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SUMMER TRAINING REPORT TRANSMISSION AND PROTECTION OF POWER AT POWERGRID CORPORATION OF INDIA LTD. LUCKNOW
(10.06.2013 22.07.2013)
Submitted By:Name: Saurabh Pal Roll No: 1005620088
Acknowledgement
It is a pleasure to present this report which I had compiled during my training at POWER GRID, Lucknow. There are many persons whom I would like to thank. Following in the list are who provided me with valuable knowledge during my training period. 1). Devashish shukla. 2).Irfan sir.
I am also thankful to Mr. Irfan sir, our training in charge for his co-operation throughout my presence in the organisation. He was very helpful and supportive throughout my training and also helped me in preparing this report. Without the help of these people I would have never been able to complete this report successfully.
SAURABH PAL
TABLE OF CONTENT
1). Electrical Circuit Breaker. 2). Electrical Isolator or Electrical Isolation Switch. 3). Wave trap. 4). Current transformer. 5). Capacitor voltage transformer. 6). Lightning arrester. 01 14 17 18 21 22
released in forms of kinetic energy, which makes the moving contact to move as these moving contacts mechanically attached through a gear lever arrangement with the operating mechanism. After a cycle of operation of circuit breaker the total stored energy is released and hence the potential energy again stored in the operating mechanism of circuit breaker by means of spring charging motor or air compressor or by any other means. Till now we have discussed about mechanical working principle of circuit breaker . But there are electrical characteristics of a circuit breaker which also should be consider in this discussion of operation of circuit breaker. Lets have a discussion on electrical principle of circuit breaker The circuit breaker has to carry large rated or fault power. Due to this large power there is always dangerously high arcing between moving contacts and fixed contact during operation of circuit breaker. Again as we discussed earlier the arc in circuit breaker can be quenching safely if the dielectric strength between the current carrying contacts of circuit breaker increases rapidly during every current zero crossing of the alternating current. The dielectric strength of the media in between contacts can be increased in numbers of ways, like by compressing the ionized arcing media since compressing accelerates the deionization process of the media, by cooling the arcing media since cooling increase the resistance of arcing path or by replacing the ionized arcing media by fresh gasses. Hence a numbers of arc quenching processes should be involved in operation of circuit breaker.
1) Spring operated Circuit Breaker 2) Pneumatic Circuit Breaker 3) Hydrolic Circuit Breaker According to the voltage level of installation types of circuit breaker are referred as 1) High Voltage Circuit Breaker 2) Medium Voltage Circuit Breaker 3) Low Voltage Circuit Breaker
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Types of ACB
There are mainly two types of ACB are available. 1) Plain air circuit breaker 2) Air blast Circuit Breaker.
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Operation of ACB
The first objective is usually achieved by forcing the arc into contact with as large an area as possible of insulating material. Every air circuit breaker is fitted with a chamber surrounding the contact. This chamber is called arc chute. The arc is driven into it. If inside of the arc chute is suitably shaped, and if the arc can be made conform to the shape, the arc chute wall will help to achieve cooling. This type of arc chute should be made from some kind of refractory material. High temperature plastics reinforced with glass fiber and ceramics are preferable materials for making arc chute. The second objective that is lengthening the arc path, is achieved concurrently with fist objective. If the inner walls of the arc chute is shaped in such a way that the arc is not only forced into close proximity with it but also driven into a serpentine channel projected on the arc chute wall. The lengthening of the arc path increases the arc resistance. The third technique is achieved by using metal arc slitter inside the arc chute. The main arc chute is divided into numbers of small compartments by using metallic separation plates. These metallic separation plates are actually the arc splitters and each of the small compartments behaves as individual mini arc chute. In this system the initial arc is split into a number of series arcs, each of which will have its won mini arc chute. So each of the split arcs has its won cooling and lengthening effect due to its won mini arc chute and hence individual split arc voltage becomes high. These collectively, make the over all arc voltage, much higher than the system voltage. This was working principle of air circuit breaker now we will discuss in details the operation of ACB in practice. The air circuit breaker, operated within the voltage level 1KV, does not require any arc control device. Mainly for heavy fault current on low voltages (low voltage level above 1 KV) ABCs with appropriate arc control device, are good choice. These breakers normally have two pairs of contacts. The main pair of contacts carries the current at normal load and these contacts are made of copper. The additional pair is the arcing contact and is made of carbon. When circuit breaker is being opened, the main contacts open first and during opening of main contacts the arcing contacts are still in touch with each other. As the current gets, a parallel low resistive path through the arcing contact during opening of main contacts, there will not be any arcing in the main contact. The arcing is only initiated when finally the arcing contacts are separated. The each of the arc contacts is fitted with an arc runner which helps, the arc discharge to move upward due to both thermal and electromagnetic effects as shown in the figure. As the arc is driven upward it enters in the arc chute, consisting of splitters. The arc in chute will become colder, lengthen and split hence arc voltage becomes much larger than system voltage at the time of operation of air circuit breaker, and therefore the arc is quenched finally during the current zero.
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Hence, for heavier and less mobile charged particles in SF6 gas, it acquires very high dielectric strength. Not only the gas has a good dielectric strength but also it has the unique property of fast recombination after the source energizing the spark is removed. The gas has also very good heat transfer property. Due to its low gaseous viscosity (because of less molecular mobility) SF6 gas can efficiently transfer heat by convection. So due to its high dielectric strength and high cooling effect SF6 gas is approximately 100 times more effective arc
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quenching media than air. Due to these unique properties of this gas SF6 Circuit Breaker is used in complete range of medium voltage and high voltage electrical power system. These circuit breakers are available for the voltage ranges from 33KV to 800KV and even more.
Disadvantages of SF6 CB
The SF6 gas is identified as a greenhouse gas, safety regulation are being introduced in many countries in order to prevent its release into atmosphere.Puffer type design of SF6 CB needs a high mechanical energy which is almost five times greater than that of oil circuit breaker.
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Here the breaker is filled with SF6 gas at rated pressure. There are two fixed contact fitted with a specific contact gap. A sliding cylinder bridges these to fixed contacts. The cylinder can axially slide upward and downward along the contacts. There is one stationary piston inside the cylinder which is fixed with other stationary parts of the SF6 circuit breaker, in such a way that it can not change its position during the movement of the cylinder. As the piston is fixed and cylinder is movable or sliding, the internal volume of the cylinder changes when the cylinder slides. During opening of the breaker the cylinder moves downwards against position of the fixed piston hence the volume inside the cylinder is reduced which produces compressed SF6 gas inside the cylinder. The cylinder has numbers of side vents which were blocked by upper fixed contact body during closed position. As the cylinder move further downwards, these vent openings cross the upper fixed contact, and become unblocked and then compressed SF6 gas inside the cylinder will come out through this vents in high speed towards the arc and passes through the axial hole of the both fixed contacts. The arc is quenched during this flow of SF6 gas. During closing of the SF6 circuit breaker, the sliding cylinder moves upwards and as the position of piston remains at fixed height, the volume of the cylinder increases which introduces low pressure inside the cylinder compared to the surrounding. Due to this pressure difference SF6 gas from surrounding will try to enter in the cylinder. The higher pressure gas will come through the axial hole of both fixed contact and enters into cylinder via vent and during this flow; the gas will quench the arc.
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concentrated on that last contact point on the contact surface and makes a hot spot. As it is vacuum, the metal on the contact surface is easily vaporized due to that hot spot and create a conducting media for arc path. Then the arc will be initiated and continued until the next current zero. At current zero this vacuum arc is extinguished and the conducting metal vapour is recondensed on the contact surface. At this point, the contacts are already separated hence there is no question of re-vaporization of contact surface, for next cycle of current. That means, the arc cannot be reestablished again. In this way vacuum circuit breaker prevents the reestablishment of arc by producing high dielectric strength in the contact gap after current zero.
There are two types of arc shapes. For interrupting current up to 10kA, the arc remains diffused and the form of vapour discharge and cover the entire contact surface. Above 10kA the diffused arc is constricted considerably by its own magnetic field and it contracts. The phenomenon gives rise over heating of contact at its center. In order to prevent this, the design of the contacts should be such that the arc does not remain stationary but keeps travelling by its own magnetic field. Specially designed contact shape of vacuum circuit breaker make the constricted stationary arc travel along the surface of the contacts, thereby causing minimum and uniform contact erosion.
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Depending upon the position in power system, the isolators can be categorized as Bus side isolator the isolator is directly connected with main bus Line side isolator the isolator is situated at line side of any feeder Transfer bus side isolator the isolator is directly connected with transfer bus
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The female type contacts are fixed on the top of the other post insulators which fitted at both sides of the central post insulator. The female contacts are generally in the form of spring loaded figure contacts. The rotational movement of male contact causes to come itself into female contacts and isolators becomes closed. The rotation of male contact in opposite direction make to it out from female contacts and isolators becomes open. Rotation of the central post insulator is done by a driving lever mechanism at the base of the post insulator and it connected to operating handle (in case of hand operation) or motor (in case of motorized operation) of the isolator through a mechanical tie rod.
Earthing Switches
Earthing switches are mounted on the base of mainly line side isolator. Earthing switches are normally vertically break switches. Earthing arms (contact arm of earthing switch) are normally aligned horizontally at off condition. during switching on operation, these earthing arms rotate and move to vertical position and make contact with earth female contacts fitted at the top of the post insulator stack of isolator at its outgoing side. The erarthing arms are so interlocked with main isolator moving contacts that it can be closed only when the main contacts of isolator are in open position. Similarly the main isolator contacts can be closed only when the earthing arms are in open position.
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Wave trap
Line trap also is known as Wave trap. What it does is trapping the high frequency communication signals sent on the line from the remote substation and diverting them to the telecom/teleportation panel in the substation control room (through coupling capacitor and LMU).This is relevant in Power Line Carrier Communication (PLCC) systems for communication among various substations without dependence on the telecom company network. The signals are primarily teleportation signals and in addition, voice and data communication. Transmission line may carry some disturbance or noise signals having high frequency, it also carries the high frequency signals from the PLCC. These high frequency signals should not be coming on the buses as these may damage the equipment on the bays. The Wave trap offers high impedance to the high frequency communication signals thus obstructs the flow of these signals in to the substation bus bars. If wave trap were not to be there, then signal loss is more and communication will be ineffective/probably impossible.
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Current transformer
A current transformer (CT) is used for measurement of alternating electric currents. Current transformers, together with voltage transformers (VT) (potential transformers (PT)), are known as instrument transformers. When current in a circuit is too high to directly apply to measuring instruments, a current transformer produces a reduced current accurately proportional to the current in the circuit, which can be conveniently connected to measuring and recording instruments. A current transformer also isolates the measuring instruments from what may be very high voltage in the monitored circuit. Current transformers are commonly used in metering and protective relays in the electrical power industry. Current transformers are used for protection, measurement and control in high voltage electrical substations and the electrical grid. Current transformers may be installed inside switchgear or in apparatus bushings, but very often free-standing outdoor current transformers are used. In a switchyard, live tank current transformers have a substantial part of their enclosure energized at the line voltage and must be mounted on insulators. Dead tank current transformers isolate the measured circuit from the enclosure. Live tank CTs are useful because the primary conductor is short, which gives better stability and a higher short-circuit current withstand rating. The primary of the winding can be evenly distributed around the magnetic core, which gives better performance for overloads and transients. Since the major insulation of a live-tank current transformer is not exposed to the heat of the primary conductors, insulation life and thermal stability is improved.
Design
Like any other transformer, a current transformer has a primary winding, a magnetic core, and a secondary winding. The alternating current flowing in the primary produces an alternating
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magnetic field in the core, which then induces an alternating current in the secondary winding circuit. An essential objective of current transformer design is to ensure that the primary and secondary circuits are efficiently coupled, so that the secondary current bears an accurate relationship to the primary current. The most common design of CT consists of a length of wire wrapped many times around a silicon steel ring passed 'around' the circuit being measured. The CT's primary circuit therefore consists of a single 'turn' of conductor, with a secondary of many tens or hundreds of turns. The primary winding may be a permanent part of the current transformer, with a heavy copper bar to carry current through the magnetic core. Window-type current transformers (aka zero sequence current transformers, or ZSCT) are also common, which can have circuit cables run through the middle of an opening in the core to provide a single-turn primary winding. When conductors passing through a CT are not centered in the circular (or oval) opening, slight inaccuracies may occur. Shapes and sizes can vary depending on the end user or switchgear manufacturer. Typical examples of low voltage single ratio metering current transformers are either ring type or plastic moulded case. High-voltage current transformers are mounted on porcelain bushings to insulate them from ground. Some CT configurations slip around the bushing of a high-voltage transformer or circuit breaker, which automatically centers the conductor inside the CT window. The primary circuit is largely unaffected by the insertion of the CT. The rated secondary current is commonly standardized at 1 or 5 amperes. For example, a 4000:5 CT would provide an output current of 5 amperes when the primary was passing 4000 amperes. The secondary winding can be single ratio or multi ratio, with five taps being common for multi ratio CTs. The load, or burden, of the CT should be of low resistance. If the voltage time integral area is higher than the core's design rating, the core goes into saturation towards the end of each cycle, distorting the waveform and affecting accuracy.
Usage
Current transformers are used extensively for measuring current and monitoring the operation of the power grid. Along with voltage leads, revenue-grade CTs drive the electrical utility's watthour meter on virtually every building with three-phase service and single-phase services greater than 200 amps. The CT is typically described by its current ratio from primary to secondary. Often, multiple CTs are installed as a "stack" for various uses. For example, protection devices and revenue metering may use separate CTs to provide isolation between metering and protection circuits, and allows current transformers and different characteristics (accuracy, overload performance) to be used for the devices.
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Safety precautions
Care must be taken that the secondary of a current transformer is not disconnected from its load while current is flowing in the primary, as the transformer secondary will attempt to continue driving current across the effectively infinite impedance up to its core saturation voltage. This may produce a high voltage across the open secondary into the range of several kilovolts, causing arcing, compromising operator with equipment safety, or permanently affect the accuracy of the transformer.
Burden
The secondary load of a current transformer is usually called the "burden" to distinguish it from the load of the circuit whose current is being measured. The burden, in a CT metering circuit is the (largely resistive) impedance presented to its secondary winding. Typical burden ratings for IEC CTs are 1.5 VA, 3 VA, 5 VA, 10 VA, 15 VA, 20 VA, 30 VA, 45 VA & 60 VA. As for ANSI/IEEE burden ratings are B-0.1, B-0.2, B-0.5, B-1.0, B-2.0 and B-4.0. This means a CT with a burden rating of B-0.2 can tolerate up to 0.2 of impedance in the metering circuit before its secondary accuracy falls outside of an accuracy specification. These specification diagrams show accuracy parallelograms on a grid incorporating magnitude and phase angle error scales at the CT's rated burden. Items that contribute to the burden of a current measurement circuit are switch-blocks, meters and intermediate conductors. The most common source of excess burden is the conductor between the meter and the CT. When substation meters are located far from the meter cabinets, the excessive length of wire creates a large resistance. This problem can be reduced by using CTs with 1 ampere secondaries, which will produce less voltage drop between a CT and its metering devices.
A capacitor voltage transformer (CVT), or capacitance coupled voltage transformer (CCVT) is a transformer used in power systems to step down extra high voltage signals and provide a low voltage signal, for measurement or to operate a protective relay. In its most basic form the device consists of three parts: two capacitors across which the transmission line signal is split, an inductive element to tune the device to the line frequency, and a transformer to isolate and further step down the voltage for the instrumentation or protective relay. The tuning of the divider to the line frequency makes the overall division ratio less sensitive to changes in the burden of the connected metering or protection devices. The device has at least four terminals: a terminal for connection to the high voltage signal, a ground terminal, and two secondary terminals which connect to the instrumentation or protective relay. CVTs are typically singlephase devices used for measuring voltages in excess of one hundred kilovolts where the use of wound primary voltage transformers would be uneconomical. In practice, capacitor C1 is often constructed as a stack of smaller capacitors connected in series. This provides a large voltage drop across C1 and a relatively small voltage drop across C2.
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The CVT is also useful in communication systems. CVTs in combination with wave traps are used for filtering high frequency communication signals from power frequency. This forms a carrier communication network throughout the transmission network. A capacitive voltage transformer works on the principle of voltage division, by using two capacitances, one many times larger than the other. So for example, if the capacitances are C1 and C2 (C2>C1), and we need to measure a voltage V, the voltage across the larger capacitance C2 will be V2 = V*C1/(C1+C2) ~. Thus, we have effectively reduced the voltage level to a fraction of the original without using step down transformers (which for larger voltages will be bulky and expensive). CVTs on the other hand, are cheaper and smaller. This V2 can be further isolated and stepped down using a step-down transformer.
Lightning arrester
A lightning arrester (in Europe: surge arrester) is a device used on electrical power systems and telecommunications systems to protect the insulation and conductors of the system from the damaging effects of lightning. The typical lightning arrester has a high-voltage terminal and a ground terminal. When a lightning surge (or switching surge, which is very similar) travels along the power line to the arrester, the current from the surge is diverted through the arrestor, in most cases to earth. In telegraphy and telephony, a lightning arrestor is placed where wires enter a structure, preventing damage to electronic instruments within and ensuring the safety of individuals near them. Smaller versions of lightning arresters, also called surge protectors, are devices that are connected between each electrical conductor in power and communications systems and the Earth. These prevent the flow of the normal power or signal currents to ground, but provide a path over which high-voltage lightning current flows, bypassing the connected equipment. Their purpose is to limit the rise in voltage when a communications or power line is struck by lightning or is near to a lightning strike. If protection fails or is absent, lightning that strikes the electrical system introduces thousands of kilovolts that may damage the transmission lines, and can also cause severe damage to transformers and other electrical or electronic devices. Lightning-produced extreme voltage spikes in incoming power lines can damage electrical home appliances.
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LA Characteristics
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