LOGIC GATES

Submitted by: Roland Michael Ramirez

Introduction Boolean functions may be practically implemented by using electronic gates. The following points are important to understand.

Electronic gates require a power supply. Gate INPUTS are driven by voltages having two nominal values, e.g. 0V and 5V representing logic 0 and logic 1 respectively. The OUTPUT of a gate provides two nominal values of voltage only, e.g. 0V and 5V representing logic 0 and logic 1 respectively. In general, there is only one output to a logic gate except in some special cases. There is always a time delay between an input being applied and the output responding.

SYMBOLS
The logic gates for the commonly used boolean functions are drawn on a schematic diagram using the following symbols:

Buffer

Inverter

AND

NAND

OR

NOR

XOR

EQV

The buffer is not necessary from the point of view of performing logic functions, but it is often required in actual circuits to strengthen a signal. It is important to realize that the circuit diagrams include only the logic paths; the actual chips must also include connections for supplying power and ground to operate the gates. A ``bubble'' (the small circle on the output of the right-hand gates above) signifies inversion (complementing) of a logic signal. Bubbles can also be placed on the inputs

to a gate to avoid the need for drawing an explicit inverter gate. Thus the following two circuits are equivalent:

Gates can have more than two inputs. Because AND, OR, and XOR are associative, there is no ambiguity as to what function is produced. NAND and NOR are not associative. Therefore the output of the multi-input NAND is defined as the complement of the corresponding multi-input AND, and similarly for NOR and EQV. Example:

TABLES
Understanding Truth Tables Truth tables help understand the behaviour of logic gates.

They show how the input(s) of a logic gate relate to its output(s). The gate input(s) are shown in the left column(s) of the table with all the different possible input combinations. This is normally done by making the inputs count up in binary. The gate output(s) are shown in the right hand side column.

Truth Table Diagram

Drawing Truth Tables for Combined Gates Truth tables can also help understand the behaviour of combinations of logic gates linked together.

They are drawn in the same way as before but this time adding more columns in between the input and output columns.

Each of the new columns show the outputs of stages in the logic circuit.

The following example shows the steps for drawing up a truth table for a combined gate configuration.

Logic gates
Digital systems are said to be constructed by using logic gates. These gates are the AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EXOR and EXNOR gates. The basic operations are described below with the aid of truth tables. AND gate

The AND gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high output (1) only if all its inputs are high. A dot (.) is used to show the AND operation i.e. A.B. Bear in mind that this dot is sometimes omitted i.e. AB

OR gate

The OR gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high output (1) if one or more of its inputs are high. A plus (+) is used to show the OR operation.

NOT gate

The NOT gate is an electronic circuit that produces an inverted version of the input at its output. It is also known as an inverter. If the input variable is A, the inverted output is known as NOT A. This is also shown as A', or A with a bar over the top, as shown at the outputs. The diagrams below show two ways that the NAND logic gate can be configured to produce a NOT gate. It can also be done using NOR logic gates in the same way.

NAND gate

This is a NOT-AND gate which is equal to an AND gate followed by a NOT gate. The outputs of all NAND gates are high if any of the inputs are low. The symbol is an AND gate with a small circle on the output. The small circle represents inversion.

NOR gate

This is a NOT-OR gate which is equal to an OR gate followed by a NOT gate. The outputs of all NOR gates are low if any of the inputs are high. The symbol is an OR gate with a small circle on the output. The small circle represents inversion.

EXOR gate

The 'Exclusive-OR' gate is a circuit which will give a high output if either, but not both, of its two inputs are high. An encircled plus sign ( ) is used to show the EOR operation.

EXNOR gate

The 'Exclusive-NOR' gate circuit does the opposite to the EOR gate. It will give a low output if either, but not both, of its two inputs are high. The symbol is an EXOR gate with a small circle on the output. The small circle represents inversion.

The NAND and NOR gates are called universal functions since with either one the AND and OR functions and NOT can be generated. Note:

A function in sum of products form can be implemented using NAND gates by replacing all AND and OR gates by NAND gates.
A function in product of sums form can be implemented using NOR gates by replacing all AND and OR gates by NOR gates.

Table 1: Logic gate symbols

Table 2 is a summary truth table of the input/output combinations for the NOT gate together with all possible input/output combinations for the other gate functions. Also note that a truth table with 'n' inputs has 2n rows. You can compare the outputs of different gates. Table 2: Logic gates representation using the Truth table

Example
A NAND gate can be used as a NOT gate using either of the following wiring configurations.

(You can check this out using a truth table.)

Multiple Input Gates twtruth table for this gate can be seen to the
right of it.

Three Input AND Gate

Here is an example of a three input AND gate. Notice that the truth table for the three input gate is similar to the truth table for the two input gate. It works on the same principle, this time all three inputs need to be high (1) to get a high output.

Four Input AND Gate Here is an example of a four input AND gate. It also works on the same principle, all four inputs need to be high (1) to get a high output. The same principles apply to 5, 6,..., n input gates.

Making Multi Input Gates

Multi input gates can be made by joining gates of the same type with less inputs. The diagrams below shows how a three input AND gate and and a four input AND gate can be made out of two input AND gates.

Minterms
A minterm is a special product of literals, in which each input variable appears exactly once. A function with n variables has 2n minterms (since each variable can appear complemented or not) A three-variable function, such as f(x,y,z), has 23 = 8 minterms: Each minterm is true for exactly one combination of inputs: xyz xyz xyz xyz xyz xyz xyz xyz

Sum of minterms form Every function can be written as a sum of minterms, which
is a special kind of sum of products form The sum of minterms form for any function is unique If you have a truth table for a function, you can write a sum of minterms expression just by picking out the rows of the table where the function output is 1.

Maxterms A maxterm is a sum of literals, in which each input variable

appears exactly once. A function with n variables has 2n maxterms The maxterms for a three-variable function f(x,y,z): Each maxterm is false for exactly one combination of inputs: x + y + z x + y + z x + y + z x+ y + z x + y + z x + y + z x + y + z x + y + z

Product of maxterms form

 Every function can be written as a unique product of maxterms If you have a truth table for a function, you can write a product of maxterms expression by picking out the rows of the table where the function output is 0. (Be careful if youre writing the actual literals!)

Minterms and maxterms are related

 Any minterm mi is the complement of the corresponding maxterm Mi

For example, m4 = M4 because (xyz) = x + y + z

SOURCES:
http://www.ee.surrey.ac.uk/Projects/Labview/gatesfunc/ http://www.ee.surrey.ac.uk/Projects/Labview/gatesfunc/TruthFrameSet.htm http://doyle.wcdsb.ca/ICE4MI/digitial_electronics/minterms.htm
https://wiki.engr.illinois.edu/download/attachments/84770821/04MintermsMaxterms.pdf?version=1&modificationDate=1251869280000