PgDip/MSc The Energy Programme/Subsurface

Basic Geology

Basic Geology
Review
In this topic the student is introduced to the fundamentals of the Earths structure, plate tectonics and rock types.

Content
Earth Structure
Figure 1 illustrates the structure of the Earth. There is a central solid iron core, surrounded by a liquid iron core, the lower mantle and the upper mantle. The upper mantle consists of a weak, partially molten asthenosphere and a strong lithosphere with a surficial crust of light rock. About 90% of the earths crust is made up of the four elements: iron, oxygen, silicon and magnesium, which are the fundamental building blocks of most minerals. Iron, being heavy, sinks to the core, and lighter elements such as silicon, aluminium, calcium, potassium and sodium have risen to the crust.
Figure 1. The Earths Structure. (From THE DYNAMIC EARTH by B.J. Skinner and S.C. Porter, copyright 2000 John Wiley and Sons. This material is used by permission of John Wiley and Sons, Inc.)

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Plate Tectonics
Plate Tectonics was first proposed in the 1960s. The central idea is the division of the lithosphere into 12 rigid plates (6 major ones), which each move as distinct units (Figure 2). The plates consist of rigid lithosphere (with either thin, dense oceanic crust or thick, less dense continental crust), which floats on the partially molten asthenosphere (Figure 3). Convection currents within the asthenosphere are thought to be the driving force behind the plate movement. Where hot matter rises under the ocean it flows apart and carries the plates along with it (Figure 4). When this hot matter cools and sinks the plates also begin to sink. The plates are constantly moving, which explains why the Atlantic Ocean did not exist 150 Ma (million years ago). At this time it has been established that Eurasia, Africa and the Americas were all one continent called Pangea. It is possible to trace the effects of tectonics back approximately 4.6 billion years, although the rock record and hence history becomes hazy after about 1 billion years. The margins between the 12 plates are Divergent (spreading apart), Convergent (colliding together) or Transform (sliding past each other). Plates are constantly produced and consumed. Volcanic and seismic activity along plate margins varies depending on type. Trailing edges tend not to be particularly active (most of Europe) wheras leading edges tend to be very active.
Figure 2. Tectonic Plates Today (Peter J Sloss, NOAA-NESDIS-NGDC).

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Figure 3. Close-Up of Crust and Asthenosphere. (From UNDERSTANDING EARTH by Frank Press and Raymond Siever, 1998, 1994 W.H. Freeman and Company. Used with permission.)

Figure 4. Convection Currents and Plate Movement Theories. (From UNDERSTANDING

EARTH by Frank Press and Raymond Siever, 1998, 1994 W.H. Freeman and Company. Used with permission.)

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Divergent Margins
Figure 5A illustrates a divergent plate boundary. Related features include linear Mid Ocean Ridges (the Mid Atlantic Ridge) where the lithosphere breaks and a rift develops. As the lithosphere breaks hot lava rises from the asthenosphere. The rift continues to open thus separating the two plates. This occurred between America and Africa and lead to the formation of the Atlantic Ocean basin. The Mid Ocean Ridge (MOR) is characterised by earthquakes and volcanism. Different lavas have different viscosities.This leads to a variation of divergent speeds, and in turn to offsets in the plate margin. The mid atlantic ridge shows an average speed of 2.5 cm/year whereas 18 cm/year can be found in the South Pacific.

Convergent Margins
When two plates are being pushed together the denser one will ride below the lighter one, creating a subduction zone. Less buoyant oceanic crust usually sinks below the thicker, lighter continental crust. Features associated with this subduction include mountain building, trench formation, earthquakes and volcanism. The contact of the Nazca plate and the South American plate led to the formation of the Andes mountain range and the Chilean deep-sea trench (Figure 5B). The Nazca plate (plate 1) buckles downwards and the overriding South American plate (plate 2) is crumpled and uplifted. As the subducted plate sinks it will melt, generating a source of hot molten rock that rises into the overlying crust, inducing volcanism. Where two plates converge at thick continental crust edges, subduction is low and an ever growing mountain range is formed, termed a collision boundary (Figure 5C). The Himalayas are formed due to collision of the Asian and Indian plates for example.

Transform Faults
Transform faults occur where two plates slide past each other (Figure 5D). The movement is generally not regular and uniform but occurs abruptly as a series of sudden slip faults. The San Andreas Fault in America where the Pacific plate slides past the North American plate is an example. The sudden slip movements produce a series of damaging earthquakes along the fault. In summary, divergent zones are sources of new lithosphere and subduction zones are sinks. Material is created and consumed in equal amounts. If this were not true, the Earth would change in size.
Figure 5. Types of Plate Margin. (From THE DYNAMIC EARTH by B.J. Skinner and S.C. Porter, copyright 2000 John Wiley and Sons. This material is used by permission of John Wiley and Sons, Inc.)

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Magnetism
Motions in the fluid iron core of the Earth set up a dynamo action thus generating the Earths magnetic field (Figure 6). Rocks are magnetised in the direction of the magnetic field at the time of their formation. The rocks can be dated radiometrically and thus the history of the magnetic field recorded. Such studies have shown that the field reverses direction (the reason for which is unexplained) with such reversals evident on the seafloor. Figure 7 illustrates the symmetrical pattern of magnetised rocks either side of a MOR.
Figure 6. Magnetic Field Lines. (From THE DYNAMIC EARTH by B.J. Skinner and S.C. Porter, copyright 2000 John Wiley and Sons. This material is used by permission of John Wiley and Sons, Inc.)

Figure 7. Magnetised Rocks Either Side of a MOR. (From UNDERSTANDING EARTH by

Frank Press and Raymond Siever, 1998, 1994 W.H. Freeman and Company. Used with permission.)

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Minerals and Crystals

A mineral is defined as any naturally formed, solid, chemical substance having a specific compostion and characteristic crystal strucure. Diamond is a mineral as it has a defined composition (pure carbon) and crystal structure (the atoms are packed in a three dimensional array). Graphite is also a mineral of pure carbon, but with a sheet like crystallographic strucure. Coal is not a mineral as it is composed of many different compounds (although mainly carbon), the proportion of which varies from one place to another, and has no defined structure. Coal is a rock, which is an aggregate of minerals. Most minerals are made up of several elements. Table 1 shows the percentage of different elements in the Earths continental crust. These elements combine to form molecules, which in turn combine to form minerals. Silicates form the majority of the Earths minerals. Figure 8 shows the evolution of rock. Crystals take on seven basic shapes or structures (Figure 9). Some elements and compounds are polymorphic, ie, they can take on more than one crystal strucure (carbon forms both diamond and graphite). Examination of the crystallographic strucure of a particular rock mineral can tell us a lot about its history and formation. If a crystal is allowed to grow unhindered space wise, it will take on a perfect shape (Figure 10). Salt for example forms cubic crystals. Commonly however in rock formation, crystal growth is halted by growth of neighbouring crystals, or the crystals are abraded and fractured. Although there are many hundreds of minerals, there are 20-30 major rock forming minerals.
Table 1. Most Abundant Elements in the Earths Crust.

Element O Si Al Fe Ca Mg

% by weight 45.2 27.2 8 5.8 5.06 2.77

Element Na K Ti H Mn P All Other

% by weight 2.32 1.68 0.86 0.14 0.1 0.1 0.77

Figure 8. Evolution of Rock.

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Figure 9. Basic Crystal Shapes.

Figure 10. Example of Quartz Crystal in Rock Matrix Pore Space (approximately 10m across).

Mineral Properties
Each mineral has properties dependant on composition and structure. Once we know which properties are characteristic of which minerals it may not be necessary to carry out a chemical analysis. Various tests can be used to identify the type of structure, and to indicate the mineral present. Properties such as crystal shape, colour & streak, luster, hardness (Mohs scale), cleavage, specific gravity and optical characteristics can be used for identification (Figure 11).

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Figure 11. Examples of Common Mineral Properties. (Photos top to bottom: Breck P Kent, Ed
Deggenger & Bruce Coleman, Chip Clark, Chip Clark)

Property
Hardness Cleavage Fracture Lustre Colour Streak Density

Physical Properties of Minerals Relation to Composition & Crystal Structure

Strong chemical bonds give high hardness. Covalently bonded minerals are generally harder than ionically bonded minerals. Cleavage is poor if bond strength in crystal is high and is good if bond strength is low. Covalent bonds generally give poor or no cleavage; ionic bonds are weak and so give excellent cleavage. Type is related to distribution of bond strengths across irregular surfaces other than cleavage planes. Tends to be glassy for ionic bonds, more variable covalent bonds. Determined by kinds of atoms and trace impurities. Many ionic crystals are colourless. Iron tends to colour strongly. Colour of fine powder is more characteristic than that of massive mineral because of uniformly small grain size. Depends on atomic weight of atoms and their closeness of packing in crystal. Iron minerals and metals have high density. Covalent minerals have more open packing, hence lower densities.

Metallic Vitreous Resinous Greasy Pearly Silky Adamantine

Mineral Lustre Strong reflections produced by opaque substances Bright, as in glass Characteristic of resins, such as amber The appearance of being coated with an oily substance The whitish iridescence of materials such as pearl The sheen of fibrous materials such as silk The brilliant lustre of diamond and similar minerals

Mohs Scale of Hardness Mineral Scale Common Number Object Talc 1 Gypsum 2 Fingernail Calcite 3 Copper coin Fluorite 4 Apatite 5 Knife blade Orthoclase 6 Window glass Quartz 7 Steel file Topaz 8 Corundum 9 Diamond 10

Class Native elements Oxides & hydroxides Halides Carbonates Sulphates Silicates

Some Chemical Classes of Minerals Defining Atoms Example None: no charged atoms Copper (Cu) 2Hematite (Fe2O3) Oxygen ion (O ) Hydroxyl ion (OH-) Chloride (Cl ), fluoride (F ), Brucite (Mg[OH]2) bromide (Br ), iodide (I ) Halite (NaCl) 2Calcite (CaCO3) Carbonate ion (CO3 ) 2Sulphate ion (SO4 ) Anhydrite (CaSO4) 4Olivine (Mg2SiO4) Silicate ion (SiO4 )

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Table 2 shows commonly occurring minerals in different rock types.

Table 2. Common Minerals in Rock.

Igneous Quartz * Feldspar * Mica * Pyroxene * Amphibole * Olivine *

Sedimentary Quartz * Clay minerals * Feldspar * Calcite Dolomite Gypsum Halite

Metamorphic Quartz * Feldspar * Mica * Garnet * Pyroxene * Staurolite * Kyanite*

* Indicates mineral is a silicate.

Basic Rock Types (Rock Clans)

The rock cycle (Figure 12) illustrates the relationship between the three main rock types or clans: Igneous, Metamorphic and Sedimentary.
Figure 12. The Rock Cycle. (From UNDERSTANDING EARTH by Frank Press and Raymond Siever,
1998, 1994 W.H. Freeman and Company. Used with permission.)

Igneous
The cooling and solidification of hot molten magma from the mantle forms igneous rock. Igneous rock can be classified as intrusive (intrinsic, plutonic) or extrusive (extrinsic,

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Basic Geology

volcanic). Intrusive igneous rocks form as magma pushes its way up through cracks and fissures into surrounding rocks. Intrusives cool relatively slowly and crystals therefore have time to develop. They are characterised by large crystal growth. Extrusive igneous rocks form when magma reaches the Earths surface, for example as lava flows from volcanic eruptions. These rocks are cooled rapidly and are characterised by fine crystals that have not had time to develop (Figure 13). If the lava is cooled extremely rapidly, the atoms have no time to rearrange into crystalline structures, and glass type structures or minaraloids are formed, obsidian for example.
Figure 13. Intrusive and Extrusive Igneous Rock Sources and Terms. (From THE
DYNAMIC EARTH by B.J. Skinner and S.C. Porter, copyright 2000 John Wiley and Sons. This material is used by permission of John Wiley and Sons, Inc.)

Igneous rocks are the most abundant type of rock found in the Earth today, about 70%. Minerals such as quartz, feldspar, mica and olivine are important building blocks of igneous rocks (Figure 14). Characteristically, the mineral crystals in igneous rocks have been restricted in growth by surrounding crystals, so their edges are amorphous in appearance (Figure 15). Igneous rocks of the same composition can be classified as different rocks depending on cooling rate and resultant texture. For example, granite (intrusive) is coarse grained, but when the same compositional lava is cooled rapidly it forms fine grained rhyolite (extrusive).

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Lavas vary from extremely fluid basalts to viscous and explosively eruptive rhyolites, depending on composition. Basalts are the most common fortunately as all major volcanic disasters around the World have been related to rhyolitic eruptions.
Figure 14. Minerals in Common Igneous Rocks. (From UNDERSTANDING EARTH by Frank
Press and Raymond Siever, 1998, 1994 W.H. Freeman and Company. Used with permission.)

Figure 15. Igneous Rock and Crystal Structure.

Sedimentary
Sedimentary rocks form when igneous, metamorphic or pre-existing sedimentary rocks are subjected to erosive forces (glaciation, wind, rain, and snow) (Figure 16). The rocks are broken down, and the individual grains and rock particles (detrital or clastic sediment) are transported away from the source area and redeposited in low-lying areas. It is within such low lying basin areas that the majority of petroleum is found. Stratification of sedimentary rocks results from the arrangement of sedimentary particles in distinct layers known as beds.

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The conversion of unconsolidated sediment to rock is termed lithification. Diagenesis is a term used to describe all the chemical, biological and physical processes involved in a rocks formation during and after lithification. Clastic particles can be defined by size (Table 3) which in turn form different types of rock (Figure 17). Crystals within sedimentary rocks that have been formed by mechanical erosion of source rocks tend to be rounded in appearance due to abrasion.
Figure 16. Erosion and Sources of Sedimentation. (From UNDERSTANDING EARTH by Frank Press and Raymond Siever, 1998, 1994 W.H. Freeman and Company. Used with permission.)

Table 3. Clastic Particle Definitions.

Name of Particle Boulder Cobble Pebble Sand Silt Clay (a)

Range Limits of Diameter (mm) > 256 64 - 256 2 - 64 1/16 2 1/256 1/16 < 1/256

Name of Loose Sediment Boulder gravel Cobble gravel Pebble gravel Sand Silt Clay

Name of Consolidated Rock Boulder conglomerate (b) Cobble conglomerate (b) Pebble conglomerate (b) Sandstone Siltstone Mudstone & Shale

Notes: (a) Refers to particle size only and not to clay minerals. (b) If clasts are angular, rock is termed Breccia rather than conglomerate. Sediments may also be chemical in origin. Chemical sediments are the result of dissolution of the source material, rather than erosion, and subsequent precipitation at another location. Biogenic chemical (bioclastic) sediments are formed from the accumulation and fossilisation of the remains of plants and animals. Calcium carbonate based rocks for example may be formed from remains of marine shells. Organic substances within biogenic sediments may also be transformed into fossil fuels if composition and conditions are correct. It is also possible to have a rock that is half way between igneous and sedimentary. This occurs as lava is thrown rather than flows from a volcano, and covers the surrounding area. Grains are usually angular due to rapid solidification and termed Breccia.

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Figure 17. Rocks from Sedimentary Particle Types. (From THE DYNAMIC EARTH by B.J.
Skinner and S.C. Porter, copyright 2000 John Wiley and Sons. This material is used by permission of John Wiley and Sons, Inc.)

Sedimentary rocks are the primary rocks involved in oil and gas formation and will be covered in greater detail in Topic 2.

Metamorphic
Metamorphic rocks form when igneous, sedimentary or pre-existing metamorphic rocks are altered by heat and pressure due to their deep burial in the Earth or due to a hot molten rock intrusion. For example, in the subduction zone the pressure, temperature and deformation which rocks are subjected to will lead to the formation of new mineral grains, textural changes and thus new metamorphic rocks. Metamorhpic rocks can be characterised by both grade and type of metamorphism. Figure 18 illustrates the grades of metamorphism depending on pressure and temperature. The end result is controlled by factors such as chemical reactivity of intergranular fluids, pressure, temperature, differential stress across the zone of metamorphosis and of course the time span involved.
Figure 18. Metamorphic Grades. (From THE DYNAMIC EARTH by B.J. Skinner and S.C. Porter, copyright 2000 John Wiley and Sons. This material is used by permission of John Wiley and Sons, Inc.)

The types of metamorphosis are defined relative to the physical conditions that are present during metamorphosis. Regional is most common in the continental crust and may occur over tens of thousands of square kilometres. Regional metamorphism involves high differential

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stress levels and a considerable amount of mechanical deformation, along with chemical recrystallisation. Low grade, regional metamorphosis of shale or mudstone forms slate. The slaty cleavage planes are formed perpendicular to the direction of maximum stress during metamorphosis. Regional metamorphism is a consequence of plate tectonics. Contact metamorphism occurs more locally adjacent to bodies or intrusions of magma, due mainly to chemical recrysatallisation. The zone affected is termed an aureole. Mechanical deformation tends to be minor due to generally homogenous stresses around the magma intrusion. Cataclastic, or dynamic, metamorphism may be found along faults where tectonic movement leads to high differential stresses, and rock deformation. The rocks may be fractured and ground almost to a paste resulting in a pulverised texture. Cataclastic rocks are often found alongside regionally metmorphosed rocks in narrow zones along fault perimeters. These rocks often act as a major fluid barrier between rocks. Burial metamorphism genarally occurs in deeply buried sedimentary basin rocks where temperatures may be as high as 300 Celsius. The presence of water within the sedimentary rock speeds up chemical recrysatallisation processes. As with contact metamorphism, there is little mechanical deformation. The resultant rock may appear physically very similar to the original sedimentary rock, but will differ in its mineral content. Hydrothermal metamorphism occurs due to chemical reactions between fluids and heated rocks, and is often associated with mid ocean ridges. Figure 19 shows examples of the rock types formed during metamorphosis dependant on pressure and temperature zones, termed facies.
Figure 19. Metamorphic Facies with Common Tectonic Settings Superimposed. (From
UNDERSTANDING EARTH by Frank Press and Raymond Siever, 1998, 1994 W.H. Freeman and Company. Used with permission.)

Figure 20 illustrates the minerals present during metamorphosis of shales. Quartz seen all way through, but changes in character. Plagioclase is only found in metamorphic rocks. Muscovite is an index for low and intermediate grade metamorphosis, Biotite for intermediate and Garnet for high grade metamorphosis. Figure 21 illustrates areas of metamorphosis related to plate tectonics.

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Figure 20. Metamorphosis of Shales. (From THE DYNAMIC EARTH by B.J. Skinner and S.C.
Porter, copyright 2000 John Wiley and Sons. This material is used by permission of John Wiley and Sons, Inc.)

Figure 21. Plate Tectonics and Metamorphosis Examples. (From UNDERSTANDING

EARTH by Frank Press and Raymond Siever, 1998, 1994 W.H. Freeman and Company. Used with permission.)

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Summary
Figure 22 Pictorially summarises rock types and Earth processes involved in their development.
Figure 22. Interaction of the Water, Rock and Tectonic Cycles. (From THE DYNAMIC
EARTH by B.J. Skinner and S.C. Porter, copyright 2000 John Wiley and Sons. This material is used by permission of John Wiley and Sons, Inc.)

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