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Sensorsand AcluatorsA 54 (1996) 606-611

An active, microfabricated, scalp electrode array for EEG recording

B a b a k A l i z a d e h - T a h e r i a,., R o s e m a r y L. S m i t h b, R o b e r t T . K n i g h t e
SRI International, Computer Sciem'e Laboratory, 333 Rat+en.vwoodAve, Menlo Park. CA 94025. USA Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering. University ~f California, DoyLe, CA 95616. USA Department ~fNearology alld Centcr fi~r NeurtJsciencex, Univer.vitypf California, Davis, CA 95616. USA

Abstract We describe the microfabrication,packaging, and testing of an active,dry, scalp electroencephalogram (EEG) electrode. The electrode consists of a silicon sensor subs(tale and a custom circuit substrate (2 #m CMOS technology). A via-holelechnologyhas been developed using reactiveion etchingwilh SFJO2 gas mixture 10 make electricalcontacts between the sensor and circuit subs(rates. These substrates and batteries (power source) are then assembled in a custom package for testingon bench and human subjects.
Ke~wordv: Electroencephalograms; Electrodearrays ; Microfabrication

L Introduction

Electrodes that employ impedance transformation at the sensing site via active electronic devices or circuits are referred to as active electrodes. Published research on active biopotential recording electrodes began in the late 1960s and temporarily ended in the early 1970s, until the recent reports by Padmadinata [ 1] in 1990 and Taheri etal. in 1993 [2]. Ko and HTaecek [3] and Richardson [41 demonstrated that both dry and insulated active electrodes can be used to pick up electrocardiogram (ECG) signals with good signal characteristics compared to those of wet electrodes. But dry electrodes were found to have the following disadvantages: ( 1) bulky size due to additional electronics and power sources; (2) noise due to the limitations of mieroeleetronics available in the 1970s; (3) motion artifacts due to poor skin-to-electrode contact; (4) higher cost; and (5) corrosion of the electrode material due to contact with skin [4,51. The literature on active electrodes has focused mainly on ECG recording, with one report on electromyography ( EMG ) recording. We found no reports of electroencephalogram (EEG) studies with active electrodes. In addition, no previous work on active electrodes appears to have been done for low-level signal recording (below 100 p.V), a region critical for EEG recording. The dry-electrode array presented here requires no electrolyte and no skin prep*Correspondingaulhor Phone: I (415)859 2844. Fax: +1 (415) 859 6165.E-mail;Tahefi@CSLsri.com. 0924-42471961515.00 ~* 1996ElsevierSciqmceS.A.Allrightsreserved PII $0924 4247 ( 96 ~,O1264-2

aration. It has fast setup and cleanup times, and has redundant sensing sites that are significantly smaller than those of conventional wet electrodes. These features make it highly attractive for long-term EEG recording, where problems with traditional wet electrodes are encountered because of drying of electrolyte paste, and for high-resolution EEG recording, where shorting of neighboring electrodes through the electrolyte paste precludes close placement of electrodes. The dry electrode is fully compatible with commercial EEG monitoring systart~s. The electrode array contains four capacitive sensors with local circuits. 11is designed to detect EEG signals in the 15-200/zV range in the frequency range 0.5 Hz to 5 kHz.

2. Electrode system The active electrode consists of an interconnecting circuit subs(rate and sensor substrate bonded together with a silver paste. The electrical contacts between the substrates are made by ultrasonic wire bonding. A side view of the bonded substrates is shown in Fig. I. The sensor substrate contains a planar array of four thinfilm electrodes on one side and bonding pads on the other. The electrodes are electrically isolated from one another and the substrate by a 1.5/.tin film of silicon dioxide. Each electrode is attached to a bonding pad on the opposite side of the sensor subs(rate by a connecting thin film of aluminum running through oxide-coated via holes. The surface of each

B. Alizadeh- Tahe ri et ai. / Sen.w)r.v ~ d Actuotors A 54 (199~ ) 6~6-611

607

Table I Preamplifierspeelfica~ion~ for the insulaP.delectrode an'ay Parameter Closed-loopgain Ol~n-loopgain Equivalentinputnoise Output impedance Inputcommon mode Input impedance
Passband frequency

Symbol A~I Ao~ V, Z~

Item

Unit

Magnitude 1O > 3000 < 20 < 100

< 200 mV

AI

Ill

---

I/I

p.V .q
V

7~
JCL-fH

fl
HZ

~ 25 kl2 + Z~
0,0l tO > 5 kHz

Fig. I. Side view of the electrode substrates showingmaterialcomposilion and electricalconnections. electrode is coated with silicon nitridc. When the nitride surface is broughl into contact with the skin, biopotentials can he capacitively coupled to the electrodes. The four sensing electrodes are 500 ,u.m 500 v m in size.

Supplyvollage

Voo. Vss vno ]

+ 1.5 V

3. Electronics archi~cture
A block diagram of the circuit substratc is shown in Fig. 2, Each of the four aclive sties has its own preamplifier (A). Signals picked up by the sensing electrodes are connected to the inputs of the preamplifiers on the circuit substrate. Connoctions are made to bonding pads, located peripherally on both suhstratcs. The preamplifier inputs are also connected to electrostatic discharge (ESD) protection circuits. The preamplifier outputs are connected to a multiplexer (MUX), the output of which is connected to an amplifier. The amplifier out put delivers t he signal to a cable that connects the electrode signal to the monitoring system. ~ t e MUX input is chosen by a channel selector that monitors the outputs of the four amplifiers and, based on a simple algorithm, dynamically selects the first electrode encountered with acceptable voltage level to the output amplifier. The input amplifiers convert the high skin-to-electrode impedance to a low output impedance, provide matched voltage transfer characteristics, reduce susceptibility to all external noise sources, including electrostatic a~d electromagnetic interferences [ 5,6 ], amplify the signal at each site of the array prior to level detection, and drive all internal circuits. The requirements for the preamplifier are summarized in Table 1. subsnam

v$s

Fig. 3. Cil~c uit diagramand layoutof the prearnplifer. The circuit diagram and layout are shown in Fig. 3. The operational amplifier l o p amp) is a two-stage C?,,IOS amplitier, implemented in a 2/zm CMOS process. Thf: input stage has been optimir.cd for low I / f noise, The total input equivalent noise of the op amp ( both the preamplitieraad the outpul amplifier) can be estimated by ignoring the noise of the second stage, using the following equation:
UeqTOT 2 = Uw4t~tL~2 _~ 1eqM42 _~

Stte 1

( UeqMI Z "t" UoqM2 2 ) continuously monitor their

In
site 2

T h e w i n d o w detectors ( W D s )

i
Fig. 2 Blockdiagramof the cffcuitsuhstrateand blocks.

input signals for valid EEG signals within the 5:250 mV window. If an EEG voltage goes above or b~low the prescribed threshold limits, the output of the corresponding detector changes state, indicating an invalid signal. Fig. 4 shows the circuit block diagram and the input/output voltage relationship for one of the WDs. The outputs of the comparators are logically "NORed' to get the desired~ output.

608

B. Alizadch- Taheri et aL I Sensor.~ and Acmawrs h 54 1996) 6~6~11

VUTffi+250mV VOD VIn

@Vc~ ~

Vou I

(a) VLT= 2~ mV "

(b) - 250mY +250 mV

V~

Fig.4. The circuitdiagramof a singledeleclorand itstransferfunclion.VLT is Ihe lowerthresholdvoltage;VUT is the upperthresholdvnhage;C, and C2 are two compaxators. (a) Circuildiagramof one WD. (~) V,~,and V,. relationof lhe WD.

Fig 5. Blockdiagramof Ihe channglselector.LOGICis the circuitrythat makes ils de~ision1oenable a MUXchannel The circuit of a WD consists of two comparalors, resistive biasing, and a NOR gate. Each of the two compara,ors in a WD has a threshold voltage set by a resistiw, voltagc divider. Comparator C I monitors voltage levels below +250 mV, and comparator C, monitors vofiaee levels above - 250 inV. If the input voltage amplitude is below + 250 r,rV and above - 250 mV, then V ~ is high. In 1hiscase, the voltage is about + 1.5 V, since the comparators are powered at ::L1.5 V. A high level at the output of the comparator indicates a valid signal. If the input vohagc amplitude is above +250 mV ot below - 2 5 0 mV, then Vo~ is low. In this case, the voltage is about - 1.5 V. A low level at thc output of the comparntor indicates an invalid signal. The comparator outputs are compared using a NOR gale. The outpm of the NOR gate is high when the outputs of both comparators are at a low level, indicating a valid signal. The inputs to the channel selector are four analog EEG signals, and the output is a four-b!t ninary signal to the MUX, as shown in Fig. 5. The channel selector consists of four WDs and a logic block. "file WDs continuously monitor their input signals for valid EEG signals within a 250 mV window. If an EEG voltage goes above or below the prescribed threshold limits, the output of the corresponding WD changes state, indicating an invalid signal, if no WD outputs a valid signai, then the output of the MUX (consisting of pass transistors) ~s cor,nected to Vss, indicating that the electrode needs to be proF:dy rgpositioned. The circuit substrnte was fabricate.d in ORBIT's 2 pro, CMOS, n-well process, The area of the die is about 2 mm 2 ram. A paflial die photograph uflhe circuit substrate is shown in Fig. 6.

~
200

Fig. 6. Partialdie photographwith bonding pads,

leo

l'--

~.t~

,,~m

"

O,Sgm

Fig. 7. Sideview of a single sensorwith depositedmali'ialsand the relative thicknesses. sided wafer, w i t h the four insulated electrodes on one side,

4. Sensor microfabrication
The sensor substrate is fabricated o, a 4 ir,ch wafer of ntype (liD()) silicon. The subslrate is processed as a double-

connected electrically through the substrate to several bonding pads on the other side. A side view of the substrate with a single scnsing site is shown in Fig. 7. A silicon nitride thickness of 0.8 pm was selected so as to obtain capacitance values between 150 and 300 pF (sensing area~ 1.5 mm2, relative pcrmittivity ~ 8). An oxide thickness of 1.5 p.m was selected so as to reduce the parasitic capacitance formed between the electrodes and the substrate. We considered several technologies for making via holes through a silicon substrate: laser drilling, thermomigration, wet chemical etching, and deep dry etching [7,8]. Because of its compatibility with the other processing steps, high etch selectivity, and good etch rate, we used a reactive ion etching (RIE) process with SF6 + 02 and an aluminum etch mask. With optimum RIE conditions, etch rates of 18 pm h - i and openings with aspect ratios as high as I 0 were obtained. (The process parameters for obtaining via holes with 2:1 aspect ratio were 12.5% Oz and r.f. power =400 W.) Fig. 8 shows the bottom view (unpolished side c)f the subgira!e) of a via hole with a 200 pm opening. After removal of the aluminum etch mask and buffer oxide layer, the vias were oxidized and coated with sputtered aluminum. Plaama-enhanced cbemical vapor deposition (PECVD) Si3N,, was then deposited onto the aluminum thin-film electrodes. The requirements for the dielectric material for the electrode arc low permeability to NaCI and water for biocompa-

B. Ali~deh- Taheri el aL /Sensors and Actuators A 54 1996) 60b-611

6~

~'tam pint ~ ~ tatattae~Q Fig 10. Side viewof the electrode ~k~'~. segments, The negative supply pad is also connected to the center lind, which in turn is bonded with silver epoxy to the backside of the circuit sobstrate. In this way, the electrical substrate is connected to the lowest supply ".oltage required to bias the circuit sabstrate for bip'qur signals. With the circuit suhstrate attached to the sensor subsWate, wire bonds are made between their respective bonding p~ds. LI~.esensor substrate is 5 mm x 5 mm and supports four recording sites. g. Packaging Fig. 10 shows a schematic diagram of the package, indicating the location of batteries and the sensor. The prototype package material is LuciteT M with c,uLside dimensions o f 2,5 cm X 1 cm X 0.7 cm, but the package dimensions could be easily reduced to obtain a scalp 'footprint" of less than I c m x I cm with as many as nine recording sites. 6. Testing We tested the electrode on an electrical test bench to evaluate the ~.hanne] selector cirmit and amplifiers. Both d.c, and a.e. paramcters were measured. D.c. tests included measurements of static power consumption and offset voltages. A.c. tests included functional tests, measurement of closed-loop gain of a channel (from input of the preamplifier to output of the chip), ch0nnel bandwidth, and noise performance. Fig. 11 shows the signal p~,ql through a single channel that consists of the preamplifiei, multiplexer, and second-stage amplifier. The total current measured was I 12/LA at Vss and 14.5 u A at Vou, resulting in total static power consumption of 986 p.W, The total offset voltage was 250 inV. This value results in an expected equivalent input offset vohag of 2.5 mV. The frequency response was 0.01 Hz to lO0 kHz, and was constant over this frequency range, Tbe - 3 dB bandwidth was about 700 kHz. Finally, the electrode was tested on eight human subjects in four medalities of EEG activity: spontaneous EEG, sensory event*relate ?."yotenrials, brain-stem potentials, and cognitive event-related potentials. The electrode was held in place on the subject's head with a Velcro strap. Fig. 12 shows the comparison of spontaneous EEG recordings made

Fig. 8, Bonom vl,ewof a .200#m opening.

tibilily, low deposition temperature ( < 5 0 0 C) for process compatibiliLy with the electred material [ 8], high dielectric canstaot (e) for realizing a high capacitance value, and a moderate leakage resistance (Re) for impedance matching to the amplifier, PECVD nitride meets these requirements. The sensing electrodes arc connected through the via holes to four bonding pads located in the comers on the opposite side of the substrate, as shown it, Fig. 9. The other pads are used to connect the signal output and power supply leads. In addition, two redundant pads are provided for testing circuit
~t

~Opm

5~

L
1,5 IZ 1,5 mm

SENSORSlOE

Mahole

8~'q~119P ~

I
I

,n~n,
m
5

Nil
I

mFr~ -~
mm

CIRCUITSIDE Fig. 9 The top and bottom layouts for the sen?or subsuaze showing t:1 dimensionsof Ihe pads, via holes.~ctivesites,tin,~die size

Fig. I I. Signalpath Ihrougha singlechannel.

610

B. Alizadeh.Taheri el aL /Sensors lllzd Actuators A 54 f/9~6j 6 ( ~ 1 1

125

ms,'~,

-!+
!ill

..... !....... ~ .... i.........

mr-l~r~T--~-I
i [ ' i ! i

,-+ ......

Io~l

1 ill
Time domain

!][I

t--i-ti-t-osj----I
f IHzl Frequency dorna~

0.6

f 11411

20,0

Fig. 12. Spor,taneous EEG activilics from a single subject. Time and frcqucrlcydomains arc compa~d for both types of electrode.
S.O0 IzVIdiV

....

~ ..................... + ........... .L....... -4 ......................................................

, , ' + - .......

i
] ~

I
,

t Ad~,
l

] ~

. . . . . . . . . . . .

~
'

........... !'-i

i',, +
t

.......... !' ............

1
L

..x x ..1._':
' I

/
,

.[
i

.......... T i ........... ~ . . . . . . . '.x ~ ;r .......... "i ...................... 1 T .......... T ........... i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

.......... ~ ........ 1........-"-~?~.........~ ......... ~ ........... 1 ........... 1 ........... ~ ........... 1 ............

+ :

2G~ Fig. 13. VEP activily cordedfrom boih 6ry and wet electrodes. with the dry electrode and a conventional, wet, Ag/AgCI electrode, placed side by side at the occipital lobe site~ O 1. Fig. 13 compares the P100 component of the visual evoked potential ( V E P ) responses generated by a checkerboard pattern and recorded at the O1 and 0 2 site~. Tests were conducted on subjects with hair, with no special preparation of the scalp (the hair was simply pushed to one side). The performance of the dry electrode compared favorably with that of the standard wet Ag/AgCI electrode in all tests, with the added advantages of no skin preparation, no clcctrolyte gel, and higher signal-t-, :,ise ,'atio~ References Ill F z Padm~linata, Microelectronic skin electrode, Sensors and Actuators, BI { 19901491-494 [2] B.A. Taheri, R.T Knighl and R.L. Smith, A dry electrode [nr F.~G recording, Electroencephalography ClitJ. Neurophy$iol.. 90 (May) ( 1984) 376-3 g3

B. Alizadeh-Taheri e! aL /Sensors and Acr,arors A 54 (1996) 60f~611

&If

{3] W.H Ko ~'.dJ. Hynecek,D~yelectrodesand electrode amplifiers,in H,A, Miller and DC. Haixison (~xts.), Biomedical Etecrrmle Technology, AcademicPress. New York. 1974,pp. 169-181. [4] P.C, Richardson,The insulatedelectrode:a pastelessECGtechnique. Prac. 201hACEMB.Vol.9,196/. p. 157, [51 J. Rosell,J. Colominas,P. Riuand J,G,Wcbncr,Skiniml~dancfrom I Hz to I MHz,IEEE Trans. Bioraed. Eng.. 35 (1988) 649-651. [6] J.C. Huhtaand J.G.Webster,Interferencein biopotentialrecording,in H,A, Miller and D.C. Harrison reds.), Biomedical EJectrade Technology, Academic Press, NewYork. 1974,pp. 129-134, [7] M. See (ed.L VLSI TecAnology, McGraw-Hill,New York, 1983 [g] S. Wolf,Silicon Procex~'ingfor the VLS! Era. Latftoe Press. Sunset Beach, CA, 1990.Vols. 1and 2. pp. 191-195.

using a 1.5 vm BiCMOS technology, biological seusots, dma storage technologies, and lubrication technolog~s using silicon.
Rosemary L. Smith is an associate professor at the Depaxtmcnt of Electrical and Computer Engincarmg, Univrsilyof California, Davis. Profes.~r Smith received the Ph.D. in bioengineering from the University of Utah in 1982. She then joined the faculty of the l)cpartrnem of Electrical Engin~ring at I:~'x1 University in Philadelphia, where her research activities included silicon miar~m~:hining, pu*ous silicon, and biomedical micro~ensc*s. From 1984 to 1986, she was a visiting scientist at the Swiss Center for Iviicroeloctrnnius in NancMtel. whose she designed and faMicate, d in:ciffatud chemical sensors and a micro-reference etoctrnd. After a two-year appointment as SinclairVisitingAssistant Profas~ at MIT, she joined the faculty at UC Davis in 1988. current research activities involve the study and implementation of microfabdcntion, silicon micromachining, and substrate bouding and packaging in the design and fabrication of biomedical microsystcms and instruments. Robert T. Knightis professor of neurology at tim University of California, Davis. Dr Knight's research focuses on the neurnphysiolngicnl mechanisms underlying attention and memory, with a particular emphasis on human prfi:ontal corlex, He rncived a seven-year Juvits award from the National Institutes of Health in recognition of his r e m h in neurological disorders.

Biograph|es
Babak Alizadeh.Taheri is a Staff IC Scientist at the Computer Science Laboratory, Computing and Engineering Sciences Division, SRI International, Menlo Park, CA. Dr Anzadeh-Tahari received the Ph.D. in biomedical engineering with majors in loctrical engincaring and nanrusciancus from the University of California at Davis in 199,*. He has been at SRI International since 1988, where his research activities include electronics and design, using CMOS and BiCMOS technologies. He was a research and design engineer at Apple Computer from 1986 to 1988 and an Analog/ r.f. R&D engineer for Eaton Corporation from 1984 to 1986, working on monolithic microwave integrated circuits. His current research activities involveemulation of microcircuits