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levels of the different zones. Nomenclature and a corresponding definition of such lighting engineering levels is established below: L20 = Lth Ltr Ln Lex = = = = Luminance in access zone. Luminance in the threshold zone. Luminance in the transition zone. Luminance in the interior zone. Luminance in the exit zone.

Entrance

Direction of traffic

Exit

Tunnel length Entrance

L20 Lth Luminance Lex Ltr

Lin

Access zone DS

Threshold Transition zone zone DS Entrance zone

Interior zone

Exit zone DS

DS= Security distance Direction of traffic

Figure 4

13.2.1. Luminance in the access zone

The access zone is the part of the road in the open air, situated immediately before the entrance or tunnel portal. It covers the distance at which a driver approaching the tunnel must be able to see its interior. The length of the access zone is equal to the security distance (DS), as it has been stated in Fig. 4. The luminance value necessary at the beginning of the threshold zone must be based on the luminance value in the access zone L20 at a separation in front of the tunnel equal to the security distance (DS). Under identical daytime light conditions, tunnels with different approximation zones and surroundings (different relief, surroundings, etc.) will have considerably different luminance values in the access zone L20. In order to design and project the lighting installation in a tunnel, it is necessary to know the L20 maximum value which takes place with enough frequency during the entire year, at a separation in front of the tunnel equal to the security distance (DS). As in most cases, this value L20 depends on seasonal conditions and weather. Two simplified empirical methods for the evaluation of L20 are used. Next, two methods to calculate luminance in the access zone are exposed. Approximation method As indicated by its name, this method only provides an approximate indication, and must only be used when there is a lack of information enough detailed about the immediate surroundings of the entrance mounth of the tunnel. This method consists in choosing the luminance of the access zone with the help of Chart 8 expressed in Kcd/m2 (103 cd/m2).

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CHART A AVERAGE LUMINANCE OF THE ACCESS ZONE L20 (Kcd/m2) SKY PERCENTAGE (%) IN CONICAL VISUAL FIELDS AT 20 35% ROAD TYPES B Brightness situation in the visual field (1) Security distance 60 m Security distance 100 to 160 m Being: 1) Effect fundamentally depends on tunnel orientation: B: Low; In the north hemisphere: southern entrance. A: High; In the north hemisphere: northern entrance. For eastern and western entrances intermediate values between low and high must be chosen. 2) Effect fundamentally depends on brightness of surroundings: B: Low; Low reflectances of surroundings. A: High; High reflectances of surroundings. 3) Effect fundamentally depends on tunnel orientation: B: Low; In the north hemisphere: northern entrance. A: High; In the north hemisphere: southern entrance. For eastern and western entrances intermediate values between low and high must be chosen. 4) For a stopping distance of 60 m, in practice, there are no sky percentages of 35$.
Notes: northern entrance means the entrance for drivers circulating southwards. southern entrance refers to the entrance for drivers circulating northwards.

25% A (1) (4) 4 6 4 B (1) 5 6 4 4 A B (1) 5 6 3 A B (2)

10% A B (3) 3 3 5 A B (2) 3 5 2.5 A

0% B (3) 1.5 2.5 4 5 A

REGULAR SNOW REGULAR SNOW REGULAR SNOW REGULAR SNOW A B

(4) 4 6 4

2.5 3.5 4.5

3.5 1.5

Chart 8 Exact method Luminance of the access zone L20 is the average luminance contained in a conical field of vision represented by an angle of 20%, with its vertex in the position of the drivers eye. It is located at a distance before the tunnel equal to the stopping distance, and the cone oriented towards the tunnel portal on a point situated at a height of 1/4 of the tunnel mouth. Determining luminance for the access zone L20 is extremely relevant since it predetermines the level to be obtained by means of lighting in the threshold zone. Such luminance of the access zone depends on the atmospheric conditions of the place where the tunnel is located. The calculation of the luminance of the access zone L20 is obtained from a sketch of the surroundings of the tunnel zone. The formula below is used: L20 = a * Lc + b * LR + c * LE + d * Lth where: a = % of the sky. Sky luminance. % of the road. Road luminance. % of the surroundings. Surrounding luminance. % tunnel entrance. Threshold zone luminance. a+b+c+d=1 Lc = b = LR c LE = = =

d = Lth = with:

The unknown factor to be determined in the formula is the value of the luminance in the threshold zone (Lth). When stopping distances higher than 100 m. are faced, the mouth entrance percentage of tunnels is low (< at 10%) and since Lth also has

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a low value with respect to other luminance values, the contribution of Lth may be disregarded. For a stopping distance of 60 m., the norm establishes that: L20 = (a * Lc + b * LR + c * LE) / (1 / K) Because K never exceeds 0.1, the result is: L20 = a * Lc + b * LR + c * LE being a + b + c < 1. If the data to know exactly the value for a, b, c and d are not available, the ones defined in the following charts will be used. If surrounding values are not available, the following are used:

Driving direction N E-O S

Sky (Lc) Kcd/m 8 12 16

2

Road (LR) Kcd/m 3 4 5

2

Surroundings (LE) Rocks 3 2 1 Edifices 8 6 4 Snow 15 (M, H) 10 (M) 15 (H) 5 (M) 15 (H) Chart 9 2 Kcd/m2 Grass 2 2

In this chart, the value for L is known. In order to define the percentage of the sky which contributes to the value L20 in the installation under study, Fig. 5 is used.

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Security distance 160 m. Sky 35%

Security distance 100 m. Sky 27%

Security distance 60 m. Sky 14%

Security distance 100 m. Sky 18%

Security distance 160 m. Sky 14%

Security distance 100 m. Sky 3%

Security distance 100 m. Sky 18% Figure 5

Security distance 100 m. Sky 4%

13.2.2. Luminance in the entrance zone

As Fig. 4 shows, tunnel entrance consists of two consecutive stretches: the threshold zone, which is the nearest to the

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tunnel mouth and the transition zone. 13.2.2.1. Lighting levels for threshold zone The threshold zone is the first part of the tunnel located directly after the portal, thus, beginning at its entrance. The luminance level Lth (average luminance in service of the roadway surface with maintenance of the installation), which must be provided by lighting during the day at the beginning of the threshold zone, is a percentage of the luminance of the access zone L20; thus, it is verified: Lth = k L20 Factor k is established in Chart 10 taking into account the lighting system adopted (counterflux or symmetrical), security distance (DS) and lighting class defined in Chart 7, depending on ponderation factors (traffic intensity and composition, visual guidance and vehicle driving comfort).

VALUES FOR k 103 FOR THE THRESHOLD ZONE LIGHTING SYSTEM Lighting class 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 60 m 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 COUNTERFLUX Security distance (DS) 100 m 15 20 30 35 40 45 50 160 m 30 40 45 50 55 60 70 60 m 15 20 25 30 35 40 50 SYMMETRIC Security distance (DS) 100 m 20 25 35 40 50 55 60 160 m 35 40 45 50 65 80 100

Notes: For security or stopping distances (DS) ranging between (60-100 and 160 m), values for factor (k) are obtained by linear interpolation between the figures established in the chart. Values for factor (k) for the lighting system at counterflux have been determined to guarantee, in most situations, a degree of security and comfort, at least, comparable to that achieved with the symmetric lighting system. Security or stopping distances for 60, 100 and 160 m are respectively equivalent to design speeds of the tunnel of 60, 80 and 100 km/h.

Chart 10 13.2.2.2. Threshold zone length Length of the threshold zone must be, at least, equal to the security distance (DS). For the first half of such distance (DS), luminance on the roadway will be equal to Lth, that is to say, the value at the beginning of the threshold zone. Half of the security distance (DS) onwards, luminance of the roadway may gradually and linearly decrease down to a value, at the end of the threshold zone, equal to 0.4 Lth (Fig. 6). The gradual reduction in the second half of the threshold zone may take place in a staged way, so that ratio between stages does not exceed the ratio 3:1 and luminance does not go under those values corresponding to linear gradual decrease. 13.2.2.3. Luminance of walls Wall average luminance in the threshold zone, up to a height of 2 m., must be similar to average luminance of the roadway surface. 13.2.2.4. Luminance and length of the transition zone The transition zone is that part of the tunnel following the threshold zone, as indicated in Fig. 4. Therefore, it begins at the end of the threshold zone and finishes at the beginning of the interior zone.

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SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF THE LIGHTING LEVEL OF DIFFERENT ZONES

0.5 DS

L%
100 80 60 40

Lth Ltr = Lth(1.9 + t)-1-428 Ltr = Lth(1.9 + t)-1-428 with Lth = 100% and t = time in seconds

20 10 8 6 4

2 t. sec. 0 Threshold zone Security distance (DS) 2 4 6 8 10 12 Transition zone 14 16 18 20

60 Km./h 100 m. 100 m. 100 m. 100 m. 200 m. 200 m. 300 m. 200 m. 300 m. 400 m. 200 m. 300 m. 400 m. 500 m. 300 m. 80 Km./h 400 m. 100 Km./h 500 m. 120 Km./h 600 m.

Minimum luminance in entrance zone. The 100% value corresponds to the first half of the threshold zone

Figure 6 According to Fig. 6, the length of the transition zone is the distance a vehicle must travel to go from the level of luminance at the end of the threshold zone, up to the luminance value at the beginning of the interior zone, visual adaptation supposed. Consequently, for each speed of the vehicle, the allowed reduction of luminance in the transition zone Ltr, depends on the distance travelled in the mentioned zone. Average luminance in service of the roadway with maintenance of the installation of the transition zone Ltr decreases gradually, from the luminance of the threshold zone down to the luminance of the interior zone. In any position in the transition zone, luminance of the roadway surface must be equal or exceed luminance established in Fig. 6. The curve of Fig. 6 is the result of numerous experimental tests depending on eye adaptation, from high luminance levels to very low values which have given rise to a mathematical approximation corresponding to the following formula: Ltr = Lth (1.9 + t)-1.428 being: t = time in seconds. In practice, a decrease in the luminance in the transition zone may take place through a series of stages which must be lower than the ratio 3:1. Luminance cannot reach values lower than those of the curve in Fig. 6. The end of the transition zone is reached when its luminance is equal to three times the level of the interior zone of the tunnel. It is compulsory that wall average luminance of the tunnel up to a 2 m. height, in any specific position of the transition zone, must not be lower than average luminance of the roadway in such a place.

13.2.3. Lighting of the interior zone

The interior zone is that part of the tunnel following the transition zone directly. Its length is given by the distance existing between the end of the transition zone and the beginning of the exit zone. Luminance levels Lin of the interior zone of the tunnel, constant along such a zone, since eye adaptation is finished from the high luminous values in the exterior, are

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established in Chart 11 depending on the security distance (DS) and the lighting class defined in Chart 7. Up to a height of 2 m., the walls of the tunnel must have an average luminance similar to the roadway average luminance in service with maintenance of the installation Lin. The luminance level in the interior zone of the tunnel must allow to reach the following objectives: - Visibility of any eventual obstacle on the roadway at a distance, at least, equal to the security distance, bearing in mind opacity of the atmosphere of the tunnel due to vehicle toxic fumes. - Guidance of vehicles without ambiguities. - Good quality of the luminous environment, whose psychological effect above all is important in very long tunnels. It must be stated that levels of the interior zone are achieved in all the length of the tunnel. Also, in the so- called lighting reinforcement zones (entrance zone and, exit ones, too), where this lighting is called basic lighting.

LUMINANCES IN cd/m2 IN THE INTERIOR ZONE LIGHTING SYSTEM 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 60 m 0.5 1,5 2,5 2,5 2,5 3,5 3,5 Chart 11 SECURITY DISTANCE (DS) 100 m 2 2 3 3 4 5 6 160 m 3 4 5 6 6 8 10

13.2.4. Lighting of the exit zone

The exit zone is the part of the tunnel in which, during the day, the drivers vision is predominantly influenced by the exterior high luminance of the tunnel. The exit zone begins at the end of the interior zone and finishes at the mouth of the tunnel exit. In the exit zone of the tunnel a luminance level Lex on the roadway must be established to illuminate vehicles directly. This must be done in such a way that the smallest are visible in the exit zone of the tunnel, given that, they would remain hidden behind big vehicles without lighting reinforcement above the levels of the interior zone Lin. The reason being glare originated by daytime light of the tunnel exit. Likewise, such roadway average luminance in service with maintenance of the installation Lex of the exit zone of the tunnel allows drivers of vehicles leaving the tunnel to have enough vision through rear- view mirrors of the rear part of the vehicle. This happens particularly when the distance between vehicles is short (high intensity of traffic). All this, even bearing in mind that to go from a weak interior luminance Lin from a high luminance in the exterior of the tunnel, the adaptation of the drivers eye is very fast. In general, this does not constitute a problem for the user. However, in long unidirectional tunnels whose lighting class is 6 and 7, according to Chart 7, luminance in the exit zone Lex must increase linearly along a length, at least, equal to the security distance (DS) from the luminance of the interior zone, to a level 5 times higher than that of the interior zone (Lex = 5 Lin) at a distance of 20 m. This must happen before reaching the entrance or portal of the exit of the tunnel. The linear increase of the luminance may be done in stages, in such a way that the ratio between stages does not exceed the ratio 3:1 in one length, at least, equal to the security distance (DS). In cases of unidirectional tunnels whose lighting classes are 1 to 5 both included, the exit zone will have the same luminance than the interior zone of the tunnel (Lex = Lin). Additional lighting to the one foreseen for the interior zone is not required. Nevertheless, independently from the lighting class which corresponds to the tunnel, in certain particular cases of unidirectional tunnels, there are serious risks of discomfort and glare at the exit. This is due to tunnel orientation, for example, or to inconveniences produced at sunrise and sunset, thus, lighting of the tunnel exit zone must be reinforced in the conditions

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established for lighting classes 6 and 7.

13.2.5. Uniformity of the roadway luminance

In tunnels, the roadway and walls behave as limits or visual guides for motor traffic. Thus, a good uniformity must be achieved on the roadway and walls of tunnels up to a height of 2 m. In chart 12, minimum values are established in service with maintenance of the installation of luminance overall and longitudinal uniformity on tunnel roadways, in all zones. That is to say, in their total length and complete width of the roadway, depending on their lighting class.

LUMINANCE UNIFORMITIES ON THE ROADWAY SURFACE LIGHTING CLASS 1-2-3 4-5-6-7 Overall U0 0.3 0.4 Chart 12 UNIFORMITY Longitudinal U1 0.5 0.6

13.2.6. Glare limitation

Given that glare reduces visibility, it is very important to minimize it in tunnel lighting. Disturbing glare, defined as the increase of the contrast threshold (T) necessary to see an obstacle when there is glare, is specified by the following expressions: TI = 65 TI = 95 where: TI = Threshold increase corresponding to disturbing glare. Lv = Total veiling luminance in cd/m2. Lm = Average luminance on the roadway in cd/m2. The threshold increase (TI) must be lower than 15% for threshold, transition and interior zones during the day, and for all zones during the night. For the exit zone during the day, there is no limit in the disturbing glare. (Lm) 0.8 (Lm) 1.05 LV LV in % for 0.05 [ Lm [ 5 in % for Lm > 5 cd/m2 cd/m2

13.2.7. Control of Flickers effect

The feeling of flickering or Flickers effect is the bothering and uncomfortable feeling caused by periodical variations of the luminance in the field of vision. Such feelings are experimented when a vehicle is driven through luminance spatial periodical changes, like the ones produced by luminaires installed in walls or ceilings of tunnels when there exists an inadequate separation between them, with a high speed of change in the distribution of luminous intensity. Visual discomfort experimented by the driver due to flickering or Flickers effect depends fundamentally on the following factors: - Number of changes of the luminance per second (flickering frequency or Flicker). - Total duration of Flickers effect. - Speed of change from light to dark, in a single cycle. - Ratio of peak- light to valley- darkness, within each period (luminance modelling depth). Influence of the three first points depends on the speed of the vehicle and the separation between luminaires; the last point depends on the photometric characteristics, (luminous intensity distribution) and interdistance between luminaires, too. When the distance between the extremes of adjacent luminaires is lower than the length of a single luminaire, the third point

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related to speed of change from light to dark is minimized, the flickering or Flickers effect perceived becomes insignificant, due to the fact that the lighting installation may be similar to a continuous line. In order to calculate the flickering frequency or Flicker in a zone of the tunnel, speed of traffic is divided in metres/ second by the separation between luminaires in metres. Example: v = 60 Km/h. = 16.6 m/s. Luminaire separation = 4 m. Flickering frequency or Flicker = 16.6 / 4 4.2 Hz. Flickering frequencies or Flicker (luminance variation) ranging between 2.5 Hz. and 15 Hz. at driving speed for more than 20 seconds must be avoided, given the fact that the flickering effect may be disregarded for frequencies under 2.5 Hz. and above 15 Hz.

13.2.8. Night- time lighting

If the tunnel is on an illuminated stretch of road, night- time lighting of the tunnel must be, at least, equal to that of the access road. It is recommended to have 1.5 to 2 times the values of the exterior stretch, as far as luminance level of the roadway surface is concerned. Luminance uniformities at night must satisfy the same exigencies than in the case of day- time lighting, thus, following minimum values established in Chart 12. All this will be equally applied to tunnels of 100 m. in length which are not illuminated during the day. In the case of tunnels located on a stretch of the road that is not illuminated, besides installing lighting in the tunnel according to what has been established in the previous paragraph, the rear way of the tunnel exit must be illuminated in a length equal to 2 times security distance (DS), at least in a 200 m. distance, with an average luminance higher than 1/3 of the roadway luminance in the exit zone of the tunnel. Night- time lighting will be equal to the one in the zone of the interior of the tunnel for stretches with paralumens or screens for daytime light in the entrance zone and/ or exit of the tunnel. Supposing that an invigilance system for motor traffic is installed and works through television cameras because of security reasons, the minimum night- time level will be of 1 cd/m2. For general night- time lighting of all zones of the tunnel, the minimum value in service with maintenance of the installation of the roadway average luminance will be established in Chart 13.

LUMINANCES OF NIGHT TIME LIGHTING IN cd/m2 LIGHTING CLASS 1-2 3-4-5-6-7 Chart 13 AVERAGE LUMINANCE CD/M2 0.5 1

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13.3. Lighting of short tunnels and underpasses

Short tunnels and underpasses present the dilemma of providing them with day- time lighting or not. Once the dilemma has been solved in favour of requiring such an installation, the type of day- time lighting to be installed must be decided either limited, completed or with the same characteristics than that of long tunnels. The critical factor for establishing day- time lighting is determined by the certainty or not that drivers of vehicles approaching the tunnel at a distance equal to the security distance (DS), see vehicles and, also, pedestrians crossing it. Likewise, the need of artificial day- time lighting is related to the extent to which the short tunnel exit or underpass is visible for a driver located in front of the entrance, at the security distance (DS). That is to say, vision through the tunnel depends on the following factors: - Tunnel length. - Existence of curves in the interior. - Presence of slopes or ramps in the tunnel.

Figure 7. View of a short tunnel with a frame or dark background. Short tunnels and underpasses shorter than 25 metres in length, normally do not require installation of day- time lighting. When the short tunnel length is slightly higher than 25 metres, the dark background formed by the walls and ceiling of the tunnel, as well as by the roadway itself, may hamper the vision of vehicles and, in turn, of pedestrians crossing it (see Fig. 7), difficulting perception. In this case day- time lighting must be installed in the tunnel or underpass.

13.3.1. Guiding diagrams for short tunnels

With the aim of providing a guide that will allow to make decisions of installing day- time lighting or not in short tunnels and underpasses, as well as opting for the type of day- time lighting to be installed, a classification of four types of short tunnels must be established. A guiding diagram is explained for each one. Short tunnels A type Chart 14. Tunneles located in urban surroundings or by- passes on traffic roads (motorways and dual carriageways excluded), frequently provided with public lighting and whose driving speed is limited between 40 and 60 Km/h.

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Length (m) Visible exit? Lighting required

< 25 YES Daytime lighting is not required

25 to 75 NO YES Limited daytime lighting

75 to 125 NO

> 125 Long tunnel lighting

Daytime lighting for A type tunnels, short or urban tunnels or by- passes (highways and dual carriageways excluded), with limited circulating speed between 40 and 60 km/h. Chart 14 Short tunnels B type Chart 15. Bidirectional intercity tunnels, considering a dense amount of traffic when daily average intensity of vehicles is higher than 5 000 (IMD > 5 000).

Length (m) Visible exit? Speed 80 Km/h Traffic density Lighting required

0 to 80 YES YES

81 to 120 NO NO Light Dense YES NO Light Dense

121 to 150 YES NO

> 150

Day-time lighting is not required

Limited day-time Complete day-time lighting Long tunnel lighting lighting Chart 15

Day-time lighting for type B short, urban, bidirectional tunnels (dense traffic when IMD > 5 000).

Short tunnels C type Chart 16. One- way intercity tunnels (motorways and dual carriageways), estimating a dense amount of traffic when daily average intensity of vehicles is higher than 10 000 (IMD > 10 000).

Length (m) Visible exit? Speed 80 Km/h Traffic volume Lighting required

0 to 100 YES YES

100 to 150 NO NO Light Dense YES Limited day- time lighting NO Light Dense

151 to 200 YES Complete day- time lighting NO

> 200 Long tunnel lighting

Day- time lighting is not required

Day-time lighting for type C short urban unidirectional tunnels for highways and motorways (dense traffic when IMD > 10 000). Chart 16 Short tunnels D type Chart 17. Intercity tunnels with low speed traffic (speed limit considerably lower than 80 Km/h.), and a traffic density notably lower than a daily average intensity of 5 000 vehicles (IMD < 5 000). Length (m) Visible exit? Lighting required 0 to 100 YES 101 to 150 NO YES 151 to 200 NO Complete day- time lighting > 200 Long tunnel lighting

Day- time lighting is not required

Limited day- time lighting

Day- time lighting for type D tunnels, intercity, short with low speed traffic (lower than 80 Km/h) and traffic density lower than 5 000 vehicles in a day (IMD < 5 000). Chart 17

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For each type of short tunnel in guiding diagrams and in their left part, the following four questions are posed: length, exit visibility, speed and traffic density.

- Length (m): Four sorts of length are established for each guiding diagram for short tunnels or underpasses, expressed in metres. - Visible exit?: In each guiding diagram it is considered, whether the exit of the tunnel or underpass is visible or not when the driver of the vehicle approaches the tunnel and finds himself, at least, at a distance equal to that of security distance (DS) before the tunnel entrance. - Speed [80 Km/h: In guiding diagrams 2 and 3, corresponding to tunnels of the B and C type, the speed of the tunnel or underpass design is thought to be higher or lower than 80 Km/h. The design speed is very important in relation to security distance (DS), as well as regarding risk of accidents and their severity. - Traffic density: In guiding diagrams 2 and 3, it is born in mind and it may be classified as light and dense.

In diagram 2 corresponding to short tunnels of the B type (two- way intercity), a dense amount of traffic is valued when daily average intensity of vehicles is higher than 5 000 (IMD > 5 000). In diagram 3, which makes reference to short tunnels of the C type (one- way intercity of motorways and dual carriageways), a dense amount of traffic is estimated when daily average intensity of vehicles in higher than 10 000 (IMD > 10 000). Four diagrams are established constituting a guide of an orientative nature. They also provide help to decide whether the short tunnel or underpass needs day- time lighting or not. If necessary, the type of lighting to be adopted is also detailed. For example, the case of a short tunnel of 120 metres in length, located on an intercity road with slow moving traffic (v < 60 Km/h.) and a daily average intensity of IMD < 3 000. It is necessary to decide whether day- time lighting must be provided and, in case it is required, to determine the type of lighting to be installed. The working system is the one described below: Following guiding diagram n. 4, the tunnel is located within the corresponding interval of lengths. That is to say, between 101 and 150 metres. The second question, visible exit?, is answered. For an affirmative answer, day- time lighting is not required according to diagram 4. For a negative answer, due to the existence of curves or slopes in the interior of the tunnel, limited day- time lighting is installed. Supposing the same short tunnel but with a length of 170 metres, according to diagram 4, the only two alternatives are, in case the tunnel exit is not visible, the installation of limited day- time or complete day- time lighting respectively. Diagrams constitute a practical guide that, for each concrete situation, will be adapted to the type of road bearing in mind:

- The real structure of the tunnel, its access and exit roads. - Traffic density and composition, either motorized or mixed, including slow and fast moving vehicles, bicyclists, pedestrians, etc. Guiding diagrams may be considered to be orientative for the design, working and maintenance of short tunnels and underpasses lighting. The following technical and economic considerations will be taken into account:

- Performance of a detailed analysis of the risk of accidents and security in relation to lighting (quality and quantity). - Study of convenient marking at the entrance of the tunnel, especially regarding the limit speed, turn- on of vehicle headlights, etc. - Performance a meticulous exam of installation costs and annual exploitation of lighting, including working, maintenance and repairing costs in relation to security and comfort provided by such an installation (costs/ benefits binomial).

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13.3.2. Lighting types in short tunnels

As it has been established in the four guiding diagrams, besides night- time lighting, situations that may be present for daytime lighting in short tunnels are the following: - Lighting not required. - Limited day- time lighting. - Complete day- time lighting. 13.3.2.1. Day- time lighting not required When lighting for short tunnels is not important and, thus, day- time lighting is not required. 13.3.2.2. Limited day- time lighting It is so called, since it is only working during some part of the time. That is to say, day- time lighting is only working during periods in which daytime sunlight does not provide a high enough luminance background to allow the silhouette effect to take place. Such conditions may occur after dusk, before dawn and in cloudy days. For limited day- time lighting, average luminance in servicie of the roadway with maintenance of the installation will be three times the luminance of the interior zone of the tunnel (3.Lin), according to the limits established in Chart 11, or 15 cd/m2. The highest figure of the two must be adopted. In the morning, limited day- time lighting must be turned on half an hour after sunrise and turned off when luminance in the access zone L20 exceeds 150 cd/m2 (L20 > 150 cd/m2). In the evening, it will be turned on when luminance of the access zone L20 goes under 150 cd/m2 (L20 < 150 cd/m2) and turn off will be done half an hour before sunset. 13.3.2.3. Complete day- time lighting Complete day- time lighting is working during the total period of day- time. Basically, short tunnels similar to long tunnels must be illuminated like the latter. Consequently, complete day- time lighting will be maintained along all the length of the tunnel. Levels of luminance required in the threshold zone of long tunnels will be taken away from factor k established in Chart 10, according to their corresponding lighting class (Chart 7). 13.3.2.4. Night- time lighting For short tunnels or underpasses longer than 25 m., in which approximation roads are illuminated, installation of night- time lighting is required. The level of average luminance in service of the roadway with maintenance of the installation will be, at least equal, but not higher than two times the luminance of the approximation road.

13.4. Emergency lighting

Regarding this type of lighting, the norm establishes that when a tunnel suffers from a failure of power supply, an emergency power supply system and an emergency lighting system must be at hand. Emergency lighting must cover the total length of the tunnel and the level of luminance must be, at least, less than 10% of the interior luminance or 0.2 cd/m2 (the highest is chosen). In tunnels of the 3 7 lighting class, a lighting system for fire- prevention emergency guidance is required (whenever at least one exit is not visible from any position). The positioning of these luminaires will be on a wall at a height of 0.50 m of the roadway and with a separation lower than 50 m.

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13.5. Maintenance
The maintenance factor used in lighting studies normally covers luminaire depreciation (dirtiness) and lamp (loss of luminous flux). In the case of tunnels which are installations with a high degree of atmospheric pollution, it is very important to have a maintenance program (cleaning of walls and luminaires) defining the cleaning cycles which will allow to comply with the factor established in the study. The norm recommends to use a maintenance factor of 0.7 to define the value of the average level of the luminance of the roadway and 0.5 for the walls. Relamping will be performed when the average level is under the one established or the lack of uniformity is unacceptable.

13.6. Ignition control

It is very important to have an automatically controlled system in this kind of installations, taking into account that levels of the threshold and transition zones are established according to the luminance of the access zone. When exterior conditions vary (daytime ones), it is necessary to modify levels of these zones to maintain the quality of the design criteria used in the study of lighting.

13.7. Night- time lighting (exterior zone of the tunnel)

For the exit zone of the tunnel, the exterior roadway must be illuminated in a length equal to two times the stopping distance (not higher than 200 m.), with an average level higher than 1/3 of the tunnel exit zone. In the tunnel under study, for design to be a bit more conservative, tunnel access zones will extend from 200 to 250 m. In the access zone, luminaires of the example under study with a 250W high pressure sodium lamp, in 12 m. high posts in a onesided disposition at an interdistance between luminaires of 30 m. must be installed. When there are sunscreens in the entrance or exit zones of the tunnel, the lighting level will be equal to the one in the interior zone of the tunnel.

13.8. Tunnel lighting design

Regarding guiding charts for short tunnels specified in section 13.3. of the present chapter, they constitute only a guide that must be adapted to the concrete type of tunnel and access and exit roads. Underpasses under roads or railways shorter than 25 m. in length, constitute the minimum stretches of covered road that are habitually present. Given the short length, the installation of lighting during the day is not normally necessary. In order to ease entrance of daytime sunlight in the interior of the short tunnel or underpass, it is convenient to perform the following measures when possible: - Build a higher mouth of the tunnel. - Cover the tunnel walls of white color (specular covering). - Install skylights on the tunnel ceiling.

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SHORT TUNNELS TYPES OF TUNNELS Length TYPE A DIAGRAM-1 < 25 25 to 75 75 to 125 > 125 YES NO Speed < 80 km/h Traffic density TYPE B DIAGRAM-2 < 80 80 to 120 120 to 150 > 150 YES NO YES NO LIGHT DENSE
* In type B tunnels, traffic density is high when IMD > 5 000. ** In type C tunnels, traffic density is high when IMD > 10 000.

TYPE C DIAGRAM-3 < 100 100 to 150 150 to 200 > 200 YES NO YES NO LIGHT DENSE

TYPE D DIAGRAM-4 < 100 100 to 150 150 to 200 > 200 YES NO

Visible exit?

Chart 18

If lighting is foreseen on the road, this will be installed in such a way that an adequate penetration of lighting inside the short tunnel or underpass is guaranteed. The content of guiding diagrams for short tunnels and underpasses detailed in section 13.3. are summarized in the previous chart. A high reflectance of walls is important to increase brightness of the background against which objects may be seen. In short tunnels, where the exit is not visible from the security distance (DS) in front of the tunnel entrance, reflectance of walls is particularly important. The reason is that reflectance of high walls will secure that a great amount of day- time lighting, entering through the exit mouth, is reflected towards drivers. Walls with a diffused reflectance in service higher than 40% are known as HIGH, and walls with less than 40% of reflectance, are called LOW (the depreciation or maintenance factor must be considered). In any tunnel, walls must have a white covering of up to 2 m. in height, with a flat surface and a high specular reflectance in service or maintained. The low part down to 0.50 m. and lateral sidewalks may be blackened or painted black, basically when the roadway covering is light or white, due to vehicle driving needs with a good maintained contrast, in order to improve total perception. When reflectance of the walls is classified as LOW, length signalled in each of the four guiding diagrams must be reduced in a 20%. The degree of day- time light entering the exit is also important. Thus, a tunnel with a big transverse section, for example, of three lanes or wider, and a flat exit or with a downward slope and facing south, will admit a maximum of day- time light and will contribute considerably to visibility in the tunnel. Moreover, day- time light may be poor when the tunnel has two or fewer lanes, in case the exit is located in a cut or is surrounded by high buildings. Also when the road has an upward slope from the exit or in case the exit faces north. The importance of day-time light near the exit decreases with the length of the tunnel. When day- time light is GOOD, the length indicated for each of the four guiding diagrams must be increased up to a 20%. As far as tunnel geometry and access roads are concerned, lighting design of the tunnel must follow the most conservative route for each guiding diagram. The same attitude must be considered when: - The tunnel has a slope first and a ramp later (changes in vertical curvature). - There are geometrical discontinuities or singularities.

In case the tunnel presents a bad total perception, lighting design must follow a conservative path for each of the four guiding diagrams. A specific analysis is needed when transportation of dangerous cargo is frequent. In this case, lighting design in the tunnel must be performed following the most conservative path for each of the guiding diagrams.

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13.9. Visual guidance

When driving in the interior of a tunnel, a vehicles driver must have adequate information. This may be achieved dividing the longitudinal surface of the tunnel into several contrast surfaces, like for example, leaving light tunnel walls and dark celings. Visual guidance is extremely important when the user is driving the vehicle and he approaches the tunnel, particularly, if the luminous level of the entrance zone is low. In Chart 4 ponderation factors have been established for a poor or good visual guidance.

13.9.1. Visual guidance for long tunnels

In tunnels with lighting classes 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 (Chart 7), independently from vertical marking, horizontal marking must be carefully attended. In the evaluation of ponderation factors according to visual guidance (Chart 5), installation of additional retro reflective dispositives will be considered (beaconing, rows of luminaires, post mounted delineators, etc.) on the tunnel walls as well as on the roadway surface, especially in the case of tunnels corresponding to lighting classes 5, 6 and 7 (Chart 7). 13.9.1.1. Visual guidance in the entrance zone for tunnels. Lighting class 1 In the entrance zone of tunnels with a lighting class 1 (Chart 7), in the first 75 m., at least five luminaires must be installed whose luminous intensities towards the driver will be adjusted to what has been established in Chart 19. It may be necessary to tilt luminaires, in order to achieve the luminous intensities specified in Chart 19. CHART I LUMINOUS INTENSITIES IN TUNNEL ENTRANCE ZONE LIGHTING CLASS 1 ANGLE TIME During the day During the night 80 < < 87.5 INTENSITY (cd) MIN. 300 8 Chart 19 MAX. 800 50 MIN. = 87.5 INTENSITY (cd) MAX. 400 25

In order to secure an adequate visual guidance, the separation between luminaires will not be higher than 25 m. In curved tunnels, at least four luminaires will be visible. Regarding separation between luminaires this could be reduced. 13.9.1.2. Visual guidance in the interior zone for tunnels. Lighting class 1 In the interior zone of tunnels, lighting class 1 (Chart 19), the luminaires installed will have luminous intensities towards the driver that will comply with what has been established in Chart 20.

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CHART II LUMINOUS INTENSITIES IN TUNNEL INTERIORS LIGHTING CLASS 1 ANGLE TIME Day and night 80 < < 87.5 INTENSITY (cd) MIN. 8 Chart 20 MAX. 50 MIN. = 87.5 INTENSITY (cd) MAX. 25

13.9.2. Visual guidance for short tunnels

Short tunnels or underpasses which lack a lighting installation, require a good marking, both vertical and horizontal. The following dispositions may be used for visual guidance: - Retroreflective marking on the roadway. - Retroreflective beaconing system (rows of luminaires, post mounted delineators, etc.) on the roadway. - Retroreflective marking and beaconing on the walls. - Light- emitter diodes.

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14.1 General remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 14.2 Lighting and security levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 14.3 Contrast vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 14.4 Zoning system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 14.5 Lamp selection criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 14.6 Upper hemisphere flux limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 14.7 Other characteristics of luminaires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 14.8 Distances between zones and point of reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 14.9 Pavement photometric characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 14.10 Lighting level temporal variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 14.11 Recommendations to reduce lighting pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 14.12 Appendix: Recommendable orientative values to limit disturbing light coming from exterior lighting installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268

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14.1. General remarks

Since the beginning of history, humankind has always worried about the origin and destiny of our planet, as well as about the existence of life on the Earth. The study of the firmament has always been linked to this worry. From the beginnings of the 20th century and for the first time in our History, night- time vision of our firmament is under attack, without our realizing about it, because of the anarchic lighting of urban settlements. Light pollution in the sky of our villages and cities is preventing us from contemplating one of the most beautiful wonders. The sky has been and still is a source of inspiration for humankind. However, its contemplation is more and more difficult; even for young generations, it is beginning to belong to the unknown. Due to this reason, the "Comit Espaol de Iluminacin" (the Spanish Commission on Illumination), has developed a Guide for the Reduction of Night- time Luminous Glow. It is a kind of technical report we pretend to outline below. Light pollution is defined as night- time luminous brightness or glow in the sky, produced by the diffusion and reflection of artificial light in gases and particles suspended in the atmosphere. Such glow, generally produced partly by sources of light installed in external areas, make brightness of the natural sky background to increase, progressively reducing the value of observation magnitude of astronomical objects and making observation more difficult. We must distinguish natural brightness, attributable to the radiation of the celestial sources or objects and to the luminescence of the atmosphere upper layers, from luminous glow due to artificial sources of light installed in external areas. In the latter case, upwards direct emissions of several sources of artificial light, as well as radiation reflected by surfaces illuminated by such sources of light must be considered. In order to reduce light pollution imputable to artificial sources of light action must be taken. On the one hand, on devices or luminaires themselves which emit light and. On the other hand, on lighting installation implementing only the minimum number of aiming points which will allow to reach the required lighting levels without overcoming them. This action will also mean that, as far as road lighting is concerned, certain recommendations on the type of pavements to be used on roadways must be established. Likewise, temporal variation or diminution of lighting levels at certain hours at night must be considered, (during these periods of time, traffic intensity decreases substantially), provided users security is guaranteed on such roads. Moreover, lamp selection criteria must be carefully considered, specially in the immediacy of astronomical observatories of international category or "E 1" zone, where the installation of only high pressure and low pressure sodium lamps is recommended. Low pressure sodium lamps should be preferably installed, since they do not emit within the ultraviolet area (far reaching waves with great energy), there are no interferences with telemetric and spectrographic equipment of astronomical observatories. Also, other alternatives directed to lessening light pollution or luminous glow in the sky must be considered, in relation to advertising and amenity lighting. It must also be pinpointed that light pollution or brightness attributable to sources of artificial light, does not exclusively come from the design or lighting installation layout. but It is dependant, too, on atmospheric conditions (humidity, clouds, fog, aerosols, atmospheric pollution, etc.). In sum, light pollution is determined by two main factors, namely: - Emission of light coming from luminaires for public lighting, either by direct emission (light not controlled in the luminaire upper hemisphere) or by indirect emission (reflection of light on walls, roadways or surfaces to be illuminated). - Sources of light used for external lighting, since their different emission spectra may be more or less dangerous.

14.2. Lighting and security levels

Within the European Union, there is a considerable amount of traffic circulating at night, with an average of about 25%. Likewise, the ratio of night-time fatal accidents ranges between 25% and 59%, with an average of approximately 48.5%. In Spain, night- time motor traffic is about 24.3%, and the number of casualties due to night- time accidents amounts to 43%. The main reason for such high rates in night- time accidents is darkness itself, since drivers visual capacities (acuity and visual field, distance judging, contrast vision, chromatic perception and glare tolerance) are negatively altered due to null or no-existent luminous levels. Consequently, visibility is exceedingly reduced during night- time. According to some studies conducted by the C.I.E., it has been proved that lighting of road traffic reduces the total number of accidents in about 30% during the night.

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Visual task and pedestrians needs differ from drivers in many aspects. The speed of movement is lower, and the perception of objects surrounding pedestrians is more important than seeing objects that are further away. Therefore, quality criteria of pedestrian lighting cannot be equal to those of road traffic. In urban areas, perception of their immediate environment is more important for pedestrians, in order to avoid any type of crime (thefts, vandalism, sexual harassment, terrorist acts, etc.). The decision whether lighting for a public road in a certain area or place must be provided or not must be taken based on a detailed study. Once the decision to service a lighting installation has been made, design criteria and lighting levels will be adjusted, avoiding exceeding the criteria established in the following C.I.E. publications: - Publication C.I.E. 47: 1979 - Publication C.I.E. 66: 1984 - Publication C.I.E. 92: 1992 - Publication C.I.E. 115: 1995 - Publication C.I.E. 126: 1997 Road Lighting for Wet Conditions. Road Pavement and Lighting. Guide to the Lighting of Urban Areas. Recommendations for the Lighting of Roads for Motor and Pedestrian Traffic. Guidelines for Minimizing Sky Glow.

Nevertheless, lighting levels established in the publications above may be exceeded up to a 20%, except for cases correctly justified in which it would be possible to exceed such percentage. As far as those elements which constitute the installation, LIGHTING ENGINEERING calculations, measurements, maintenance, etc. whatever is established in the following C.I.E. publications will be observed: - Publication C.I.E. 30.2: 1982 - Publication C.I.E. 31: 1976 - Publication C.I.E. 32/AB: 1977 - Publication C.I.E. 33: 1977 - Publication C.I.E. 34: 1977 - Publication C.I.E. 121: 1996 Calculation and Measurement of Luminance and Illuminance in Road Lighting. Glare and Uniformity in Road Lighting Conditions. Lighting in Situations Requiring Special Treatment (in Road Lighting). Depreciation of Installations and their Maintenance. Road Lighting Lantern and Installation Data.Photometrics, Classification and Performance. The Photometry and Goniophotometry of Luminaires

14.3. Contrast vision

Visibility of an object located on a background, depends on luminance differences between an object and its background. For a light coloured object over a dark background, its contrast will be positive (values between 0 and infinitum). However, an object darker than its background will be seen as a silhouette and its contrast will be negative, varying between 0 and (1). By definition, contrast is expressed as shown below: L0 Lf Lf

C= Being: L0= Object luminance. Lf= Background luminance. Contrast C may be either positive or negative: If L0 >Lf If L0 <Lf

C > 0 positive contrast (the object is lighter than its background). C < 0 negative contrast (the object is darker than its background). 0<C< -1 < C < 0

Contrast C may acquire the following values: Positive contrast (light object) Negative contrast (dark object)

Light pollution or night- time luminous glare in the sky produces a veil in the observation field which has its own luminance L v. At the same time, this luminance is added to the luminance of the object and its background. Thus, the new contrast C is the following:

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C =

(L0 + Lv) (Lf + Lv) (Lf LV)

L0 Lf Lf LV

It is always verified that C < C, given that the dividend is the same and the divisor is always greater. When veiling luminance Lv increases, the observed object may disappear from the field of vision, specially in the case of astronomic observations when a star or celestial object with a very weak luminance L0 is under study.

14.4. Zoning system

Potential contradictions between photometric exigencies related to night- time human activity, security for vehicle and pedestrian traffic, quality of life, integrity of environment, properties, goods, etc. and light pollution or night- time luminous glow in the sky which makes astronomic observations of celestial objects difficult, must be approached to adopt solutions. As far as environment is concerned, when a polluting activity cannot be totally controlled, the basic idea consists in avoiding that environmental consequences due to pollution damage equally all areas or situations. The zoning system does not stop environmental pollution, but it is valid as a reference frame for environmental friendly legislation and regulation. In order to limit interferences produced by light pollution to astronomical observatories known as "point of reference", the introduction of the zoning system answers two goals. On the one hand, it allows to establish lighting requisites in an area where the "point of reference" is located. On the other hand, it eases the task of stipulating lighting requirements in other areas, adjacent or not, to the particular area where the "point of reference is located.

ZONE CLASSIFICATION E1 E2 E3 E4 LOW BRIGHTNESS AREAS: Rural areas

DESCRIPTION DARK SURROUNDING AREAS: International category astronomic observatories AVERAGE BRIGHTNESS AREAS: Residential urban areas HIGH BRIGHTNESS AREAS: High night- time activity in urban centers Chart 1. Description of zoning system.

National parks and areas with a special natural beauty will receive the same treatment as the "E 1" zone, as far as installed upper hemisphere flux limitations go, as established in Chart 2. Distance regime shown in Chart 4 is not applied to the rest of the zones.

14.5. Lamp selection criteria

Discharge lamp types are recommended. For motor traffic roads and urban areas, high pressure sodium lamps will be preferably used, due to their high luminous efficacy (lm/W) and better colour performance than low pressure sodium lamps. These are recommended in roads in the open, rural areas and areas requiring safety lighting. Likewise, in landscaped areas, old quarters, etc. high pressure mercury lamps, metal halide, etc., may be used. In "E 1" zones where the "point of reference" is located, (astronomical observatories of international category), it is recommended to install low and high pressure sodium lamps, preferably using the latter.

14.6. Upper hemisphere flux limitations

Installed FHSinst upper hemisphere flux emitted by a luminaire is defined as the one directed over the horizontal plane. Such a plane corresponds to the angle = 90 in the (C,) representation system. The hemisphere flux is expressed in a percentage of the total flux emitted by the luminaire. In Chart 2, upper hemisphere flux maximum limits or installed values FHSinst are established for each of the areas.

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ZONE CLASSIFICATION E1 E2 E3 E4

INSTALLED FHSinst UPPER HEMISPHERE FLUX (%) 0 0-5 0-15 0-25 Chart 2. Limit values for the installed upper hemisphere flux.

As a way of an example, Chart 3 contains the type of astronomic observations possible for each zone.

ZONE CLASSIFICATION E1 E2 E3 E4

ASTRONOMIC ACTIVITIES International Category Observatories Academic and Postgraduate Studies Observatories Amateur Observatories Sporadic Observations Chart 3. Astronomic activities possible for each zone.

Nevertheless, in the case of lighting of highways and dual carriageways, important urban routes, by-passes, etc. it is recommended to install luminaires with an Installed FHSinst 5% upper hemisphere flux. In the case of pedestrian lighting, as well as artistic with lanterns, historic devices, etc., an FHSinst 25% is suggested When the life of lighting installations is exhausted, or renovation is needed for any reason, it is recommended to install luminaires with the upper hemisphere flux limitations shown above in this section. It is advisable to have a replacement program of existent luminaires whose installed upper hemisphere flux is greater than 25% (FHSinst/25%), installing luminaires which comply with the values recommended in this section.

14.7. Other characteristics of luminaires

Considering that the performance of a luminaire is the ratio between the flux emitted by the luminaire and the flux produced by the lamp, for lighting installations of traffic motor roads, it is suggested to install preferably luminaires with a performance equal or above 70% (clear tubular lamp) or 60% (opal ovoid lamp). Likewise, it is suggested that luminaires used in the lighting of pedestrian areas, artistic lanterns, historic devices, etc. will be provided with an optical block, both to control light emission for the upper hemisphere and to increase the utilization factor for the lower hemisphere. In all examples, luminaire photometric distribution will be considered to be the most adequate one to obtain the maximum energetic efficiency of the installation.

14.8. Distances between zones and point of reference

Light pollution or night- time luminous glow in the sky of a specific zone, for example, the particular area where the "point of reference" is located (international category astronomic observatories), is due to the dimensions of such a zone and to its own lighting, as well as lighting of the neighboring or adjacent areas. Thus, lighting of those areas around that which contains the "point of reference" must be considered. Lighting influence of those neighboring or adjacent areas over the total light pollution in the "point of reference", depends on distances between the borders of the zones and the "point of reference". In Chart 4, distances in Km. recommended between limits for each zone (E 1, E 2, E 3, E 4) and the "point of reference" are established.

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REFERENCE POINT ZONE E1 E2 E3 E4 E1-E2 1

DISTANCE BETWEEN LIMITS IN ZONES E2-E3 10 1 WITHOUT LIMITS Chart 4. Minimum distances in Km. between limits for each zone. E3-E4 100 10 1

For the correct use of Chart 4, the zone where the "point of reference" is located must be first selected. Afterwards, in Chart 4, the minimum distance in Km. is obtained, where the following zone begins, and so on for the rest of adjacent areas. Values recorded in Chart 4 have been deduced from practical experience, even when the number of cases under study has been limited.

14.9. Pavement photometric characteristics

Whenever constructive characteristics, composition and execution systems are ideal with respect to texture, slip- resistance, flatness, surface drainage, etc., it is advisable to use pavements whose characteristics and reflexive properties are adequate for public lighting installations. The aim is to achieve the maximum luminance and uniformity to an equal illuminance, thus, reaching, a greater separation between aiming points in roadways. Pavement luminosity of a roadway is directly linked to its photometric properties, and to the pavement average luminance coefficient Q0, to be exact. Hence, given identical illuminance, the higher such a coefficient is, so will roadway luminance be. TI disability glare will be lower. The specular factor S1 determines to what extent characteristics of the pavement, respect to reflection of incident light, separate from those of a surface which secures a perfect diffused reflection. This happens in such a way that, illuminance being equal, the lower the S1 specular factor is the greater luminance uniformities. From all this, it may be deduced that, whenever possible in roadways, it is convenient to use pavements with an average luminance coefficient or degree of luminosity Q0 as high as possible, and whose S1 specular factor is low.

14.10. Lighting level temporal variations

In traffic routes, pedestrian areas, cycle paths, etc., luminous levels may be reduced during certain hours at night, whenever users security is guaranteed. In concrete places, with high percentages of night- time accidents, pedestrian areas with a considerable risk of criminality, etc., it is recommended not to perform temporal variations in lighting levels, due to security reasons. Under any circumstances will reductions go under the advisable lighting level for traffic security and pedestrian movement. Reduction of lighting levels by means of aiming points turn off is not advisable. Supposing that such a procedure is used, minimum uniformities established in C.I.E. publications must be maintained. Reduction through regulation systems is considered to be the most adequate procedure because it avoids shadowy areas and light walls which make vision difficult; at the same time, uniformities are maintained.

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14.11. Recommendations to reduce light pollution

Possible alternatives to reduce light pollution or night- time lighting glow in the sky are the following: - to switch off advertising and decorative lighting from a certain hour onwards. - to direct light downwards and not upwards whenever possible, especially lighting for edifices and monuments (Fig. 1).

NO

YES

YES

Figure 1 If there is no possibility to direct lighting downwards and not upwards, use screens and paralumens to avoid dispersion of

light beam (Fig. 2).

NO

YES

YES

Figure 2 To install lighting equipments which will reduce the dispersion of light on the horizontal plane of the luminaire, with

minimum values or even none over such plane (Figs. 3 and 4).

NO

YES

Figure 3

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YES NO
Figure 4 For glare to be minimum, direct light ray beams downwards keeping them under 70. If mounting height is increased, light ray beams shoud be lowered. In places with low environmental light, glare may be very disturbing. Due to this reason, positioning, aiming or orientation of luminaires may be carefully attended (Fig. 5).

YES
90 70 <70

O.K.

NO
Figure 5 When possible, it is recommended to install luminaires with an asymmetric reflector which will permit to maintain their front closing parallel or almost parallel to the surface that needs to be illuminated (Fig. 6).

NO

YES

Figure 6 In order to avoid installing excess of light, recommendations which fix levels to light different tasks with tolerances permited must be observed. In the case of small safety lighting installations and house lighting, there are two solutions: Passive detectors of infrared rays may be effectively used if correctly installed and lined. In general, a 150 W. halogene lamp is more than enough. 300/500 W. lamps provide too much lighting, greater glare and darker and more emphasized shadows.

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Permanent illuminations with low brightness during all night. are equally acceptable. In the case of a porch in a house, a compact fluorescent lamp of 9 W. (600 lm.) is adequate for most cases. - For motor traffic lighting, flux emitted above the horizontal plane must be reduced and close light must be restricted.

14.12. Apendix: "Recommended orientative values for limiting bothering light coming from exterior lighting installations"
Division 5 of the C.I.E. elaborated a roughdraft of a technical report "Guide on the limitation of the effects of bothering light coming from exterior lighting installations" through its Technical Committee TC 5-12, at the end of 1995 . Given its empirical nature and subject to modifications resulting from observing parameters included in the mentioned Guide, the most adequate attitude seems to be including such parameters as a way of orientation and not as obligatory values to be applied. This way, their incorporation has been performed by means of limitation charts like an appendix and not as part of the present chapter. The intention being that consignated valued will be compared with our own experience in our country. Five types of specific effects produced by bothering lighting coming from exterior lighting installations may be considered. These are the following: Effects on astronomical observations Lighting engineering parameters implied are: - Night- time lighting of the sky by dispersion of light coming from exterior lighting installations (night- time luminous glow). It depends on the (FHSinst) installed upper hemisphere flux as well as on the reflected flux. - Spectral characteristics of night- time luminous glow. It is equivalent to speaking about wavelengths coming from luminous emissions (types of lamps). - Direct light on the astronomical observatory itself. Effects on residents Lighting engineering parameters to be considered are the following: - Vertical illuminance (EV) on face surfaces, for example, bedroom windows. -Luminance (L) of luminaires, given the fact that their direct vision may be disturbing. Due to the difficulty in predetermining such luminance, this parameter is substituted by luminous intensity () of the source of light in the potential direction of the bothering source of light. Effects on citizens Lighting engineering parameters to bear in mind when talking about the effects of lighting on citizens in general (passers-by, tourists, etc.) are the following: - Average luminance (Lm) of surfaces of vertical faces in edifices. Sometimes, as a consequence of excessive lighting, they may be bothering instead of highlighting decorative or ornamental aspects. Effects on users of transportation systems Significative lighting engineering parameters are the following: - Increase of threshold contrast (TI) which expresses limitation of disturbing glare in the lighting of motor roads. This also constitutes the measurement through which a loss of sight caused by such glare is quantified. - Visual caos originated by signalling observation against bright backgrounds produced by intense luminous sources. Effects on transportation signalling systems Significative lighting engineering parameters are the following: - Disturbing glare represented by an increase in the threshold area (), defined as the amount of extra contrast, with regards to the original contrast, necessary to see the object again when there is glare. - In case transportation systems work near lighting installations, as in the case of maritime transport, aviation, etc., relevant authorities will establish adequate norms. According to the classification of zones established in Chart 1, recommendations as a way of orientation for limiting bothering or discomforting light coming from exterior lighting installations, are expressed as maximum values in the following chart:

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NIGHT- TIME ZONE CLASSIFICATION LUMINOUS GLOW IN THE SKY FHSinst % E1 E2 E3 E4 0 5 15 25

LIGHT IN WINDOWS EV (lux) Before lighting time 2 5 10 25 After lighting time 1* 1 5 10

INTENSITY OF SOURCE Before ** reduced time 0 50 100 100 After reduced time 0 0.5 1.0 2.5

Luminance in edifices*** Lm (cd/m2) After reduced time 0 5 10 25 10 10 15 15 Disturbing glare %

Chart 5. Limitations of bothering light coming from exterior lighting installations. FHSinst EV Lm T * ** *** Maximum permited percentage of installed upper hemisphere flux in percentage. Vertical illuminance in lux. Luminous intensity in Kilocandelas (Kcd.). Average luminance in cd/m2. Contrast threshold increase in percentage. Acceptable only for lighting installations of motor traffic roads. Applicable to each source of light in the potential direction of the bother. In order to avoid excessive lighting, luminance is limited in edifices. It must coincide with the general luminosity of the area.

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