393

Three-phase STATCOM Models for Large-scale

Newton-Raphson Power Flow Studies
C. Angeles-Camacho, MIEEE & MIET, E. Acha, SMIEEE & IEEE- DLP and E. Barrios-Martnez, MIEEE



Abstract: This paper presents two models of the
Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) both
models suitable for three-phase power flow studies using
the Newton-Raphson in both frame-of-references: polar
and rectangular co-ordinates. In both cases, the
STATCOM is taken to be a voltage source converter
(VSC) and its associated shunt-connected transformer.
The ensuing equivalent model allows for a direct voltage
regulation and/or for injection of active power at the DC
side of the converter. Also these models do not compromise
the quadratic convergence characteristics of the Newton-
Raphson methods.

Index terms: STATCOM, VSC, Polar co-ordinates,
Rectangular co-ordinates, Newton-Raphson.

I. INTRODUCTION
In an electric power system, nodal voltages are significantly
affected by load variations as well as by any topological
change-taking place in the network. These changes may cause
that the system operates in undervoltages or overvoltages, this
can trigger a dynamic cascade reaction with the resultant
voltage and power swings, causing sequential tripping of
adjacent lines and generators. This potentially can cause
cascading voltage collapse or frequency instability. Voltage
collapse of the transmission system has caused more than 90%
of the blackouts. The fast, dynamic nature of reactive loads is
further aggravated by nonlinear loads of the growing digital
economy. These include DC power supplies of millions of
computers and power-electronic-based adjustable speed drive
motors. Voltage magnitude regulation in the network is
achieved by controlling the production, absorption, and flow
of reactive power throughout the system. The industry needs
fast-acting dynamic sources of reactive power to counter fast
voltage-collapse events [1]. Sources or sinks are the Flexible
AC Transmission System (FACTS) sometimes permanently
connected and others are automatically adjusted to maintain
fixed voltage magnitude at connection points [2,-4].
The Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM), or
static compensator, is one of the FACTS controllers


Csar Angeles-Camacho is with the Institute of Engineering, UNAM,
Mexico. (Tel +52 (55) 5623 36 00 ext 8810, email: cangelesc@ii.unam.mx).
Enrique Acha is with the University of Glasgow, UK.
(email:eacha@elec.gla.ac.uk).
Esther Barrios-Martinez is with the Institute of Engineering, UNAM,
Mexico. (email:ebarriosm@ii.unam.mx).

family; it is designed to be inserted into transmission grids to
prevents sudden voltage drops from affecting the network by
temporarily injecting reactive power into the system and
thereby maintaining the required voltage limits at the
compensated point of connection to the power system [4].
Thanks to the use of the latest power electronic switching
devices, newest STATCOM generation requires a land area far
less than that of the previous generation of static VAR
compensation (SVC) equipment, in fact current STATCOM
are fit in a mobile trailer and works more quickly and
efficiently without producing significant harmonic
interference. Moreover, the STATCOM trailer-mounted can
easily be reused at other location in the eventual construction
of a new transmission line [2-4].
This paper addresses the feasibility of model the
STATCOM in both polar and rectangular coordinates in a
more realistic frame-of-reference on which the controller is
operated: the phase domain. Despite the bulk of literature that
the FACTS and particularly the STATCOM has generated, the
authors have not found paper where the STATCOM have been
modelled in this context, using rectangular coordinates frame-
of-reference. Certainly, the authors introduce in reference [5-
6] a novel STATCOM model in the phase domain in polar
coordinates; however, its capabilities to carry out analysis of
larges-scale three-phase power network is shown in the
present manuscript to completeness.
II. THE STATIC SYNCHRONOUS COMPENSATOR
CONTROLLER
The STATCOM consists of one Voltage Source
Converter (VSC) and its associated shunt-connected
transformer, as illustrated in Fig 1.

(b)
DC
V
+
_
vR

E
vR

AV
node k
k

V
k

I vR

I
+
_
vR
V
vR
o
ma
(a)

Fig. 1 STATCOM system: (a) VSC connected to the AC network via a
shunt-connected transformer; (b) STATCOM schematic representation .

It is the static counterpart of the rotating synchronous
condenser but it generates/absorbs reactive power at a faster
1250 978-1-4244-2190-9/07/$25.00 2007 IEEE PowerTech 2007
393
rate because no moving parts are involved [4]. In principle, it
performs the same voltage regulation function as the SVC but
in a more robust manner because unlike the SVC, its operation
is not impaired by the presence of low voltages [2,4].
A. STATCOM principles of operation [3,4]
The interaction between the AC power systems and the
STATCOM may be explained by considering a VSC
connected through a loss-less transformer. The premise is that
at each phase the magnitude and the phase angle drop, V
vR
,
across the transformer reactance X
vR
can be controlled,
defining the amount of active and reactive power flows
through X
vR
. Considering a sinusoidal voltage at the bus k, of
magnitude V
k
and phase angles
k
and the fundamental
component of the STATCOM voltage is taken to be a variable
voltage source E
vR
, whose magnitude V
vR
and phase angle
vR
.
Three-phase at fundamental frequency vector representation is
shown in Fig. 2(a) and 2(b) for leading and lagging VAR
compensation, respectively.
a

a
vR
o
a
vR
V A
a
vR
V
a
k
V
(a)
a

a
vR
o
a
vR
V A a
vR
V
a
k
V
a
vR
I
(b) Phase b
a
vR
I
Phase c
Phase a
Phase b
Phase c
Phase a

Fig 2. Three-phase space vector representation, (a) lagging operation, and (b)
leading operation.

According to Fig. 1 for both leading and lagging VAR, the
active and reactive power per phase can be expressed as,
( )
sin
k vR
k vR
vR
V V
P
X

o =

(1)
( )
( )
2
cos
k
k vR
k vR
vR vR
V
V V
Q
X X

o =

(2)

With reference to above equations, the following
observations can be derived: The voltage source E
vR
lags the
nodal voltage V
k
by an angle
vR
, and the input current I
vR
lags
the voltage drop across the reactor V
vR
by /2. The reactive
power flow is determinate mainly by the magnitude of the
nodal voltage and the voltage source. For V
vR
>V
k
, the
STATCOM generates reactive power and consumes reactive
power when V
vR
<V
k
.In the presence of active power at the
STATCOM side, the active power flow is controlled by the
phase angles. For
vR
>
k
, active power flows into the device
and it supply active power to the bus when
vR
<
k
[4-6].
During normal operation, a small amount of active power
must flow into the STATCOM to compensate for the power
losses inside the VSC.
III. POWER FLOW STATCOM MODELS
In steady-state, fundamental frequency studies the
STATCOM may be represented in the same way as a
synchronous condenser, which in most cases is the model of a
synchronous generator with zero active power generation. A
more flexible model may be realised by representing the
STATCOM as a variable voltage source E
vR
, whose
magnitude V
vR
and phase angle
vR
may be adjusted using a
suitable iterative algorithm to satisfy a specified voltage
magnitude at the point of connection with the AC network.
From the principles of operation outlined, it follows that for
the purpose of fundamental frequency analysis the STATOM
consists of a VSC in shunt coupling with the bus via a series
inductance and series resistance. Hence, the equivalent circuit
shown in Fig. 3 is used to derive the mathematical model of
the three-phase STATCOM in polar co-ordinates for inclusion
in the power flow Newton-Raphson method [5-7].
b
vR
E
c
vR
E
aa
vR
Z
bb
vR
Z
cc
vR
Z
a
vR
I
b
vR
I
c
vR
I
node k
a
k
V
b
k
V
c
k
V
+
+
+
_
a
vR
E
_
_

Fig. 3 Three-phase STATCOM equivalent circuit

The complex voltage sources representing the VSC station
in the STATCOM is expressed in polar form as,
T
a a b b c c
vR vR vR vR vR vR vR
V V V

o o o ( = Z Z Z

E

(3)

And in rectangular form as,

j j j
T
a a b b c c
vR vR vR vR vR vR vR
e f e f e f

( = + + +

E

(4)

The voltage magnitudes, V
vR
, are given maximum and
minimum limits, which are a function of the STATCOM
capacitor rating. On the other hand, phase angle,
vR
may take
any value between 0 and 2t radians.
With reference to the equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 3, the
following transfer admittance equation can be written:

-
-
k vR vR k
vR vR vR vR
( ( (
( ( (

I Y Y V
=
I Y Y E

(5)

where

T
a a b b c c
k k k k k k k
I I I ( = Z Z Z

I
(6)
T
a a b b c c
k k k k k k k
V V V u u u ( = Z Z Z

V
(7)
0 0 j 0 0
0 0 0 j 0
0 0 0 0 j
aa aa aa
vR vR vR
bb bb bb
vR vR vR vR
cc cc cc
vR vR vR
G B
G B
G B

( ( +
( (
= = +
( (
( (
+

Y
Y Y
Y
(8)
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393
A. Power flow equations- Polar frame-of-reference
The power flow equations for the STATCOM are derived
based on the equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 3, and the
transfer admittance eq. (5), the following may be written,

( ) ( ) ( )
* * *
*
vR vR vR vR vR vR k

(
= =

S E I E Y E V

(9)

After performing some complex operations and substituting
voltages expression in its polar form, the following active and
reactive power equations are obtained, at converter,

( ) ( ) ( )
2
cos sin
vR vR vR vR k vR vR k vR vR k
P V G V V G B

o u o u ( = +

(10)
( ) ( ) ( )
2
sin cos
vR vR vR vR k vR vR k vR vR k
Q V B V V G B

o u o u ( =

(11)

at node k
( ) ( ) ( )
2
cos sin
k k vR k vR vR k vR vR k vR
P V G V V G B

u o u o
(
= +

(12)
( ) ( ) ( )
2
sin cos
k k vR k vR vR k vR vR k vR
Q V B V V G B

u o u o
(
=

(13)

B. The Newton-Raphson method

In large-scale power flow studies, the Newton-Raphson
method has proved most successful owing to its strong
convergence characteristics, [6]. In order to apply the method
the relevant equations may be linearised. A three-phase n-node
power network with no voltage and power flow regulation
provisions is described by a 23(nb-1) non-linear system of
equations. Moreover, for each STATCOM that exists in the
power network the system of equations is augmented by up to
two equations to take account of the converter station, [5,6].
Although the main function of the STATCOM is for
voltage control, the converter station is capable of having
control over either the voltage magnitude or reactive power
injected at the connecting node. It is capable of drawing real
power from an energy source (large capacitor, battery, fuel
cell, etc.) at its DC terminals and delivering it as AC power to
the system. When both active power and reactive power are
regulated, the linearised system of equations for polar co-
ordinates, i.e. the voltage magnitude V
vR
and phase angle
vR

are taken to be the state variables, the system has the
following structure:

k k k k
k vR k
k k vR vR
k k k k
k k vR
k k vR vR
vR vR vR vR
vR
k vR
k k vR vR
vR vR vR
vR
k
k k
P P P P
V V P
V V
Q Q Q Q
Q V V
V V
P P P P
P
V V
V V
Q Q Q
Q
V
V

c c c c
cu c co c
c c c c
cu c co c
c c c c
cu c co c
c c c
cu c co
(
A
(
(
(
A
(
(
=
(
A
(
(
(
A
(
(

k
k
k
vR
vR
vR
vR
vR vR
vR
V
V
Q
V
V
V
V

u
o
c
c
(
(
A
(
(
(
(
(
(
A
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
( A
(
(
(
(
( A
(
(
(


(14)

The Jacobian elements for this application are given below:

( )
2
k
k k vR
k
P
Q V B

c
cu
=

(15)
( )
2
k
k k k vR
k
P
V P V G
V

c
c
= +

(16)
( ) ( )
sin cos
vR k
vR vR vR vR vR k k k k
vR k
P Q
V V V G B
V



c c
o u o u
co c
(

= = +

(17)
( ) ( )
cos sin
vR k
vR vR vR vR vR vR k k k
vR k
V V
P Q
V G B
V



c c
u o u o
c cu
(

= = +

(18)
( )
2
k
k k vR
k
Q
P V G

c
cu
=

(19)
( )
2
k
k k k vR
k
Q
V Q V B
V

c
c
=

(20)
( ) ( )
cos sin
vR k
vR vR vR vR vR k k k k
vR k
V
Q P
V V G B
V



c c
u o u o
co c
(

= = +

(21)
( ) ( )
sin cos
vR k
vR vR vR vR vR vR k k k
vR k
V V
Q P
V G B
V



c c
u o u o
c cu
(

= =

(22)
( )
2
vR
vR vR vR
vR
P
Q V B

c
co
=

(23)
( )
2
vR
vR vR vR vR
vR
P
V P V G
V

c
c
= +

(24)
( )
2
vR
vR vR vR
vR
Q
P V G

c
co
=

(25)
( )
2
vR
vR vR vR vR
vR
Q
V Q V B
V

c
c
=

(26)

When the voltage magnitude is controlled at the node,
where a STATCOM is connected, the node becomes a PV-
type node and changes to the Jacobian matrix and the
mismatches vector take place, i.e.
k

AV
are set equal zero.
Upon solution of the Jacobian matrix, a new set of state
variable increments is obtained. The increments are used to
update the VSC magnitude and phase angle for each iteration
(it) using
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
1
1
it
it it it
vR
vR vR vR
vR
it it it
vR vR vR
V
V V V
V

o o o
+
+
| | A
= +
|
\ .
= A +

(27)

Voltage magnitude limits are checked at the end of each
iterative step, and if one or more limits are violated, the
voltage magnitude is fixed at the violated limit. Notice that,
for the STATCOM controlling the reactive power generation,
it has to be calculated and checked for reactive power limit
violations. For the case of limit violation, the reactive power
has to be fixed to the limit violation.
B. Power flow equations- Rectangular frame-of-reference[9]
The power flow equation obtained in eq. (9) is used to
derive the active and reactive expressions for rectangular
model of the STATCOM. After performing some complex
operations and substituting voltages expression in its
rectangular form, (4), the following active and reactive power
equations can be obtained, at converter,

1252
393
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
vR vR vR vR vR vR vR k vR k
vR vR vR vR vR vR k vR k
P e G e B f G e B f
f G f B e G f B e


( =

( + + +

(28)

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
vR vR vR vR vR vR vR k vR k
vR vR vR vR vR vR k vR k
Q f G e B f G e B f
e G f B e G f B e


( =

( + + + +

(29)

at node k
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
k k vR k vR k vR vR vR vR
k vR k vR k vR vR vR vR
P e G e B f G e B f
f G f B e G f B e


( =

( + + +

(30)

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
k k vR k vR k vR vR vR vR
k vR k vR k vR vR vR vR
Q f G e B f G e B f
e G f B e G f B e


( =

( + + + +

(31)

C. The Newton-Raphson method

Rectangular model of the STATCOM, use the real (e
vR
) and
imaginary (f
vR
) part of the voltages, rather than magnitude and
than phase angle voltages. So, now e
vR
and f
vR
are select as the
state variables, so that in order to apply the Newton method
the relevant equations may be linearised in consequence. The
linearised system of equations for rectangular co-ordinates has
the following structure:


k k k k
k
k k vR vR
k k k k
k
k k vR vR
vR vR vR vR
vR
k k vR vR
vR vR vR vR
vR
k k vR vR
P P P P
P
e f e f
Q Q Q Q
Q
e f e f
P P P P
P
e f e f
Q Q Q Q
Q
e f e f

c c c c
c c c c
c c c c
c c c c
c c c c
c c c c
c c c c
c c c c

(
A

(

(
A

(

(
=

(
A

(

(
A
(
(


k
k
vR
vR
e
f
e
f

(
(
A
(
(
(
(
(
(
A
(
(
(
(
(
(
A
(
(
(
(
(
(
A
(
(
( (

(32)

The Jacobian elements for this application are given below:

( ) 2
k
vR k vR vR vR vR
k
P
G e G e B f
e

c
=
c

(33)
( ) 2
k
vR k vR vR vR vR
k
P
G f G f B e
f

c
= +
c

(34)
( )
k
vR k vR k
vR
P
G e B f
e

c
= +
c

(35)
( )
k
vR k vR k
vR
P
G f B e
f

c
=
c

(36)
( ) 2
a k
vR k vR vR vR vR
k
Q
B e G f B e
e

c
= + +
c

(37)
( ) 2
k
vR k vR vR vR vR
k
Q
B f G e B f
f

c
=
c

(38)
( )
k
vR k vR k
vR
Q
G f B e
e

c
=
c

(39)
( )
k
vR k vR k
vR
Q
G e B f
f

c
= +
c

(40)
( )
vR
vR vR vR vR
k
P
G e B f
e

c
= +
c

(41)
( )
vR
vR vR vR vR
k
P
G f B e
f

c
=
c

(42)
( ) 2
vR
vR vR vR k vR k
vR
P
G e G e B f
e

c
=
c

(43)
( ) 2
vR
vR vR vR k vR k
vR
P
G f G f B e
f

c
= +
c

(44)
( )
vR
vR vR vR vR
k
Q
G f B e
e

c
=
c

(45)
( )
vR
vR vR vR vR
k
Q
G e B f
f

c
= +
c

(46)
( ) 2
vR
vR vR vR k vR k
vR
Q
B e G f B e
e

c
= + +
c

(47)
( ) 2
cR
vR vR vR k vR k
vR
Q
B f G e B f
f

c
=
c

(48)

When the voltage magnitude is controlled at the node,
where the STATCOM is connected, Q
vR
are replaced as
mismatch equation by,


( )
2
2 2
k vR vR
V e f

= +

(49)

And the new Jacobian elements correspondent are,

( )
2
2
k
k
k
V
e
e

c
=
c

(50)
( )
2
2
k
k
k
V
f
f

c
=
c

(51)

The set of state variable in rectangular coordinates are
updated at each iteration using the increments by,

( ) ( ) ( )
1 it it it
vR vR vR
e e e

+
= + A (52)
( ) ( ) ( )
1 it it it
vR vR vR
f f f

+
= + A
(53)

This model also has need of check voltage magnitude limits
at the end of each iterative step, and fixed at the violated limit.
IV. STATCOM THREE-PHASE NUMERICAL
EXAMPLE
A three-phase power flow program written in C++ OOP
with the STATCOM models incorporated has been used to
solve a wide range of test power systems with different grades
of complexity and sizes, given in each case very robust
solution [10]. Solution are achieved in four or five iteration
most of the cases. A nodal voltage flat profile is used to
initialise nodal voltages and STATCOM source voltages [5].
In order to asses the effectiveness of the three-phase
STATCOM controllers to control the voltage magnitude at the
1253
393
point connected a five-bus unbalanced network is used. The
STATCOM is used to balance the voltage magnitude at Elm to
0.98 p.u. The source impedances are X
vR
=0.1 p.u. per phase.
The power flow results indicate that the STATCOM generates
4.81 MVAR, 8.47 MVAR and 15.25 MVAR in phases a, b
and c, respectively, in order to achieve the three-phase voltage
magnitude target. The STATCOM parameters associated with
this amount of reactive power generation are: V
vR
=0.9849,
0.9886 and 0.9955 p.u. for a, b and c phases, respectively.
Nodal voltage magnitudes and phase angles are given in
Table 1(a), and sequence domain voltage magnitudes are
given in Table 2(b), where it is shown that the STATCOM is
effective in regulating and balancing the nodal voltage
magnitudes at Elm. As expected, the phase angles at that bus
are still unbalanced. It should be mentioned that the power
losses now stand at 3.58%, a result that compares favourably
with the unbalanced case where no device is used and where
power losses stand at 3.62%. Notice that negative sequence
voltages have also reduced in magnitude. The power flows
within the STATCOM embed are shown in Fig. 5


15.25
8.47
4.81
North Lake Main
South Elm
6.42
6.46
60+j1
14.0 14.0 40.9 42.6
77.03
75.80
24.84
2.10
20+j10
40.0
94.61 51.75+j17.2
34.78+j4.3
54.51
53.54
18.03
17.5
90.00
87.5
2.90 1.03
1.97 1.39
0.93
0.26
2.55
0.52
68.48
132.65
27.17
25.34
3.79
27.70
North Lake Main
South Elm
3.14
3.14
52.17+j8.
20.5 20.6 40.2 41.7
73.21
72.62
25.35
2.38
17.39
+j8.70
40.0
89.41 45+j1 46+j5.7
50.12
49.03
16.84
16.2
84.94
82.4
3.30 1.50
2.04 1.98
2.57
0.34
2.98
0.12
71.33
126.66
28.64
25.73
2.21
29.18
North Lake Main
South Elm
10.21
10.0
69+j11.
23.8 23.9 40.6 41.9
71.07
69.40
22.45
3.76
23+j11.5
40.0
85.77 39.13+j13.04 40+j5
60.58
58.97
15.69
14.7
95.49
92.9
3.21 1.45
3.81 5.50
2.81
1.20
4.32
1.03
69.79
137.45
26.34
22.68
1.75
26.67
(a) Phase a
(b) Phase b
(c) Phase c


Fig. 5 STATCOM upgraded test network and power flows




Table.1 Nodal voltage in the three-phase unbalanced network with a
STATCOM phase voltages
Network buses
Voltage
Phase North South Lake Main Elm
(a) Phase voltages
a 1.06 1.00 0.9822 0.9810 0.98
b 1.06 1.00 0.9888 0.9974 0.98
Magnitude
(p.u.)
c 1.06 1.00 0.9947 0.9923 0.98
a 0 -2.04 -4.64 -4.79 -5.76
b 240 238.16 235.17 234.84 234.81
Phase angle
(deg.)
c 120 117.60 115.37 114.86 113.09

(b) Sequence voltages
Zero 0.00 0.0028 0.0047 0.0050 0.0087
Pos. 1.06 1.0000 0.9886 0.9859 0.9799
Magnitude
(p.u.)
Neg. 0.00 0.0028 0.0025 0.0022 0.0086
V. LARGE-SCALE NUMERICAL EXAMPLE
A three-phase power flow program written in C++, with the
STATCOM VSC-Based models incorporated, has been used
to solve a wide range of test systems, giving in each case very
robust solutions. To illustrate this point, 2172-bus system was
modified to incorporate four STATCOM in different parts of
the network, [11].
The STATCOM were connected at bus 1792, 1856, and
1893 in order to control voltage magnitude at 1 p.u. at those
nodes. Both Newton-Raphson method algorithms maintain its
quadratic convergence characteristic and solution is achieved
in six iterations for power mismatch tolerance of 1e-12. The
source impedances are X
vR
=0.1 p.u. per phase. Fig. 6 shows
the nodal voltages profile for both cases: the base case and the
modified case, when the three controllers are incorporated in
the network. Table 2 shows the magnitude voltages to be
controlled and the total power losses.

Table 2 Final values
Node
Voltage (p.u.)
without controllers
Voltage (p.u.)
with controllers
Power losses
(MW)
1792 0.793974 1.0 1890.35
1856 0.834134 1.0 1889.67
1893 0.842705 1.0 1890.11
VI. CONCLUSIONS
The STATCOM which utilize voltage source converter
represent the main research concern in this paper. The goal has
been to develop models of the STATCOM VSC-based
controller and to study its interaction with the electrical power
network using its natural frame-of-reference termed the phase
domain. Flexible mathematical models have been derived in
the form of nodal admittance matrices that use the frame-of-
reference of the phases and interfaced with the common
elements found in conventional electric power systems. Two
related but distinct power flow algorithms have been used: the
Newton-Raphson method in polar co-ordinate and the
Newton-Raphson method in rectangular co-ordinate. Both
algorithms solve the non-linear power flow equations by
1254
393
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
0.8
0.9
1
1.1
a)
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
0.8
0.9
1
1.1
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

m
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e

(
p
.
u
.
)

Network buses
b)
Fig. 7 Nodal voltages profile for both cases: a) the base case and b) the modified case, when three STATCOM are incorporated in the network

iteration to a specified tight tolerance. In polar co-ordinates,
the magnitudes and the phase angles of nodal voltages and
injected voltages of STATCOM are used as state variables;
whereas in rectangular co-ordinates the real and the imaginary
parts of nodal voltages and injected STATCOM voltages are
the ones used as the state variables. The results show that the
Newton-Raphson power flow method retains its convergence
characteristics in both cases. The objected oriented
programming philosophy used to implement the power flow
algorithms should facilitate the inclusion of any new power
systems component or FACTS controllers that may become
available in future in both frame of references.
VII. REFERENCES
[1] Miller, T. J. E. Reactive power control in electric systems, John Wiley &
Sons, 1982.
[2] Hingorani, N. G., Gyugyi, L., Understanding FACTS: Concepts and
technology of flexible AC transmission systems, IEEE, 2000.
[3] Song, Y. H., Johns, A. T., Flexible AC transmission system (FACTS),
IEE, 1999.
[4] Sen, K.K.: STATCOM-STATic synchronous COMpensator: theory,
modelling, and applications, IEEE/PES Winter Meeting 1999, Vol. 2, Jan-
Feb 1999. pp. 1177-1183.
[5] Acha, C., Fuerte-Esquivel, C. R., Ambriz-Perez, H. and Angeles-
Camacho, C.; FACTS. Modeling and Simulation in Power Networks,
John Wiley & Sons, 2004.
[6] Angeles-Camacho, C.: Phase Domain Modelling and Simulation of
Large-scale Power Systems with VSC-base FACTS Equipment, PhD
Thesis, University of Glasgow, Scotland, UK, 2005. .
[7] Angeles-Camacho, C.: Steady-state modelling of the unified power flow
controller for three phase power flow analysis of electric systems, M.Sc.
Thesis (in Spanish), Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering,
Instituto Tecnolgico de Morelia, Agosto 2000.
[8] Stott, B.: Review of load-flow calculation methods, Proc. IEEE, Vol. 62,
No. 7, July 1974, pp. 916-929.
[9] Stagg, G.W. and El-Abiad, A.H.: Computer Methods in Power System
Analysis, McGraw-Hill, 1968. ISNB 67-1296307-060658-7.
[10] Fuerte-Esquivel C.R., Acha, E., Tan S.G. and Rico J.J.: Efficient Object
Oriented Power System Software for the Analysis of Large-Scale
Networks Containing FACTS-Controlled Branches, IEEE Trans. on
Power System, Vol. 3, No. 2, May 1998. pp. 464-472.
[11] Ambriz, P. H., FACTS modelling in optimal power flows using
Newtons method, PhD Thesis, University of Glasgow, Scotland, UK.

VIII. BIOGRAPHIES
Csar Angeles-Camacho was born in Mxico. He
obtained the BSc and the MSc degree from the Instituto
Tecnolgico de Morelia, in Mexico, in 1992 and 2000,
respectively. In 2005, he obtained his PhD degree from the
University of Glasgow, Glasgow, Scotland. He joined the
institute of engineering of the National University in
Mxico in 2005 as a lecturer and researcher. His research interests include
modelling and simulations of FACTS and custom power controllers.

Enrique Acha (SM02) was born in Mxico. He graduated from
Universidad Michoacana de San Nicols de Hidalgo, Morelia, Michoacn,
Mxico in 1979 and obtained his PhD degree from University of Canterbury,
Christchurch, New Zealand in 1988. He was a postdoctoral Fellow at the
University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada, and the University of Durham,
Durham, England. He is the Professor of Electrical Power Systems at the
University of Glasgow, Glasgow, Scotland. He is an IEEE PES Distinguished
Lecturer.

Esther Barrios-Martnez received the BSc in electrical engineering
from the Universidad Nacional Autnoma de Mxico, in 2005. At the moment,
she is student of the MSc at the same University. Her research interests
include modelling and simulations of FACTS controllers.

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