston down. Exhaust stroke: The exhaust valve opened. The piston moves upward as the burned gases escape from the cylinder. The ignition occurs before the compression process end. Psys > Patm during the exhaust stroke. Psys < Patm during the intake stroke.

AN OVERVIEW OF RECIPROCATING ENGINES Classification by Cycles 4-stroke cycle

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Classification by Cycles 4-stroke cycle

The cylinders are arranged in 2 banks set at an angle to one another

The cylinders are arranged in a line in a single bank The cylinders are arranged in 2 banks on opposite sides of the engine

Performance Criteria of Reciprocating Engines Compression Ratio, rv

Exhaust valve (gas) Inlet valve (air)

Compression ratio =

Maximum volume Minimum volume

Vc
TDC

ie. rv =

piston

stroke BDC

Vc + Vs Vc

bore

Note: compression ratio is volume ratio and it is not a pressure ratio.

(Vs)

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Performance Criteria of Reciprocating Engines - Mean Effective Pressure, MEP

Mean effective pressure (MEP) is a conceptual/fictitious pressure. If it acted on the piston during the entire power stroke, would produce the same amount of net work as that produced during the actual cycle. For the same engines size, MEP can be used as a criteria or parameter to compare the engines performance. The engine with a larger value of MEP delivers more net work per cycle and thus performs better.

Mean effective pressure

BASIC CONSIDERATIONS IN THE ANALYSIS OF POWER CYCLES Thermal efficiency of

Most power-producing devices operate on cycles. Ideal cycle: A cycle that resembles the actual cycle closely but is made up totally of internally reversible processes. Reversible cycles such as Carnot cycle have the highest thermal efficiency of all heat engines operating between the same temperature levels. Unlike ideal cycles, they are totally reversible, and unsuitable as a realistic model. Modeling is a powerful engineering tool that provides great insight and simplicity at the expense of some loss in accuracy. heat engines:

The analysis of many complex processes can be reduced to a manageable level by utilizing some idealizations. 14

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The ideal cycles are internally reversible, but, unlike the Carnot cycle, they are not necessarily externally reversible. Therefore, the thermal efficiency of an ideal cycle, in general, is less than that of a totally reversible cycle operating between the same temperature limits. However, it is still considerably higher than the thermal efficiency of an actual cycle because of the idealizations utilized.

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On a T-s diagram, the ratio of the area enclosed by the cyclic curve to the area under the heat-addition process curve represents the thermal efficiency of the cycle. Any modification that increases the ratio of these two areas will also increase the thermal efficiency of the cycle.

The idealizations and simplifications in the analysis of power cycles: 1. The cycle does not involve any friction. Therefore, the working fluid does not experience any pressure drop as it flows in pipes or devices such as heat exchangers. 2. All expansion and compression processes take place in a quasi-equilibrium manner. 3. The pipes connecting the various components of a system are well insulated, and heat transfer through them is negligible.

Care should be exercised in the interpretation of the results from ideal cycles.

On both P-v and T-s diagrams, the area enclosed by the process curve represents the net work of the cycle.
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THE CARNOT CYCLE AND ITS VALUE IN ENGINEERING

The Carnot cycle is composed of four totally reversible processes: isothermal heat addition, isentropic expansion, isothermal heat rejection, and isentropic compression. For both ideal and actual cycles: Thermal efficiency increases with an increase in the average temperature at which heat is supplied to the system or with a decrease in the average temperature at which heat is rejected from the system.

A steady-flow Carnot engine.

P-v and T-s diagrams of a Carnot cycle. 17

AIR-STANDARD ASSUMPTIONS
Air-standard assumptions: 1. The working fluid is air, which continuously circulates in a closed loop and always behaves as an ideal gas. 2. All the processes that make up the cycle are internally reversible. 3. The combustion process is replaced by a heat-addition process from an external source. 4. The exhaust process is replaced by a heat-rejection process that restores the working fluid to its initial state.

The combustion process is replaced by a heat-addition process in ideal cycles.

Cold-air-standard assumptions: When the working fluid is considered to be air with constant specific heats at room temperature (25C). Air-standard cycle: A cycle for which the air-standard assumptions are applicable.
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Problem 9-21 (page 536)

An ideal gas is contained in a piston-cylinder device and undergoes a power cycle as follows: 1-2 isentropic compression from an initial temperature T1 = 20C with a compression ratio rv = 5 2-3 constant pressure addition 3-1 constant volume heat rejection The gas has constant specific heats with cv = 0.7 kJ/kg.K and R = 0.3 kJ/kg.K. a) Sketch the P-v and T-s diagrams for the cycle. b) Determine the heat and work interactions for each process, in kJ/kg. c) Determine the cycle thermal efficiency.
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OTTO CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR SPARKIGNITION ENGINES

Actual and ideal cycles in spark-ignition engines and their P-v diagrams.

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OTTO CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR SPARKIGNITION ENGINES

The ideal cycle, which closely resembles the actual operating conditions of spark-ignition (SI), or petrol engine, or gas engine, or high-speed oil engines. It consists of four internally reversible processes: 1-2 Isentropic compression 2-3 Constant-volume heat addition 3-4 Isentropic expansion 4-1 Constant-volume heat rejection

= Vmin

= Vmax

The Air Standard Cycles

The Otto Cycle Analysis Compression / expansion index under the cold air airstandard assumptions

k=

cp cv
= Vmin = Vmax

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The Air Standard Cycles

The Otto Cycle Analysis
Compression ratio = Maximum volume Minimum volume Clearance volume + Swept volume = Clearance volume v1 V1 rv = = v2 V2
= Vmin = Vmax

ie.,

The Air Standard Cycles

Under the cold cold-air standard assumptions assumptions, the relations between initial and final states of isentropic expansion process or isentropic compression process can be related by the following equations. Ideal Gas Equations

v 3) 1 v2

1) pv = RT p1v1 p2v2 = T1 T2
T 4) 2 T1 T 5) 2 T1

p2 k = p 1 p2 = p 1 v1 = v 2
k 1 k

2)

(k 1)

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The Air Standard Cycles

The Otto Cycle Analysis Thermal efficiency of the ideal Otto cycle under the cold air air-standard assumptions

otto =

Wnet Q Q41 = 23 Qsupply Q23 Q41 Q23

= Vmin

= Vmax

=1 =1

m cv (T4 T1 ) m cv (T3 T2 )

otto = 1

(T4 T1 ) (T3 T2 )

The Air Standard Cycles

The Otto Cycle Analysis Since processes 1-2 and 3-4 are both isentropic (under the cold air airstandard assumptions), assumptions then,

T2 v1 = T1 v2 T3 v4 = T4 v3

k 1

and
k 1

= Vmin

= Vmax

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The Air Standard Cycles

The Otto Cycle Analysis but v4 = v1 and v3 = v2
T3 v1 = T4 v2
k 1

T2 T1
= Vmin = Vmax

The Air Standard Cycles

The Otto Cycle Analysis
T T T T ie., 3 = 2 rearrange 2 = 1 T4 T1 T3 T4 or 1 T2 T =1 1 T3 T4

otto = 1

(T4 T1 ) = 1 T4 (T3 T2 ) T3
1

=1

1 v1 v 2
k 1

T T2 T4 T1 or 3 = T3 T4 or

ie., otto = 1

(rv )k 1

(T4 T1 ) = T4 (T3 T2 ) T3

The above equation is only valid for the ideal Otto cycle under the cold air air-standard assumptions assumptions. The above equation shows that under the cold air airstandard assumptions, assumptions the thermal efficiency of an ideal Otto cycle depends on the compression ratio of the engine and the specific heat ratio of the working fluid.

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The Air Standard Cycles

The Otto Cycle Analysis Summary
otto =
Wnet Qin L basic

otto = 1 otto = 1

T4 T1 L function of temperatures T3 T2 1 rv
k 1

L function of compression ratio and index k

These two equations are only valid for the ideal Otto cycle under the cold airair-standard assumptions. assumptions

In SI engines, the compression ratio is limited by autoignition or engine knock. Thermal efficiency of the ideal Otto cycle as a function of compression ratio (k = 1.4). The thermal efficiency of the Otto cycle increases with the specific heat ratio k of the 30 working fluid.

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Example 9-1
An ideal Otto cycle has a compression ratio of 8. At the beginning of the compression process, air is at 95 kPa and 27C, and 750 kJ/kg of heat is transferred to air during the constant-volume heat-addition process. Under the cold air-standard assumptions, determine, a) the pressure and temperature at the end of the heat addition; b) the net work output; c) the thermal efficiency; d) the mean effective pressure for the cycle.

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Prob. 9-37 (page 537)

An ideal Otto cycle with air as the working fluid has a compression ratio of 8. The minimum and maximum temperature in the cycle are 300 and 1340 K. Accounting for the variation of specific heats with temperature, determine, a) the amount of heat transferred to the air during the heat-addition process, b) the thermal efficiency, and c) the thermal efficiency of a Carnot cycle operating between the same temperature limits.

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Prob. 9-35 (page 537)

The compression ratio of an air-standard Otto cycle is 9.5. Prior to the isentropic compression process, the air is at 100 kPa, 35C, and 600 cm3. The temperature at the end of the isentropic expansion process is 800 K. Using specific heat values at room temperature, determine, a) the highest temperature (K) and pressure (kPa) in the cycle, b) the heat transferred in, (kJ), c) the thermal efficiency, d) the mean effective pressure (kPa).

Prob. 9-36 (page 537)

Repeat Prob. 9-35, but replace the isentropic compression process by a polytropic expansion process with the polytropic exponent n = 1.35.

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DIESEL CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR COMPRESSION-IGNITION ENGINES

In diesel engines, only air is compressed during the compression stroke, eliminating the possibility of autoignition (engine knock). Therefore, diesel engines can be designed to operate at much higher compression ratios than SI engines, typically between 12 and 24. 1-2 isentropic compression 2-3 constantvolume heat addition 3-4 isentropic expansion 4-1 constantvolume heat rejection. In diesel engines, the spark plug is replaced by a fuel injector, and only air is compressed during the compression process.

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DIESEL CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR COMPRESSION-IGNITION ENGINES Compression / expansion index under the cold air airstandard assumptions
p p3 = p2 pv = const

k=

cp cv
v2 4 1 v1 v

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DIESEL CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR COMPRESSION-IGNITION ENGINES Under the cold airair-standard assumptions Heat added to the engine
Q23 = m.c p (T3 T2 )
pv = const p p3 = p2

Heat rejected from the engine

Q41 = m.cv (T4 T1 )
v2

4 1 v1 v

DIESEL CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR COMPRESSION-IGNITION ENGINES

Thermal efficiency under the cold air air-standard assumptions
Diesel =
or Wnet Qin

or

Diesel =

Q23 Q41 Q23

L basic

Diesel = 1
ie.,

Q41 m (T T ) / .cv (T4 T1 ) =1 =1 4 1 Q23 m k (T3 T2 ) / .c p (T3 T2 )

Diesel = 1

(T4 T1 ) k (T3 T2 )

function of temperatures

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DIESEL CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR COMPRESSION-IGNITION ENGINES

Thermal efficiency in terms of compression ratio rv and cut-off ratio, rc under the cold air air-standard assumptions
p

T2 v1 = T1 v2

k 1

T1 =

T2 v1 v 2
k 1

T1 =

T2 k 1 rv

p3 = p2

pv = const

T3 v3 = = rc L cut - off ratio for isobaric process 2 3 T2 v2 ie T3 = T2 rc

v2

4 1 v1 v

DIESEL CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR COMPRESSION-IGNITION ENGINES

Thermal efficiency in terms of compression ratio rv and cut-off ratio, rc - under the cold air air-standard assumptions
T4 v3 = T3 v4
k 1

Also,

v3 v2 = v x v 4 2
k 1

k 1

rc = r v

k 1

p p3 = p2

rc ie T4 = T3 r v

k 1

rc = T2 rc r v

rc k = T2 r k 1 v

pv = const

Diesel = 1

[r
rv
k 1

1 [k (rc 1)]
c

1 v2 v1 v

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Cutoff ratio

for the same compression ratio

Thermal efficiency of the ideal Diesel cycle as a function of compression and cutoff ratios (k=1.4).
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Prob. 9-52 (page 538)

An ideal diesel engine has a compression ratio of 20 and uses air as the working fluid. The state of air at the beginning of the compression process is 95 kPa and 20C. If the maximum temperature in the cycle is not to exceed 2200 K, determine: a) the thermal efficiency, and b) the mean effective pressure. Assume constant specific heats for air at room temperature.

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Prob. 9-50 (page 538)

An air-standard Diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 18.2. Air is at 27oC and 100 kPa at the beginning of the compression process and at 1700 K at the end of the heat addition process. Accounting for the variation of specific heats with temperature, determine, a) the cutoff ratio, b) the heat rejection per unit mass, c) the thermal efficiency.

Prob. 9-55 (page 538)

A four-cylinder two-stroke 2.0 L diesel engine that operates on an ideal Diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 22 and a cutoff ratio of 1.8. Air is at 70C and 97 kPa at the beginning of the compression process. Using the cold-air-standard assumptions, determine how much power the engine will deliver at 2300 rpm.

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Dual cycle: A more realistic

ideal cycle model for modern, high-speed compression ignition engine.

QUESTIONS ???
Diesel engines operate at higher air-fuel ratios than gasoline engines. Why? Despite higher power to weight ratios, two-stroke engines are not used in automobiles. Why? The stationary diesel engines are among the most efficient power producing devices (about 50%). Why?

P-v diagram of an ideal dual cycle.

What is a turbocharger? Why are they mostly used in diesel engines compared to gasoline engines.
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STIRLING AND ERICSSON CYCLES

Stirling cycle 1-2 T = constant expansion (heat addition from the external source) 2-3 v = constant regeneration (internal heat transfer from the working fluid to the regenerator) 3-4 T = constant compression (heat rejection to the external sink) 4-1 v = constant regeneration (internal heat transfer from the regenerator back to the working fluid)

A regenerator is a device that borrows energy from the working fluid during one part of the cycle and pays it back (without interest) during another part.

T-s and P- vdiagrams of Carnot, Stirling, and Ericsson cycles.

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The Stirling and Ericsson cycles give a message: Regeneration can increase efficiency.

Both the Stirling and Ericsson cycles are totally reversible, as is the Carnot cycle, and thus:

The Ericsson cycle is very much like the Stirling cycle, except that the two constantvolume processes are replaced by two constant-pressure processes.

The execution of the Stirling cycle.

A steady-flow Ericsson engine.

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Summary
Basic considerations in the analysis of power cycles The Carnot cycle and its value in engineering Air-standard sssumptions An overview of reciprocating engines Otto cycle: The ideal cycle for spark-ignition engines Diesel cycle: The ideal cycle for compression-ignition engines Stirling and Ericsson cycles

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