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Dcvc!npmcnt nf an EcnnnmIca! HIgh Ear!y 5trcngth
Cnncrctc MIx fnr PavIng nf PrnvIncIa! Rnads In
5rI Lanka
Abstract: Rigid pavenenl conslruclion has a Iong hislory. Readynixed or sile nixed concrele is used
for rigid pavenenl conslruclion. Hovever, convenlionaI concrele nixlures require nore lhan 7 days
lo gain adequale slrenglh lo aIIov for lraffic. DeveIopnenl of high earIy slrenglh concrele vouId le a
soIulion lo aIIov lraffic vilhin a reasonalIe line. Hovever, use of high cenenl conlenl in earIy
slrenglh concrele induces dislress in lhe pavenenls and vouId nol le an econonicaI nix.
A high perfornance concrele nix vas deveIoped for rigid pavenenl conslruclion using a Iov cosl
adnixlure vilh avaiIalIe naleriaIs in Sri Lanka. Sludy has shovn lhal 3 of connerciaI grade CaCI2
can le used as an acceIeralor lo ollain required conpressive slrenglh and lhe fIexuraI slrenglh of
concrele in 12 hours. Slrenglh gain vas verified ly lhe nalurily lesl conducled for a sIal pIaced
under fieId condilion. SIal lenperalure vas aIso neasured vilh line and found lenperalure rise due
lo heal of hydralion vas insignificanl. Using lhe nix proporlion deveIoped, concrele roads can le
aIIoved for lraffic in 12 hours and can aIso le used for repair vorks of lhe exisling roads.
Life cycIe cosl anaIysis vas perforned laking inlo accounl lhe conslruclion cosl, nainlenance cosl and
lhe user cosl. The sludy has shovn lhal lhere is 26 saving ly using high earIy slrenglh concrele
deveIoped in lhis sludy.
Kcywnrds: High earIy slrenglh, CaIciun ChIoride, Rigid Iavenenl, Concrele Roads, Life CycIe Cosl
AnaIysis
1. IntrnductInn
The rigid pavenenl or IorlIand Cenenl
Concrele (ICC) pavenenl shouId le pIaced
on an inproved sulgrade or on a sullase of
approved lype and lhickness. The sullase
nay le naluraI soiI or slaliIized soiI or graded
granuIar naleriaI. SIal lhicknesses nornaIIy
vary lelveen 15O nn and 3OO nn depending
on lhe sulgrade condilions and lraffic. SIal
vidlh of lhose roads varies fron 3.O n lo 3.7
n, corresponding lo lhe vidlh of a lraffic Iane.
Once lhe concrele is pIaced, suilalIe poker
vilralors or vilraling leans is used for
conpaclion.. The surfaces are finished rough.
Ior lhis purpose a nechanicaI lroon or
suilalIe hand lroon is used. Curing of lhe Iaid
concrele shouId le carried oul for a nininun
period of 7 days.
}oinl syslens are designed lo conlroI cracking
and nainlain pavenenl slrucluraI inlegrily
and riding quaIily (road roughness) al Iov
annuaI cosl. }oinls in rigid pavenenls conlroI
lransverse and IongiludinaI cracks due lo
reslrained conlraclion and lhe conlined
effecls of reslrained curIing, varping and
lraffic Ioad.
Iurlher, joinls divide lhe pavenenl inlo
praclicaI conslruclion increnenls |1Oj.
Transverse joinls are crealed nainIy lo
acconnodale lhernaI and shrinkage slresses.
Concrele Iavenenls do nol necessariIy require
expansion joinls |16j.
Eng (Dr.) W.K. Mamearachchl, 8.Sc. |ng. (Hcns)
(Mcra|uua), MSC|(scu|n ||cria), PnD(||cria),
CM||T (UK), Scnicr |cc|urcr, Dcpar|mcn| cf Citi|
|nginccring, Unitcrsi|q cf Mcra|uua,
].V. Kosgo||a, 8.Sc. |ng. (Hcns) (Mcra|uua), Rcscarcn
Assis|an|, Dcpar|mcn| cf Citi| an |ntircnmcn|a|
|nginccring, Unitcrsi|q cf Mcra|uua,
Eng (Prof). S.M.A. Nanaakkara, 8.Sc. |ng. (Hcns)
(Mcra|uua), M|ng (Tc|qc), D|ng (Tc|qc) Prcfcsscr,
Dcpar|mcn| cf Citi| |nginccring, Unitcrsi|q cf
Mcra|uua.
ENGINEER - Vol. XXXXIV, No. 02, pp. [1-9], 2011
The Institution of Engineers, Sri Lanka
ENGINEER
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Conlraclion joinls are crealed ly naking a sav
cul in lhe sIal lo a deplh of 1/3 of lhe
lhickness of lhe sIal |1Oj. The joinls are fiIIed
vilh approved joinl fiIIer.
Load lransfer al }oinls can le furlher enhanced
ly using doveI lars across lhe joinls. DoveI
lars are usuaIIy pIaced al nid deplh of lhe
sIal vilh 3OO nn spacing for lhick concrele
pavenenl designed for heavy lraffic roads |1Oj
2. Rcscarch Nccds
Concrele paving has leen videIy used for Iov
voIune roads in Sri Lanka since 2OO7 vilh lhe
governnenl aIIocaled funding for IocaI
governnenl agencies lo conslrucl concrele
roads. Il is considered as a cosl effeclive road
conslruclion lechnique for Iov voIune roads
since concrele roads have Iess nainlenance
cosl. CurrenlIy, fev roads nanaged ly lhe
Road DeveIopnenl Aulhorily (RDA), have
aIso leen conslrucled using concrele. NornaI
concrele needs alIeasl 28 days lo gain sufficienl
slrenglh lo aIIov for lraffic. Therefore, lhe user
cosl due lo cIosure of lhe road for a Iong
period increases lhe overaII cosl of lhe projecl.
There is a need for evaIualing Iife cycIe cosl
considering conslruclion, nainlenance and
user cosl. Increase of concrele earIy slrenglh lo
aIIov lraffic al a nininun line shouId le
considered lo nake concrele paving feasilIe
for roads vilh consideralIe lraffic.
Il has leen reveaIed in fieId surveys lhal
concrele pavenenls are aIIoved lo lraffic al
earIy age of concrele due lo inadequale
aIlernalive roules lo delour lhe lraffic. Iigure 1
shovs lhe vehicIe lyre narks of lhe Middaniya
- Weerakelliya road due lo such silualion.
Fine aggiegate kgm
Coaise aggiegate kgm
Watei kgm
CaCl measuieu as a
peicentage of cement
content
FIgurc 3 - CnmprcssIvc strcngth gaIn wIth
CaC!2
As shovn in Iigure 3, highesl slrenglh gain
vas ollained for 3 of CaCI2 conlenl. Thal
anounl can le idenlified as lhe oplinun
anounl of CaCI2 for rapid slrenglh gain.
According lo a previous sludy | 11, 12j, lhe
nininun conpressive slrenglh of concrele
required lo aIIov lraffic afler pIacing of
concrele is 11 MIa (16OO psi). ased on lhe
alove research, lhe required slrenglh can le
ollained in 12 hours vilh 3 of CaCI2.
Tcmpcraturc-tImc rc!atInnshIp
Iigure 4 shovs lhe lenperalure varialion vilh
line of lesl cules ( 15O nn 15O nn 15O
nn) vilh various CaCI2 percenlages. Il can le
seen lhal lhere is a lenperalure rise in concrele
vilh CaCI2 and il increases vilh lhe increase of
CaCI2 percenlage.
FIgurc 4 - Tcmpcraturc-tImc rc!atInnshIp nf
tcst cubcs
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ENGINEER
Maxinun recorded lenperalure difference
vilh respecl lo O CaCI2 vas 1.5 C for 3 of
CaCI2. This earIy slage lenperalure
deveIopnenl due lo cacI2 can le considered as
insignificanl for concrele pavenenls in lhe
range of 15O nn lhick. Hovever, lenperalure
rise shouId le nonilored under fieId condilion
lo verify lhis.
7LPHRISODFHPHQW
Hol vhelher concreling shouId le avoided
since lhe concrele vilh CacI2 can sel fasler and
lenperalure increase nay le significanl.
When concrele is pIaced under varn sunny
condilions, lhe naxinun lenperalure of lhe
concrele viII vary depending upon lhe line of
lhe day. Concrele paved in earIy norning viII
oflen reach a higher naxinun lenperalure
lhan lhe concrele paved in Iale norning and
aflernoon. Il has leen found fron a previous
sludy lhal concrele pIaced in lhe norning lecones
nearIy 13
O
C varner lhan lhe concrele pIaced in
Iale aflernoon. |9j. y pIacing lhe concrele in
evening (preferalIy afler 6 pn) viII reduce lhe
heal generalion in lhe concrele and aIso Iess
disruplion lo lraffic.
0DWXULW\7HVW
The slrenglh of a concrele nixlure lhal has
leen properIy pIaced and cured can le
expressed as a funclion of lhe age and
lenperalure hislory |19j. Increase in curing
lenperalure and Ionger curing lines Iead lo
increase in slrenglh deveIopnenl. Malurily
lesling provides a reIialIe lechnique for
conlinuous noniloring of slrenglh gain of
concrele. The lesl nelhod recognizes lhe
conlined effecl of line and lenperalure and
provides a lasis for eslinaling lhe in silu
slrenglh gain of concrele ly noniloring
lenperalure of concrele over line.
Malurily direclIy shovs a reIalionship lo
slrenglh. The nalurily of concrele nay le
defined as ils age nuIlipIied ly lhe average
lenperalure lhal il has nainlained. ased on
lhe definilion, lhe Iav of slrenglh gain vilh
nalurily vas deveIoped. The Iav slales:
concrele of lhe sane nixlure al lhe sane
nalurily (neasured as lenperalure-line)
gives approxinaleIy lhe sane slrenglh
vhalever conlinalion of lenperalure and
line goes lo nake up lhal nalurily |19j.
%HQHILWVDQGOLPLWDWLRQV
The nalurily approach provides a usefuI and
sinpIe neans of eslinaling lhe slrenglh gain
of concrele al earIy age (generaIIy Iess lhan 14
days oId) |5j. Il aIIovs engineers lo assess lhe
in pIace slrenglh of a concrele pavenenl
slruclure. This vaIualIe infornalion can lhen
le used lo delernine lhe appropriale line for
opening a pavenenl lo lraffic, or for saving
joinls or for slripping forns. Iurlhernore, cosl
of quaIily assurance decreases and nalurily
noniloring causes no danage lo lhe exisling
concrele pavenenl.
Hovever, caIilralion curves as shovn in
Iigure 4 are deveIoped lased on projecl-
specific naleriaIs. Any changes in lhe nix
design viII require a nev caIilralion curve.
AIso sone faclors affecling concrele slrenglh,
e.g., consoIidalion nay nol le considered in
nalurily lesling. Malurily lesl does nol
consider lhe effecl of earIy age concrele
lenperalure on Iong lern uIlinale slrenglh
|14j.
The Nurse-SauI nalurily reIalionship vas
deveIoped in 195Os and lhe nosl videIy
accepled neans of conpuling nalurily is lhe
accunuIaled producl of line and lenperalure
|14j:
N Ta To t
Wheie
N matuiity at age t
Ta aveiage conciete tempeiatuie uuiing time
inteival t
To uatum tempeiatuie
t time inteival
The uatum tempeiatuie is the tempeiatuie at which
conciete stiength gain ceases ueneially a value of
C is useu foi the uatum tempeiatuie in the NuiseSaul
equation
7HVWSURFHGXUH
Concrele sIal of 1.2 n 1.2 n 1OO nn vas
casl lo nonilor lenperalure and slrenglh
deveIopnenl. The lhernocoupIes vere pIaced
al lhe nid deplh of lhe niddIe of lhe sIal in
order lo neasure lhe lenperalure under fieId
condilion. Sixleen (16) lesl cules vere casl lo
perforn conpressive slrenglh lesl al 4 hours, 6
hours, 8 hours, 12 hours and 24 hours.
ThernocoupIes vere enledded in one of lhe
lesl cules. Curing vas done in accordance
vilh ASTM C31. Conpression lesling vas
conducled according lo ASTM C78. Afler lhal
ENGINEER
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ENGINEER
noderaleIy lraffic roads. Cosl saving is nainIy
due lo nininizing user deIay cosl.
$33(1',;&267$1$/<6,6
1HW3UHVHQW9DOXH139
Nel Iresenl VaIue lechnique expIicilIy
recognizes lhe line vaIue of noney. The iniliaI
cosl lakes pIace during lhe year zero. The
annuaI cosl fron lhe year zero lo 'n nusl le
discounled lo find lhe zero year value of such
annual cost The following equation is useu to
estimate the piesent woith of each annual cost
Wheie Ai cost in i
th
yeai
i Biscounting factoi
P Life cycle cost
'HWHUPLQDWLRQRIGLVFRXQWLQJIDFWRU
VaIue of noney changes vilh lhe effecls of
infIalion and inleresl rale. ased on severaI
econonic paranelers lhe discounling rale
shouId le eslinaled. Discounling faclor
changes vilh lhe infIalion and inleresl rale.
The nalhenalicaI reIalionship for discounling
faclor (i) can le given as leIov
Wheie i uiscount iate
e Inteiest iate
u Inflation iate
Inteiest iate Cential Bank Sii Lanka
Naich
Inflation CCIP Cential Bank Sii Lanka
Naich
Bence uiscounting iate
*HQHUDOFRVWFRPSRQHQWV
There are lvo najor cosl conponenls
associaled vilh road conslruclion, (1) IniliaI
cosl and (2) Mainlenance cosl
,QLWLDOFRVW
IniliaI cosl can lasicaIIy le divided inlo lhree
najor parls, i.e. Iand acquisilion cosl, design
and professionaI fee and conslruclion cosl.
0DLQWHQDQFHFRVW
Mainlenance cosl incIudes lhe cosls of
nainlenance of lhe road surface.
(VWLPDWLRQRIFRVWRIULJLGSDYHPHQWV
Lslinalion of nainlenance cosl of rigid
pavenenls vas perforned for a lraffic voIune
of 6OOOvpd. TalIe A1 gives lhe cosl of
naleriaIs and Iaying of concrele per n
3
.
Table A Unit cost estimation
Resource Amount
per m
Cost
Cement kg Rs
Sanu kg Rs
Netal kg Rs
CaCl kg Rs
Laboui equipment Rs
Total amount pei m
Rs
Conciete thickness mm
Assuming that in one woiking uay m of m
wiue anu mm thick pavement can be constiucteu
The initial cost can be calculateu as follows
Initial cost x x x
Rs
-RLQWFRQVWUXFWLRQFRVW
}oinl conslruclion cosl = Rs.25O/= per Iinear neler
}oinl spacing = 3.On
TolaI Iinear joinl Ienglh for 5OO n Ienglh 3 n vidlh
seclion = 498 n
}oinl conslruclion cosl = Rs.249,5OO/= (using a
saving nachine as reconnended in lhe
specificalion SSCM 2OO8)
8VHUGHOD\FRVW
Lslinalion of vaIue of line for lransporl user
groups |13j.
Table A Value of time
0sei
gioup
value of
time
Rs hi
value of
time
Rs hi
vehicle
occupa
ncy
value of
time
Rshi
Cai
van
Ncycle
Public
tianspoit
vehicle composition of a typical ioau Tiansplan
uatabase is anu peicent foi cais
motoicycles van anu public tianspoit iespectively
For o troffic volume of vpJ
0sei uelay cost pei uay x x
x x x
Rs Bay
For o troffic volume of vpJ
0sei uelay cost pei uay x x
x x x
Rs Bay
ENGINEER
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Calculation is foi i a two lane highway
Initial Cost for Uption bours closure
Baseu on cuiient ieseaich stuuy time iequiieu to
gain stiength aftei placing conciete Bouis
Theiefoi total uuiation of ioau closuie assuming
houis foi constiuction houis
0sei uelay cost For o troffic volume of vpJ pei
one lane foi Bouis Rs
Initial cost }oint constiuction cost usei uelay cost
Rs
Initial cost pei m
of conciete pavement
Rs
Initial cost foi option II uays ioau closuie
For o Joy rooJ closure As per specificotion bours
compressive strenqtb sboulJ exceeJ HPo to ollow
troffic
Initial cost }oint constiuction cost usei uelay cost
Rs
Initial cost pei m
of conciete pavement
Rs
ueneial Naintenance cost Iuentical foi both options
ueneial maintenance cost x
Rs
ueneial maintenance cost pei m
Rs
Assumption of slab replacement in every
years
Slab ieplacement cost Initial cost }oint
constiuction cost x Rs
Uption Cost estimation percent value
By consiueiing yeais Buiation foi i life
cycle cost is given below
P Rs
Cost of m
of conciete pavement mm thick foi a
uesign life of Yeais Rs
Uption Cost estimation percent value
By consiueiing Yeais Buiation foi i Life
cycle cost
P Rs
Cost of m
of conciete pavement mm thick foi a
uesign life of Yeais Rs
Cost saving of high eaily stiength conciete
100
4297
3178 297 , 4
u
5HIHUHQFHV
1. Slale-of-lhe-Arl Reporl, IHWA SpeciaI
Irojecl 2O1, Reporl IHWASA- 94-O8O,
Accc|cra|c Rigi Pating Tccnniqucs,
IederaI Highvay Adninislralion,
Washinglon, D.C., 1994.
2. TechnicaI Connillee Docunenl ACI
325.11R, Accc|cra|c Tccnniqucs fcr
Ccncrc|c Pating, Connillee 325,
Anerican Concrele Inslilule,
Iarninglon HiIIs, Mich., 2OO1.
3. Anerican Associalion of Slale
Highvay and Transporlalion OfficiaIs
(AASHTO), Guic fcr Dcsign cf
Patcmcn| S|ruc|urcs, Washinglon, DC.
,1993.
4. CaIifornia Deparlnenl of
Transporlalion, CaITrans, S|a|
Rcp|accmcn| Guic|incs, CaIifornia
Deparlnenl of Transporlalion,
IulIicalion and Dislrilulion Unil,
19OO RoyaI Oaks Drive, Sacranenlo,
CA, 2OO4.
5. Cravford, C. I., Guic |c Ncn-
cs|ruc|itc Tcs|ing cf Ccncrc|c. |HIA-
SA-97-105, .IederaI Highvay
Adninislralion, Washinglon, DC,
1997.
6. TechnicaI Connillee Docunenl ACI
224.1R-93, Causcs, |ta|ua|icn, an
Rcpair cf Crac|s in Ccncrc|c S|ruc|urcs,
Connillee 224, Anerican Concrele
Inslilule, Iarninglon HiIIs, Mich.,
1998.
Initial cost Rs pei m
Time (Years) 1 2 3 5 10
Rs.15/
Rs.23/
Initial cost Rs pei m
Time (Years) 1 2 3 5 10
Rs.15/
Rs.23/
9
ENGINEER
7. IIorida Deparlnenl of Transporlalion
(IDOT), S|anar Spccifica|icn fcr Rca
an 8rigc Ccns|ruc|icn, IDOT, Maps
and IulIicalions, TaIIahassee, IL,
2OO4.
8. Cayani, }.,K.,U., Delerninalion of
Concrele lhickness for Rigid
Iavenenls vilh RecycIed Concrele
Aggregale for Lov VoIune Roads in
Sri Lanka, Unitcrsi|q cf Mcra|uua, Sri
|an|a Mas|crs Tncsis, 2O1O.
9. CeraId, I., V., LarIy Cracking of
Concrele Iavenenl - Causes and
Repairs, presenled for lhe IederaI
Avialion Adninislralion Airporl
TechnoIogy Transfer Conference,
AlIanlic cily InlernalionaI Airporl, N},
USA,2OO2.
1O. Huang, Y. H., Patcmcn| Ana|qsis an
Dcsign, Irenlice HaII, Upper SaddIe
River, Nev }ersey, 1993, pp 168-2O7.
11. Kunara, M. W., Tia M., Chung-Lung
Wu, and ouzid Choulane, AnaIysis
of Conposile Iavenenls under
noving and Slalic WheeI Load fron a
Heavy-VehicIe SinuIalor,'Deparlnenl
of CiviI & CoaslaI Lngineering,
CoIIege of Lngineering, Universily of
IIorida, CainesviIIe, IL 2OO5.
12. Kunara, M. W., AnaIysis and
Verificalion of Slresses and Slrains and
lheir ReIalionship lo IaiIure in
Concrele Iavenenls Under Heavy
VehicIe SinuIalor Loading Ih.D.
Disserlalion, Universily of IIorida,
2OO5.
13. Kunarage, A.S.K., Assessing IulIic
Transporl Inveslnenl in lhe Transporl
Seclor, Deparlnenl of NalionaI
IIanning, Minislry of Iinance and
IIanning, CoIonlo, Sri Lanka, 2OO1.
14. NeIson, I. K., Handlook of
Nondeslruclive and Innovalive
Tesling Lquipnenl for Concrele,
IederaI Highvay Adninislralion,
Washinglon, D.C., 2OO3.
15. NeviIIe, A.M., and rooks, }.}.,
Concrele TechnoIogy, Iearson, ISN
81-78O8-647-6, 2OO4, pp- 193-2O2.
16. ICA, Thickness Design for Concrele
Highvay and Slreel Iavenenls,
Skokie, IL, 1984.
17. Ranachandran, V. S., Ca|cium Cn|cric
in Ccncrc|c. Scicncc an Tccnnc|cgq.
Lssex, LngIand: AppIied Science
IulIishers, 1976.
18. Ranachandran, V. S., Accc|cra|crs. |n
Ccncrc|c Amix|urcs nan|cc|.
Prcpcr|ics, Scicncc, an Tccnnc|cgq,
Noyes IulIicalion, Iark Ridge, N. }.,
1984.
19. SauI, A. C. A., IrincipIes UnderIying
lhe Slean Curing of Concrele al
Alnospheric Iressure, Magazinc cf
Ccncrc|c Rcscarcn, VoI. 2, no. 6. Thonas
TeIford IulIishing, London. 1951.
2O. Shoukry, S.N., WiIIian, C.W., and
Sirinivasan, S., AnaIysis of Mid- SIal
Transverse Cracking in }oinled
Concrele pavenenls. Tnc |n|crna|icna|
]curna| cf Patcmcn|s, VoI. 1, No. 3, 2OO2,
pp. 81-94.
21. Teychenne, D.C., IrankIin, R.L. and
Lnlroy, H. C., Dcsign cf Ncrma|
Ccncrc|c Mixcs, uiIding Research
LslalIishnenl, 2
nd
edilion, 1997
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ENGINEER
ENGINEER - Vol. XXXXIV, No. 02, pp. [11-19], 2011
The Institution of Engineers, Sri Lanka
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AIlhough lhe varialion of conpressive
slrenglh in reIalion lo 'cenenl repIacenenl
IeveIs is sonevhal siniIar lo lhe lhree
valer linder ralios, lhe nagnilude of lhe
conpressive slrenglh is higher for linder-
sand ralio 1:3 lhan for 1:6. Wilh respecl lo
lolh linder-sand ralios 1:3 and 1:6, cenenl
repIacenenl IeveI of 5 produces lhe
highesl conpressive slrenglh.
The figures aIso shov lhal vhen cenenl
repIacenenl IeveI graduaIIy increases
leyond 5 lhe conpressive slrenglh
sleadiIy decreases.
Il is inporlanl lo cIoseIy exanine lhe
varialion in conpressive slrenglh al a given
cenenl repIacenenl IeveI vilh respecl lo
lhe lhree valer-linder ralios. Iigures 4 and
5 represenl, for differenl cenenl
repIacenenl IeveIs, lhe conpressive
slrenglh in reIalion lo differenl valer-
linder ralios for linder-sand ralios 1:3 and
1:6 respecliveIy. The highesl conpressive
slrenglh is shovn al lhe 5 cenenl
repIacenenl IeveI vhen lhe valer-linder
ralio is O.5. The highesl vaIues for
conpressive slrenglh are olserved for
sanpIes cured for 6O days, al 5 cenenl
repIacenenl IeveI vhich are 16.85 MIa and
6.1O MIa for linder-sand ralios 1:3 and !:6
respecliveIy. Anolher nolalIe olservalion
is lhal vhen cenenl repIacenenl IeveI is
15, disregarding lhe nagnilude of valer-
linder ralio, conpressive slrenglh reaches
very Iov vaIues such as 4.7O MIa and 2.95
MIa for linder-sand ralios of 1:6 and 1:3
respecliveIy. Moreover, il is olserved lhal
lhe varialion in conpressive slrenglh in
reIalion lo valer-linder ralios (O.4, O.5 or
O.6) for a given cenenl repIacenenl IeveI is
nol significanl, for lolh linder-sand ralios.
Iigure 6 shovs lhe varialion of
conpressive slrenglh of norlar cules in
reIalion lo differenl cenenl repIacenenls
IeveIs, for a given valer-linder ralio.
According lo lhe figure, lhe pallern of
varialion of conpressive slrenglh in
reIalion lo cenenl repIacenenl IeveI is
siniIar for aII lhree valer-linder ralios.
Hence, il can le deduced lhal pallern of
conpressive slrenglh varialion is nol
dependenl on lhe valer-linder ralio.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
0 5 10 15
Cement replacement level (%)
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e
s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
(
M
p
a
)
W/B=0.4
W/B=0.5
W/B=0.6
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
0 5 10 15
Cement replacement level (%)
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e
s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
(
M
p
a
)
W/B=0.4
W/B=0.5
W/B=0.6
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
0 5 10 15
Cement replacement level
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
iv
e
s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
(
M
p
a
)
W/B=0.4
W/B=0.5
W/B=0.6
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
0 5 10 15
Cement replacement level (%)
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e
s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
(
M
p
a
)
W/B=0.4
W/B=0.5
W/B=0.6
FIgurc 2-CnmprcssIvc strcngth varIatInn
In rc!atInn tn ccmcnt rcp!accmcnt !cvc!s
(ccmcnt- bIndcr ratio 1:3)
Therefore, in silualions vhere higher
repIacenenl IeveIs of RHA are adopled lhis
Iov iniliaI conpressive slrenglh has lo le
considered. The Iigure 7 aIso shovs very
cIearIy lhal ly adding RHA ly 5, ils
conpressive slrenglh can le increased
nore lhan lhal produced vilh 1OO cenenl
vhich is a significanl finding of lhe sludy.
The average 28 days and 6O days
conpressive slrenglh of norlar cules are
6.25 MIa and 7.46 MIa respecliveIy. This
indicales lhe increase in conpressive
slrenglh over lhe period 28 days lo 6O days
is 19 vhich is reIaliveIy a narginaI
increase.
The conpressive slrenglhs vhen cenenl
repIacenenl IeveI is 15, valer linder-ralio
is O.5 and linder-sand ralio is 1:6 are 2.65
and 2.95 for ages 28 days and 6O days
respecliveIy. According lo Sri Lanka
Slandard 855: Iarl 1:1999 (Specificalions for
Cenenl Iocks Iarl 1_ Requirenenls), lhe
conpressive slrenglh required of soIid
cenenl-sand lIocks for a singIe slorey and
lvo sloreys for norlar designalion (cenenl
-sand) 1:5 or 1:8 are 1.2 and 2.5 MIa
respecliveIy. Hence, il can le said lhal a
cenenl repIacenenl IeveI of 15, valer
linder-ralio of O.5 and linder-sand ralio of
1:6 affords a suilalIe nix specificalion for
cenenl sand lIocks lo le used for singIe or
lvo slory luiIdings. AIso il can le deduced
lhal in lhe use of lIended cenenl, for lhe
sane requirenenl, lhe oplinaI IeveI of
cenenl repIacenenl is 15.
4.2.2 VarIatInn In cnmprcssIvc strcngth In
mnrtar madc wIth RHA gcngraphIca!!y
TalIe 3 depicls lhe resuIls ollained for lhe
conpressive slrenglh of norlar cules casl
using lhe RHA ollained fron lhe lhree
geographic areas naneIy allicaIoa,
Anpara Vavuniya. Ior lhe purpose of
conparison, if ve consider conpressive
slrenglhs al 6O days, al 5 cenenl
repIacenenl IeveI (for linder: sand ralio of
1:6 and valer-linder ralio of O.5) for lhe
lhree areas allicaIoa, Anpara and
Vavuniya are 6.1O, 5.9O and 6.OO MIa
respecliveIy. This indicales lhal lhe
varialion in conpressive slrenglh of norlar
cules casl vilh lIended cenenl of vhich
RHA ollained fron differenl areas is nol
significanl.
4.2.3 Cnst Ana!ysIs
In year 2OO9, lhe annuaI paddy produclion
in Sri Lanka is 3.65 niIIion nelric lons
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
0.4 0.5 0.6
W/B ratio
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e
s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
(
M
p
a
)
0
5
10
15
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
7days 28 days 60 days
Age
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
iv
e
S
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
(
M
P
a
)
0
5
10
15
FIgurc 7- CnmprcssIvc strcngth varIatInn
In rc!atInn tn agc
FIgurc 6-CnmprcssIvc strcngth varIatInn
In rc!atInn tn watcr-bIndcr ratIn
ENGINEER
18
$FNQRZOHGJHPHQW
5HIHUHQFHV
Abstract: This paper presenls lhe condilion assessnenl of synchronous generalor slalor insuIalion
used in Sri Lankan pover slalions. The vork has lhree parls i.e. lheorelicaI, Ialoralory and fieId
invesligalions. In lhe firsl parl, lheory lehind dieIeclric insuIalions have leen lroadIy discussed vilh
lhe aid of differenl non-deslruclive lesl nelhods used lo asses lhe condilions of lhe generalor
insuIalion. In lhe Ialoralory invesligalions, lvo naluraIIy velled asphaIl nica, one dry poIyesler nica
and one dry epoxy nica spare slalor vindings vere lesled under drying and velling condilions. The
used lesl nelhods vere DC ranp, line varialion of insuIalion resislance (IR), poIarizalion and
depoIarizalion currenl (IDC), frequency dieIeclric speclroscopy (IDS) and parliaI discharge (ID) lesls
and lhe reIalionships have leen eslalIished anong lhen. In lhe fieId invesligalions, differenl
generalors leIonging lo CeyIon LIeclricily oard vere lesled ly using DC ranp lesl. Il vas found lhal
lhe DC ranp lesl, as an easy and sinpIe fieId lesl, can le effecliveIy used lo invesligale lhe noislure
effecl on generalor insuIalion.
Kcy wnrds: Synchronous generalor, Slalor insuIalion, noislure, condilion assessnenl, DC ranp lesl,
Irequency dieIeclric speclroscopy
1. IntrnductInn
Ceneralor slalor vinding insuIalion is exposed
lo ThernaI, LIeclricaI, MechanicaI and
LnvironnenlaI slresses during lhe operalion,
and faiIure of vinding insuIalion depends on
conlinalion of lhese slresses. Major faiIure
nodes of lhe vinding insuIalion can le due lo
inlernaI parliaI discharges, lhernaI cycIing or
overIoading, ageing, Ioosening of lars in lhe
sIol or vinding overhangs, over voIlages, and
conlaninalion. Oul of lhen, conlaninalion of
lhe slalor insuIalion is responsilIe for aloul
25 of lhe najor faiIures and il is nainIy due lo
noislure alsorplion vilhin or oulside fron lhe
generalor. Due lo hygroscopic nalure of nany
lype of lhe insuIalion syslens noislure can le
dravn inlo lhe lody of lhe insuIalion fron lhe
alnospheric air or fron Ieakage of valer fron
lhe cooIers of lhe generalor slalor. Thus lhis
alsorled noislure has a grealer effecl on
properlies of lhe insuIalion. In addilion,
noislure in conlinalion vilh oiI, carlon dusl
and lrake dusl vhich are aIready deposiled on
lhe vinding insuIalion and venliIalion palhs
can acceIerale lhernaI delerioralion or lhernaI
ageing of lhe generalor slalor vinding
insuIalion and slalor core. Hunidily
dependency on lhe insuIalion properlies seens
lo le associaled vilh specific slalor vinding
delerioralion process such as eIeclricaI lracking
and end vinding parliaI discharge aclivilies |1j.
There are various on-Iine and off-Iine lesl
nelhods used ly lhe engineers for diagnosing
condilion of lhe slalor vinding insuIalion of lhe
generalors in operalion |2j. Assessing lhe
renaining Iife line, deciding lhe priorily IeveI
for nexl najor nainlenance and delernining
lhe rool cause for lhe faiIure of lhe faiIed
vinding are lhe nain reasons for lesling lhe
vinding insuIalion.
Aloul 4O differenl lesl nelhods are presenlIy
used lo asses lhe condilion of slalor vinding
insuIalion |1,3-7j. Sone of lhe frequenlIy used
lesl nelhods are insuIalion resislance
neasurenenl |4,7j, high voIlage AC/DC
lesling, Off Iine parliaI discharge lesling and on
Iine parliaI discharge noniloring |6,7j, Ioss
langenl and capacilance neasurenenl |6,7j, DC
ranp lesling |3j and response neasurenenls
in line and frequency donain |5j. AInosl aII of
lhese lesls are used for noniloring lhe
synplons of lhe delerioralion of lhe insuIalion
and nainlenance engineers use lhe resuIls of
lhe lesling lo evaIuale lhe condilion of lhe
insuIalion and lo eslinale lhe risk of faiIure of
Eng. (Prof.) M.A.R.M. |ernando, 8.Sc. |ng. (Pcracniqa),
C. |ng., M|| (Sri |an|a), SM||||, Tccn |ic. (KTH), PnD
(Cna|mcrs), Scnicr |cc|urcr, Dcpar|mcn| cf ||cc|rica| c
||cc|rcnic |nginccring, Unitcrsi|q cf Pcracniqa.
Eng. G.A. ]aantha, 8.Sc. |ng. (Pcracniqa), C. |ng., M||
(Sri |an|a), Cnicf |nginccr, Assc|s Managcmcn|, Ccq|cn
||cc|rici|q 8car, Kanq.
ENGINEER
22
lhe operaling unil. Use of aII lhe lesl nelhods
is line consuning and il requires a Ionger
period of oulage vhich finaIIy counls in lerns
of cenls and rupees.
esl exanpIe is lhal lhe response neasurenenls
such as frequency dieIeclric speclroscopy (IDS)
and poIarizalion, depoIarizalion currenl (IDC),
provides usefuI infornalion.
Hovever, il usuaIIy lakes 3-4 hours lo see lhe
reaI effecl of lhe insuIalion ly eilher going
leIov nHz range or alove 1OOO s in frequency
and line donains respecliveIy. On lhe olher
hand, DC ranp lesl aIso provide usefuI
infornalion and due lo ils sinpIicily, lhis lesl
can le conducled in lhe fieId very easiIy.
Aulhors vish lo eIalorale on condilion
assessnenl of generalor slalor insuIalion
aining lo undersland lhe use of DC ranp lesl
especiaIIy lo diagnose lhe presence of noislure.
ResuIls of fieId lesl and Ialoralory lesl ly
differenl lesl nelhods are used lo eslalIish a
reIalionship anong lhe lesl resuIls and lesling
nelhods.
2. ThcnrctIca! InvcstIgatInns
2.1 Gcncratnr 5tatnr Insu!atInn
Main purpose of lhe insuIalion of lhe slalor
vinding is lo avoid shorl circuil lelveen
phases and lelveen phase and ground. Il has
lo lransnil heal due lo conduclor currenl lo lhe
oul side of lhe vinding insuIalion (lo lhe
cooIing nediun and lhe slalor core). Slrand
insuIalion, lurn insuIalion and groundvaII
insuIalion are lhe lhree nain lasic conslilules
of lhe slalor insuIalion syslen as shovn in
Iigures 1 and 2.
FIgurc 1 - Crnss scctInn nf statnr wIndIng In a
s!nt
FIgurc 2 - Insu!atInn nf statnr wIndIng
According lo lhe insuIalion naleriaI and
londing agenl of lhe nain insuIalion (Cround
vaII insuIalion), lhe insuIalion of generalor
slalor vindings can le cIassified in lo lhree
nain versions as asphaIl- nica, poIyesler- nica
and epoxy-nica. Mica is lhe nain insuIalion
naleriaI |8j.
The generalor slalor insuIalion, as a dieIeclric
naleriaI, vhen suljecled lo an eIeclric slress ly
ac or DC voIlage, currenl fIovs fron lhe cu
conduclor lo lhe ouler insuIalion or lo lhe
ground vaII. This currenl consisls of lvo parls
i.e. surface Ieakage and currenl lhrough lhe
insuIalion. The currenl lhrough lhe insuIalion is
nainIy characlerized ly lhe capacilive, Ieakage
and lhe poIarizalion lehaviour of lhe insuIalion
and can le eslinaled using enpiricaI fornuIas.
On lhe olher hand, lhe surface currenl can nol
le eslinaled lul couId le separaled ly
neasuring vilh or/and vilhoul lhe guarding
eIeclrode. In generaI, lhe lehaviour of lhe
insuIalion (dieIeclric naleriaI) can le anaIysed
in line or frequency donains depending on lhe
suppIy voIlage of DC or ac respecliveIy |9j.
2.2 TImc DnmaIn ana!ysIs
In line donain anaIysis, lhe insuIalion is
suljecled lo a DC voIlage and lhe response is
recorded vilh respecl lo lhe line. The line
varialion of currenl can le ollained fron lhe
expression for currenl densily according lo lhe
MaxveIIs equalions
( )
W
3
W
(
( + W -
c
c
+
c
c
+ = . V =
0
c o -(1)
Where L and I are eIeclric slress and
poIarizalion. The firsl, second and lhird lerns
represenl lhe conlrilulion fron conduclion,
capacilive and poIarizalion currenls
respecliveIy. The poIarizalion has conlrilulion
fron rapid and sIov phenonena as
Bottom Packing
Strand Insulation
Ground wall (main) Insulation
Side Iiller and semiconductive coating
Midstick Packing (Spacer)
Turn Insulation
Protective strip
Sliding strip
Counter wedge
Ripple spring
Slot Wedge
23
ENGINEER
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
)
+ =
W
G W ( I W ( W 3
t t t c c c -(2)
Where f(l) is lhe response funclion of lhe
naleriaI. y conlining eqv (1) and (2), lhe
currenl densily can le vrillen as
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
(
+
c
c
+ =
)
W
G W ( I W (
W
W ( W -
t t t c c o
(3)
When a voIlage U(l) is appIied, lhe currenl is
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
(
+
c
c
+ =
)
W
G W 8 I W 8
W
&
W 8 &
W ,
t t t c
c
o
(4)
Where lhe CO is geonelric capacilance. y
neasuring lhe currenl one couId separale
capacilive, conduclion and poIarizalion
conponenls.
2.2.1 DC ramp tcst
In lhis nelhod, lhe DC voIlage is ranped up
(usuaIIy al a Iov rale Iike 1 kV/nin) vhiIe lhe
currenl is conlinuousIy nonilored as a funclion
of voIlage (I-V characlerislics). Due lo
sinpIicily, leller assessnenl and appIicaliIily
of inlerrupling lhe lesl during alnornaI
condilions, lhis lesl can le effecliveIy used for
condilion assessnenl of rolaling nachines
|3,1Oj. In our vork, allenlion has leen paid lo
use lhis lesl nelhod effecliveIy and sone of our
previous findings have leen reporled in |11j.
If lhe sIope of voIlage is o (i.e. U(l) = ol), lhe
Ieakage and capacilive conponenls can le
approxinaled (according lo eqv 4) as
o o c
o
c
oo
= ~
= ~
& & ,
5
W W &
,
FDS
OHDN
(7)
Where R is represenlalion of resislance for
Ieakage currenl and C
is lhe capacilance al
higher frequencies. y assuning lhal lhe
response funclion (f(l)=Al
-n
) of lhe insuIalion
foIIovs Curie-Von SchveidIer lehaviour |9j lhe
alsorplion currenl can le approxinaled as
Q Q
DEV
W .& W $ & ,
= ~
o o (8)
Where K=A/c
.
Nov lhe resuIlanl currenl in DC ranp lesl can
le vrillen as
( )
(
+ + =
Q
W .& &
5
W
W ,
o (9)
Since lhe DC ranp lesl is conducled vilhoul
lhe guarding lerninaI, lhe surface currenl is
incIuded in lhe neasured ranp lesl resuIls.
Hovever, lhe surface currenl can le considered
as snaII. y filling lhe currenl vaIues of eqv (9)
vilh neasured I-V curve lhe varialIes of R, C
,
K and n can le ollained. Iigure 3 shovs one
exanpIe of DC ranp lesl conducled on Canyon
Iover Slalion Ceneralor U-O1 in 2OO8 }anuary.
The filled curves conprising lhe conlrilulion
fron capacilive, resislive and alsorplion
conponenls are incIuded in lhe pIol. The
capacilive and Ieakage currenls are respecliveIy
conslanl and Iinear. The eslinaled vaIues are R
= 3 T, C
~ (1O)
If lhe insuIalion is charged sufficienlIy Ionger
period i.e. al Ieasl 1OOO s, lhe conduclivily (o)
can le approxinaled as lhe difference lelveen
poIarizalion and depoIarizalion currenl
( ) ( ) | | W , W ,
8 &
GHSRO SRO
~
c
o (11)
Iigure 4 shovs one exanpIe of poIarizalion
depoIarizalion lesl conducled on a poIyesler
spare vinding laken fron UkuveIa pover
slalion. The response funclion vas caIcuIaled
according lo eqv 1O and is incIuded lhere. The
ENGINEER
24
(12)
The surface currenl is nol incIuded here, lul il
can le neasured ly laking lhe difference
lelveen IR lesl vilh and vilhoul guarding
lerninaI. Iigure 5 shovs lhe line varialion of
IR vaIues vilh and vilhoul guarding lerninaI
for a poIyesler nica spare vinding laken fron
UkuveIa Iover slalion al lenperalure 28 ` C
and RH 66.
FIgurc 5 - IR rcsu!ts fnr pn!ycstcr wIndIng
frnm Ukuwc!a pnwcr statInn (agc 35 ycars)
wIth and wIthnut guardIng tcrmIna! (n fnr
wIthnut surfacc currcnt, A for with surface
current, - for calculated current, R1950 GO OO O,
C
=1.8 nF
2.3 Frcqucncy DnmaIn ana!ysIs
In frequency donain anaIysis, ac voIlages al
differenl frequencies are appIied lo lhe
insuIalion and lheir corresponding currenls are
recorded. When lransforning lhe currenl
densily in eqv (3) inlo frequency donain, lhe
convoIulion lecones lhe producl as
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) e e c e ec c e o e ( I ( M ( -
+ + =
(13)
y defining lhe conpIex suscepliliIily as lhe
Iourier lransforn of response funclion f(l) as in
eqv (14).
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) e _ e _ e e _ M I = = (14)
Al a voIlage of U(e), lhe corresponding currenl
can le vrillen
( ) ( ) { } ( ) ( ) e e _
ec
o
e _ c e e 8 M & M ,
(
)
`
+ + =
(15)
2.3.1 CapacItancc and !nss tangcnt
In frequency donain, separalion of currenls is
difficuIl. Inslead capacilive and Ioss langenl
vaIues are used. y inlroducing conpIex
pernillivily lo lhe eqv (15), lhe currenl can le
sinpIified as
( )
( ) ( ) | | ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) | | ( ) e e e e
e e c e c e
e
8 M& & M
8 M & M
,
=
=
(16)
25
ENGINEER
WDQ
+
+
= =
&
&
(17)
TradilionaIIy, lhe capacilance (C) and Ioss
langenl al pover frequency (5O Hz) is used for
evaIualion of lhe insuIalion vhich provides a
rough eslinalion on ils condilion.
2.3.2 Frcqucncy DIc!cctrIc 5pcctrnscnpy
(FD5)
IDS neasurenenls are videIy used for
condilion assessnenl of high voIlage apparalus
aIlernalive lo lhe singIe poinl neasurenenls i.e.
as in parl 2.3.1. Iron recenlIy IDS
neasurenenls have leen inlroduced lo rolaling
nachines |5j. In lhis nelhod, conpIex
capacilance and Ioss langenl vaIues are
neasured up lo Iov frequencies. In our vork,
IDS neasurenenls vere laken fron 1 kHz lo
O.1 nHz. Iigure 6 shovs frequency varialion of
conpIex capacilance for poIyesler spare
vinding fron UkuveIa pover slalion. The C
usuaIIy increases vilh lhe decreases of
frequency as shovn in lhe figure. The generaI
lendency of C is increasing lovards a Ioss
peak vilh lhe reduclion of lhe frequency. The
Ioss langenl and lhe pover faclor vere
caIcuIaled and are incIuded in lhe graph. When
Ioss langenl vaIues vere Iov, il is
approxinaleIy equaIs lo lhe pover faclor (i.e.
lano ~ sino = sin(9O-|) = cos|).
1.00E-11
1.00E-10
1.00E-09
1.00E-08
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Frequency [Hz]
C
a
p
a
c
i
t
a
n
c
e
[
F
]
0.01
0.1
1
10
t
a
n
d
e
I
t
a
,
P
o
w
e
r
f
a
c
t
o
r
C' C" tandelta PF
FIgurc 6 - Frcqucncy varIatInn nf C', C", !nss
tangcnt and pnwcr factnr fnr sparc wIndIng
fnr Ukuwc!a pnwcr statInn (Agc 35 ycars)
2.3 PartIa! DIschargc (PD) Tcst
IarliaI discharge is a IocaIized eIeclricaI
discharge in an insuIalion syslen lhal does nol
conpIeleIy lridge lhe eIeclrodes. In rolaling
nachines vhere raled operaling voIlage is
higher lhan 2-3 kV, lhis phenonenon nornaIIy
occurs and noniloring can le done in lolh off-
Iine and on-Iine using various ID sensors
(CoupIers) and noniloring equipnenl. Mosl of
lhe lechniques neasure currenl and voIlage
puIses lhal arises due ID in lhe vinding
insuIalion. On Iine noniloring of lhe ID is
popuIar anong lhe uliIilies due lo lhe reason
lhal lhe neasurenenl gives a reaIislic condilion
of lhe insuIalion al ils nornaI operalion
condilions.
The ID neasurenenl can le used lo delernine
lhe delerioralion of insuIalion syslen due lo
insuIalion deIaninalion, voids, sIol discharges,
discharges al lhe end vindings and danages lo
slress grading insuIalion. Il can le used as an
acceplance lesl of individuaI coiIs and nev
generalors vhich heIps lo assess lhe
nanufacluring process and lhe slalus of curing
of lhe vinding afler nanufacluring.
ID is a puIse vilh shorl duralion (i.e. in ns) so
lhal a device sensilive lo high frequencies is
used lo delecl ID. TypicaIIy, HV capacilors
(8OpI - 1OOO pI) connecled lo lhe Iive phase
lerninaIs of lhe rolaling nachines are used as
lhe coupIers ly nodern on-Iine noniloring
syslens. ID resuIls are usuaIIy presenled
nainIy ly nagnilude of lhe highesl ID puIse
(Qn - unils in pC or nV). In addilion, nodern
puIse counl rale (in puIses per Second, ppS)
and lhe phase angIe are aIso used.
Iigure 7 and 8 shov ID neasuring selup and
lesl resuIls ollained fron lhe Ceneralor U-O1 of
UkuveIa pover slalion vhich has poIyesler
nica insuIalion.
FIgurc 7 - BasIc arrangcmcnt nf scnsnrs fnr nn
!Inc PD mcasurcmcnts. Twn cnup!crs wcrc
uscd fnr nnIsc fI!tcrIng and thc cnup!Ing
capacItancc Is 80 pF
ENGINEER
26
FIgurc 8 - Phasc Rcsn!vcd data nbtaIncd by
capacItnr cnup!crs nn Phasc A, B, C. Pu!sc
rcpctItInn ratc Is gIvcn by dIffcrcnt cn!nurs as
In thc !cgcnd
2.4 CnmparIsnn
FIgurc 9 - CnmparIsnns nf tcst mcthnds
Oul of differenl paranelers, lhe response
funclion f(l), conduclivily (V), capacilance al
higher frequency (H
f
or C
f
), Ioss langenl al
5OHz provides lhe overaII piclure of lhe
insuIalion. The IDC resuIls direclIy provides
lhe vaIues of f(l) and V vhereas IDS resuIls
gives H
f and lanG vaIues. Hovever, line
donain resuIls can le verified vilh lhal in
frequency donain and vice versa using Iourier
lransforn or inverse Iourier lransforn
respecliveIy |9j. SiniIarIy, lhe DC ranp lesl
resuIls can le nodeIIed and verified vilh line
and frequency donain resuIls. A sunnery of
conparison of differenl lesl nelhods is shovn
in Iigure 9. In lhis sludy under Ialoralory
invesligalions (parl 3), allenlion vas paid lo
vaIidale lhe DC ranp lesl resuIls vilh
corresponding IDC and IDS vaIues. Wilh
lhose correIalions, lhe DC ranp lesl couId le
effecliveIy used lo inlerprel lhe fieId
neasurenenls in parl 4.
3. Labnratnry InvcstIgatInns
$FNQRZOHGJHPHQW
The aulhors vouId Iike lo express lheir deep
gralilude lo CL and Universily of Ieradeniya
lo conducl lhe lesls and providing vinding
sanpIes.
33
ENGINEER
ENGINEER - Vol. XXXXIV, No. 02, pp. [33-42], 2011
The Institution of Engineers, Sri Lanka
Asscssmcnt nf Ncarshnrc Wavc C!Imatc nff thc
5nuthcrn Cnast nf 5rI Lanka
P.P. Gunaratna, D.P.L. RanasInghc and T.A.N. 5ugandIka
Abstract: NunericaI nodeIIing of vave propagalion vas carried oul lo assess lhe varialiIily of
nearshore vave cIinale off lhe soulhern coasl of Sri Lanka. The nodeIIing vas lased on lhe
appIicalion of MIKL 21 SW (IM) nodeI in a donain covering lhe enlire soulhern coasl and parl of lhe
soulh-easlern coasl of Sri Lanka, vilh lhe offshore loundary Iocaled in lhe deep sea. ased on nodeI
resuIls, a vave lransfornalion nalrix approach vas used lo lransforn lhe avaiIalIe vave dala fron
lhree pasl vave recording Iocalions, lo desired Iocalions. SveII and sea vave syslens vere
considered separaleIy vilh appropriale vind fieIds inlroduced lo nodeI sea vave propagalion. The
sludy resuIled in lhe eslalIishnenl of nearshore vave slalislics on a seasonaI lasis for coaslaI seclors
aIong lhe nodeI donain. These vave slalislics are usefuI in ollaining necessary design paranelers for
any pIanned coaslaI and narine slruclures vilhin lhese coaslaI seclors lhrough lhe appIicalion of IocaI
area nodeIs.
Kcywnrds: Waves, Sea, SveII, Nearshore
1. IntrnductInn
The econonicaI and safe design of coaslaI and
harlour slruclures require a reaIislic
assessnenl of vave condilions lhey viII le
suljecled lo during lheir Iife line. The
slruclures need lo le designed lo vilhsland
exlrene vave condilions lhal lhey viII le
exposed lo during lheir Iifeline. Waves and
vave induced currenls are lhe prinary sea
nolions causing lransporl of sedinenl in lhe
nearshore areas. The associaled leach profiIe
and coaslIine changes resuIl in erosion and or
accrelion aIong coaslIines. In order lo predicl
such changes, knovIedge of year round
varialiIily of nearshore vave cIinale is
required. The evaIualion of effecliveness of any
coaslaI slaliIizalion schene designed lo conlroI
coaslaI erosion aIso requires a proper
assessnenl of vave cIinale.
The infornalion on seasonaI or annuaI vave
cIinale and exlrene vave occurrences can le
ollained in lhis Iong lern vilh an inslrunenl
engaged for vave recordings in lhe sea.
Hovever, il is nol feasilIe lo underlake vave
recordings al aII Iocalions vhere such dala are
required. Inslead, lhe nosl prudenl approach
is lo conducl vave recordings al seIecled fev
Iocalions and lransforn lhese vave dala lo any
olher desired Iocalion. This oljeclive can le
achieved ly nunericaI vave propagalion
nodeIIing, considering varialion of sea led
lalhynelry.
In lhis paper, a research sludy carried oul lo
eslalIish nearshore vave cIinale aIong lhe
soulhern coasl of Sri Lanka using nunericaI
vave propagalion nodeIIing is presenled. The
approach adopled nakes oplinaI use of vave
recordings avaiIalIe fron fev Iocalions. The
sludy area of inleresl is divided inlo segnenls
vhere nearshore vave cIinale on an annuaI
and seasonaI lasis is ollained for aII segnenls.
The exlrene vave occurrences are aIso
delernined ly exlrapoIalion of vave slalislics.
The oulcone of lhis sludy consliluled a usefuI
vave dalalase for coaslaI engineering sludies
for fulure inpIenenlalion of deveIopnenls in
lhe coaslaI zone aIong lhe soulhern coasl of Sri
Lanka.
2. Wavc CnndItInns nff thc
5nuthcrn Cnast
The vave cIinale off lhe soulhern coasl of Sri
Lanka is characlerized ly lhe year round
Eng. (Dr.) P.P.Gunaratna, 8.Sc. |ng. (Mcra|uua),
C. |ng., M||(Sri |an|a), M.|ng. (A|T), Pn.D. (C|ar|scn),
Marinc Prcjcc|s Spccia|is|, Ccas|a| Zcnc c Ia|cruaqs
Managcmcn| Scc|icn, Du|ai Municipa|i|q, Du|ai, UA|.
Eng. D.P.L. Ranaslnghe, 8.Sc. |ng. (Rununa), AM||(Sri
|an|a), M.Sc. (Mcra|uua), Pn.D Cania|c, Graua|c
Scncc| cf |nginccring, Tcnc|u Unitcrsi|q, ]apan.
Eng. Mlss T.A.N. Sugandlka, 8.Sc. |ng. (Rununa),
AM||(Sri |an|a), |nginccring Managcr, |an|a Hqrau|ic
|ns|i|u|c, Ka|u|ca, Mcra|uua.
.
ENGINEER
34
occurrence of Iong period sveII vaves and IocaI
vind generaled shorl period sea vaves, nainIy
of nonsoonaI origin. The sveII vaves are lhose
vaves generaled in lhe soulhern Indian Ocean
and have propagaled oul of lhe generalion
felches. These vaves approach fron a nore or
Iess soulherIy direclion in deep valer. The
nosl vioIenl and significanl sea vaves are
IocaIIy generaled due lo soulh vesl nonsoonaI
vinds. These vaves are sliII leing generaled
ly vind fieIds vhen approaching nearshore
coaslaI valers. AIlhough soulhern coasl is nol
direclIy infIuenced ly norlh easl nonsoonaI
vealher, lhe vaves generaled ly lhose vind
fieIds affecl lhe soulh easlern parl of lhe
soulhern coasl al a reduced slrenglh. These
vaves in parlicuIar effecl lhe safe navigalion
and anchorage of fishing crafls.
The seasonaI varialiIily of lhe vave cIinale off
lhe soulhern coasl causes spaliaI and lenporaI
changes in sedinenl lransporl and coaslIines.
The nosl vioIenl sea condilions are olserved
during lhe soulh vesl nonsoon season during
vhich lolh sea and sveII vaves occur al
naxinun slrenglh. In lhe soulh easlern parl
vhich is affecled ly lolh nonsoonaI sea vaves,
severe sedinenlalion prolIens are possilIe
vilh Kirinda fishery harlour leing a cIassicaI
exanpIe.
3. Instrumcnt Wavc RccnrdIngs
Inslrunenl vave recordings have leen
conducled off lhe soulhern coasl of Sri Lanka
since 1984 over inlernillenl periods (Iigure 1).
These vave neasurenenls nay le lroadIy
cIassified inlo non-direclionaI recordings (lhose
in vhich onIy vave heighl and vave period
paranelers are neasured) and direclionaI
recordings (in vhich vave direclion is aIso
neasured). TalIe 1 (LHI, |2j) sunnarizes lhe
avaiIalIe vave dala fron inslrunenl vave
recordings in Soulhern Sri Lanka.
The nosl conprehensive vave dala lase
avaiIalIe for lhe soulhern coasl is lhal due lo
lhe direclionaI vave recordings conducled
around 7On valer deplh, aloul 8 kn offshore
in CaIIe, under lhe CCD/CTZ direclionaI vave
cIinale sludy (Scheffer, el. aI., |3j). Under lhis
vave recording progranne, using a pilch and
roII lype vave profiIing luoy, vaves vere
neasured over a lolaI duralion of around 5
years during lhe period 1989-95. The recorded
rav dala had leen suljecled lo speclraI anaIysis
and lased on a cul-off frequency, lhe sveII and
sea vave syslens vere separaled and slalislicaI
heighl, period and direclion paranelers vere
ollained, for lolh vave syslens as veII as for
lhe overaII (conlined sea and sveII) vaves.
Nn. LncatInn/Dcpt
h
Frnm Tn Instrumcnt Data Typc
1. CaIIe(23n) Sep 1984
Sep 1988
Aug 1986
Aug 1995
Wave Rider uoy Non-
DireclionaI
2. CaIIe (7On) Iel 1989
May 1994
Sep 1992
Sep 1995
WAVLC Iilch and RoII
uoy
DireclionaI
3. CaIIe (23n) }un 199O }uI 199O Marsch Mcirney LCM DireclionaI
4. CaIIe (17n) }an 1999 Mar 1999 Inler Ocean S4DW LCM DireclionaI
5. KudaveIIa
(15n)
}an 1996 Iel 1997 Inler Ocean S4DW LCM DireclionaI
6. TangaIIe (16n) May 1986 Sep 1986 Wave Rider uoy Non-
DireclionaI
7. Kirinda (2On) May 1988 Mar 1989 Wave Rider uoy Marsch
Mcirney LCM
DireclionaI
8. Kirinda (2On) Mar 1993 Aug 1994 Wave Rider uoy Marsch
Mcirney LCM
DireclionaI
9. Hanlanlola
(17n)
Dec 2OO2 Mar 2OO3 Inler Ocean S4DW LCM DireclionaI
1O. Hanlanlola
(17n)
Apr 2OO6 }une 2OO9 Inler Ocean S4DW LCM DireclionaI
Tab!c 1 - Thc 5ummary nf AvaI!ab!c Wavc Data In 5nuthcrn 5rI Lanka (LHI, [2])
35
ENGINEER
FIgurc 1 - LncatInns nf AvaI!ab!c Wavc Data In
5nuthcrn 5rI Lanka
4. 5tudy Mcthndn!ngy
The sludy nelhodoIogy is lased on lhe
appIicalion of MIKL 21 SW (IM) nodeI lo
sinuIale vave propagalion off lhe soulhern
coasl and using a vave lransfornalion nalrix
approach lo lransforn vave recordings lased
on nodeI resuIls. The sludy area vas divided
inlo segnenls lounded ly proninenl
headIands for lhe purpose of delernining
nearshore vave cIinale (Iigure 2).
The coaslaI segnenls used in lhe CCD-CTZ
direclionaI vave cIinale sludy (W1, W2, W3
elc.) vere relained as lhey are and addilionaI
segnenls covering soulhern and parl of soulh
easlern coasls (N1, N2, N3 elc.) vere
inlroduced. Ior each coaslaI segnenl, a
represenlalive nearshore vave cIinale vas
eslalIished al 15 n valer deplh.
MIKL 21 is a lvo dinensionaI nodeIIing
syslen nainIy used in coaslaI engineering
appIicalions, deveIoped al Danish HydrauIic
Inslilule, Dennark. Il consisls of
conpulalionaI noduIes for hydrodynanics,
vave propagalion, sedinenl lransporl,
norphoIogy, adveclion-dispersion processes
elc. MIKL 21 SW (IM) is a speclraI vave
noduIe vilhin MIKL 21 capalIe of sinuIaling
grovlh, decay and lransfornalion of vind
generaled vaves and sveIIs in offshore and
coaslaI areas. Il is lased on an unslruclured
nesh discrelizalion of lhe nodeI donain. The
vave phenonena accounled for ly lhis noduIe
incIude shoaIing, refraclion, diffraclion, lollon
friclion, vave lreaking, vave grovlh ly lhe
aclion of vind and vave-currenl inleraclion.
The conservalion equalion of vave aclion is
soIved ly a ceII cenlered finile voIune schene
in lhe nodeI donain vhich nay le discrelized
inlo lrianguIar or quadranguIar eIenenls. The
line inlegralion is perforned using a fraclionaI
slep approach vhere a nuIli sequence expIicil
nelhod is appIied for lhe propagalion of vave
aclion.
FIgurc 2 - Cnasta! 5cgmcnts CnnsIdcrcd fnr DctcrmInIng Ncarshnrc Wavc C!Imatc
ENGINEER
36
5. RcgInna! Wavc Mndc!
The RegionaI Wave ModeI for vave
propagalion sinuIalions vas eslalIished ly
digilizing fron lhe AdniraIly Charls (3265,
1583 and 813). The exlenl of lhe nodeI covered
lhe enlire soulhern coasl and parl of lhe soulh
easlern coasl as veII. The offshore loundary of
lhe nodeI vas exlended lo deep valer in excess
of 1OOO n. The nodeI lalhynelry is depicled
in Iigure 3. A lvo IeveI nesh resoIulion vas
used vilh a reIaliveIy fine resoIulion adopled
in shaIIov nearshore areas.
6. Wavc TransfnrmatInn MatrIccs
Wave propagalion nodeIIing vas carried oul lo
lransforn vave recordings fron 3 Iocalions
(CaIIe, Hanlanlola and KudaveIIa) lo
represenl Iocalions al 15 n deplh in lhe seIecled
coaslaI segnenls. Since lhe recording Iocalions
are scallered al differenl valer deplhs, in lhe
procedure adopled, aII vave recordings vere
lransforned lo lhe offshore loundary of lhe
nodeI and lhereafler lransforned lack lo lhe
desired deslinalion Iocalions. Since
lransforning severaI lhousands of individuaI
vave recordings is a cunlersone process, a
lransfornalion nalrix approach funclioning on
lransfornalion of seIecled sel of vave
condilions al lhe offshore loundary vas
adopled. A sel of vave condilions conprising
conlinalions of foIIoving vave paranelers
vere specified al lhe offshore loundary.
5ca Wavcs
Significanl Wave Heighls: O.75n, 2.25n, 3.75n,
5.25n
Ieak Wave Ieriods: 2s, 3s, ....., 1Os
Mean Wave Direclions: 6O, 7O,...., 3OO
5wc!! Wavcs
Significanl Wave Heighls: O.75n, 2.25n, 3.75n,
5.25n
Ieak Wave Ieriods: 6s, 7s, ....., 2Os
Mean Wave Direclions: 12O, 13O, ..., 24O
In lhe case of sea vaves, lhey are sliII leing
generaled ly lhe IocaI vind fieIds. Dala on
IocaI vind fieIds over open sea generaling
vaves are nol avaiIalIe. In lhe alsence of such
dala, in lhe sinuIalion of sea vaves, a vind
speed correIaled vilh lhe offshore significanl
vave heighl vas appIied over lhe nodeI
donain lased on eauforl scaIe descriplion of
narine vealher |4j as given in TalIe 2.
The vind direclion vas assuned lo le in lhe
sane direclion as lhe offshore vave direclion
over lhe enlire nodeI donain.
Tab!c 2 - Assumcd WInd 5pccds fnr Offshnrc
5IgnIfIcant Wavc HcIghts
Offshnrc 5IgnIfIcant
Wavc HcIght (m)
WInd 5pccd (m/s)
O.75 4.5
2.25 1O.1
3.75 13.4
5.25 16.1
The specified significanl vave heighls of O.75
n, 2.25 n, 3.75 n and 5.25 n vere assuned lo
represenl offshore significanl vave heighl
ranges O - 1.5 n, 1.5 - 3.O n, 3.O - 4.5 n and 4.5
- 6.O n, respecliveIy. The sinuIalion resuIls for
lhe alove specified vave condilions vere
exlracled al source vave dala recording
Iocalions al CaIIe, KudaveIIa and Hanlanlola
as veII in aII deslinalion Iocalions represenling
seIecled coaslaI segnenls. These resuIls vere
lhen organized inlo 3 nalrices al each Iocalion.
The rovs of lhese nalrices correspond lo
offshore vave periods vhiIe lhe coIunns
correspond lo offshore vave direclions. The
eIenenls in lhe 3 nalrices consisled of vave
heighl ralios (vave heighl al exlracled
Iocalion/offshore vave heighl), vave periods
al exlracled Iocalions and vave direclions al
exlracled Iocalions.
FIgurc 3 - RcgInna! Wavc Mndc! Bathymctry
37
ENGINEER
Having eslalIished lhe vave lransfornalion
nalrices, individuaI vave recordings vere
lransforned lo desired Iocalions ly
inlerpoIaling fron lhe lransfornalion nalrices.
This vas a lvo-vay process, in vhich firslIy
vave recordings vere lransforned lo offshore
loundary and lhen lransforned lack lo lhe
desired deslinalion Iocalion. In lhe case of sea
vaves, vave period aIso changes due lo energy
lransfer fron vind. As such, direcl
inlerpoIalion fron vave lransfornalion
nalrices is nol possilIe vhen lransforning
source vave paranelers lo lhe offshore
loundary. This lask had lo le acconpIished
ileraliveIy slarling vilh lhe iniliaI assunplion
lhal offshore vave period is sane as lhal
recorded al lhe source vave dala Iocalion. Due
lo non-convergence of ileralions or due lo vave
paranelers Iying oulside lhe range of
lransfornalion nalrices, il is nol possilIe lo
lransforn aII vave recordings fron a source
vave dala Iocalion lo a deslinalion Iocalion.
&RPSDULVRQ RI 7UDQVIRUPHG
DQG5HFRUGHG:DYH'DWD
DireclionaI vave recordings al CaIIe had leen
conducled in deep valer and can le considered
as represenlalive for a Iarge coaslaI slrelch.
Therefore vave dala lransforned fron CaIIe lo
any nearshore Iocalion on lhe soulhern coasl
can le considered lo represenl lhe vave cIinale
al lhal Iocalion. Hovever, vave recordings
fron lhe lvo nearshore Iocalions al KudaveIIa
and Hanlanlola need lo le verified prior lo
lransforning lhen lo olher Iocalions. This
verificalion process vas carried oul ly
lransforning CaIIe vave dala lo KudaveIIa
and Hanlanlola. The lransfornalion vas
carried oul on a 4 season lasis, separaleIy for
sea and sveII vave syslens. The 4 seasons of
lhe year considered vere:
Soulh Wesl Monsoon season (SW) - (May lo
Seplenler)
Inler nonsoon 1 Season (IM1) - (Ocloler lo
Novenler)
Norlh Lasl Monsoon Season (NL) - (Decenler
lo Ielruary)
Inler nonsoon 2 Season (IM2) - (March lo
ApriI)
The lransforned vave dala fron CaIIe vere
lhen conpared vilh acluaI vave recordings al
lhese Iocalions for lhe corresponding seasons.
Since lhere vas no overIap lelveen any of
lhese vave recordings, conparison vas nade
on a slalislicaI lasis. Since CaIIe vave
recordings are of a Ionger duralion, il is IikeIy
lhal dala lransforned fron CaIIe lo KudaveIIa
or Hanlanlola viII conlain higher vaves lhan
lhose recorded al lhese lvo Iocalions.
Therefore, in lhe slalislicaI conparison onIy lhe
direclionaI dislrilulions of vaves vere
considered ly conparing vave anpIiludes.
The conparison of direclionaI vave anpIiludes
indicaled nisnalches of vave anpIiludes for
sea vaves al KudaveIIa and Hanlanlola for
lhe SW nonsoon season (Iigures 4 and 5). A
siniIar nisnalch vas aIso found al
Hanlanlola for IM1 season.
Therefore, sea vaves lransforned fron CaIIe lo
lolh Hanlanlola and KudaveIIa shoved
nisnalch in direclion dislrilulion vilh
recorded vaves for SW nonsoon sea vaves.
This is indicaled in figures 4 and 5.
AddilionaIIy for sea vaves in IM1 season aIso
siniIar nisnalch vas found onIy al
Hanlanlola. This is nol indicaled in a figure in
order lo Iinil lhe nunler of figures. Inslead a
case vhere direclionaI dislrilulions nalched
vilh each olher for sveII vaves SW nonsoon al
KudaveIIa is indicaled in Iigure 6. Aparl fron
vave dala fron KudaveIIa and Hanlanlola
vilh lhis direclionaI nisnalch, aII olher vave
dala vere lransforned lo aII deslinalion
Iocalions and conlined on a seasonaI lasis for
lhe lvo vave syslens.
ENGINEER
38
VZHOO PR VHD PR
VHD PR
+ +
+
, ,
,
.............(1)
ReIalive Weighl 1 (sveII vaves) =
VZHOO PR VHD PR
VZHOO PR
+ +
+
, ,
,
....................(2)
The second reIalive veighl is appIied on a
seasonaI lasis lased on lhe fraclion of nunler
of days of lhe year conlained in a parlicuIar
season. OveraII veighling faclors on a seasonaI
lasis vere ollained ly nuIlipIicalion of lhe
lvo veighling faclors. The sunnalion of lhese
seasonaI veighling faclors resuIls in overaII
annuaI veighling faclors for lhe lvo vave
syslens. The resuIls are given leIov for lhe
coaslaI seclors W9, W1 and N7 in TalIes 3 lo 5.
Tab!c 3 - Rc!atIvc 5trcngths at 5ca and 5wc!! Wavcs In Cnasta! 5cgmcnt W9
Tab!c 4 - Rc!atIvc 5trcngths at 5ca and 5wc!! Wavcs In Cnasta! 5cgmcnt W1
Tab!c 5 - Rc!atIvc 5trcngths at 5ca and 5wc!! Wavcs In Cnasta! 5cgmcnt N7
ENGINEER
40
These coaslaI seclors vere seIecled lo
denonslrale cIearIy lhe spaliaI varialion of
vave heighls, as W9 and N7 are Iocaled al
exlrene ends of soulhern coasl and W1 al lhe
cenlre of lhe soulhern coasl.
The resuIls exlracled fron lhe alove anaIysis
given in TalIes 3 lo 5 indicale lhal sveII vaves
are sonevhal slronger conpared lo sea vaves
in lerns of conlrilulion lo lhe annuaI vave
energy, aIlhough consideralIy high sea vaves
do occur during soulh vesl nonsoon season.
Moving lovards lhe soulh easlern parl of lhe
soulhern coasl narked infIuence of norlh easl
nonsoonaI sea vaves is seen. This is cIearIy
indicaled in TalIe 5 for lhe norlh easl nonsoon
season for lhe N7 coaslaI segnenl, vhere sea
vaves are seen lo conlrilule nore lhan 75
percenl of vave energy conpared lo sveII
vaves.
1HDUVKRUH([WUHPH:DYHV
!
E
J +
+ + 4 4 exp exp 1 ) ' (
...................... (3)
WeiluII Dislrilulion:
!
D
E
J +
+ + 4 4 exp 1 ) ' (
...................... (4)
Where E D, and J are lhe paranelers of lhe
dislrilulions.
In lhe appIicalion of lhis nelhod, seIecled 1
nunlers of peak vave heighls vere arranged
in lhe descending order of nagnilude vilh an
assigned ranking of 1 for lhe highesl vave
heighl and lhe Iovesl vave heighl receiving lhe
rank 1. The prolaliIily of exceedance Q is
defined as:
2
1
F 1
F L
4
.............. (5)
The vaIues of lhe conslanls
1
F and
2
F for lhe
lvo prolaliIily dislrilulions vere eslinaled as:
CunleI Dislrilulion: 44 . O
1
F and 12 . O
2
F
WeiluII Dislrilulion: D / 27 . O 2 . O
1
F and
D / 23 . O 2 . O
2
F
The paranelers E and J of lhe CunleI
Dislrilulion vere delernined ly Iinear
regression anaIysis lased on a rearranged forn
of Lq. (3). In lhe case of WeiluII Dislrilulion,
for specified vaIue of , D lhe paranelers E and
J vere delernined ly a siniIar procedure
lased on Lq. (4). Upon delerninalion of
paranelers of lhe prolaliIily dislrilulions, lhe
vave heighls of any desired relurn period
5
7
in years can le conpuled fron Lqs. (3) or (4) as
appropriale since lhe prolaliIily of exceedance
4 is reIaled lo relurn period as:
5
7
4
O
1
.............. (6)
In vhich, O is lhe nunler of slorn evenls per
year, vhich is knovn since lhe duralion of lhe
lransforned vave heighl line series is knovn.
Ior a parlicuIar sel of seIecled peak vave
heighls of slorn evenls CunleI and WeiluII
Dislrilulions (for varying vaIues of
paranelerD ) vere appIied lo predicl exlrene
vave heighls of differenl relurn periods. The
sel of exlrene vave heighls resuIling fron lhe
highesl coefficienl of correIalion in lhe
regression anaIysis vas seIecled as lhe nosl
represenlalive. The sunnarized resuIls for lhe
lhree seIecled coaslaI seclors are laluIaled for
lhe coaslaI seclors W9, W1 and N7 in TalIes 6
lo 8. Il shouId le noled lhal coaslaI seclors W9
and W1 are hardIy infIuenced ly NL nonsoon
sea vaves and lherefore exlrene vave heighls
vere nol delernined for lhis season.
41
ENGINEER
Tab!c 6 - Extrcmc 5IgnIfIcant Wavc HcIghts fnr 5ca and 5wc!! Wavcs In Cnasta! 5cgmcnt W9
Wavc CnndItInns
Extrcmc Wavc HcIghts (m) fnr DIffcrcnt Rcturn
PcrInds (Ycars)
1 Yr 5 Yr 10 Yr 25 Yr 50 Yr 100 Yr
Sea Waves - SW Monsoon Season
IrolaliIily Dislrilulion: WeiluI ) 4 . 1 ( D
CorreIalion Coefficienl: O.9915
2.41 2.67 2.78 2.9O 2.99 3.O8
SveII Waves - SW Monsoon Season
IrolaliIily Dislrilulion: WeiluI ) 8 . O ( D
CorreIalion Coefficienl: O.9643
2.43 3.O1 3.3O 3.7O 4.O2 4.35
Tab!c 7 - Extrcmc 5IgnIfIcant Wavc HcIghts fnr 5ca and 5wc!! Wavcs In Cnasta! 5cgmcnt W1
Wavc CnndItInns
Extrcmc Wavc HcIghts (m) fnr DIffcrcnt Rcturn
PcrInds (Ycars)
1 Yr 5 Yr 10 Yr 25 Yr 50 Yr 100 Yr
Sea Waves - SW Monsoon Season
IrolaliIily Dislrilulion: WeiluI ) O . 1 ( D
CorreIalion Coefficienl: O.9835
2.19 2.53 2.68 2.87 3.O2 3.17
SveII Waves - SW Monsoon Season
IrolaliIily Dislrilulion: WeiluI ) 4 . 1 ( D
CorreIalion Coefficienl: O.9814
2.7O 2.96 3.O6 3.18 3.27 3.35
Tab!c 8 - Extrcmc 5IgnIfIcant Wavc HcIghts fnr 5ca and 5wc!! Wavcs In Cnasta! 5cgmcnt N7
Wavc CnndItInns
Extrcmc Wavc HcIghts (m) fnr DIffcrcnt Rcturn
PcrInds (Ycars)
1 Yr 5 Yr 10 Yr 25 Yr 50 Yr 100 Yr
Sea Waves - SW Monsoon Season
IrolaliIily Dislrilulion: WeiluI ) O . 2 ( D
CorreIalion Coefficienl: O.9884
2.O6 2.21 2.25 2.31 2.36 2.4O
SveII Waves - SW Monsoon Season
IrolaliIily Dislrilulion: WeiluI ) O . 2 ( D
CorreIalion Coefficienl: O.9878
1.6O 1.72 1.75 1.8O 1.83 1.85
Sea Waves - NL Monsoon Season
IrolaliIily Dislrilulion: WeiluI ) 5 . O ( D
CorreIalion Coefficienl: O.9823
1.27 1.52 1.7O 2.O2 2.31 2.65
ENGINEER
42
10. Cnnc!usInns
The varialiIily of vave cIinale aIong lhe
soulhern coasl of Sri Lanka vas assessed
lhrough nunericaI vave propagalion
nodeIIing naking use of vave recordings
avaiIalIe al lhree Iocalions in lhe sludy area.
AIlhough infornalion on offshore vave cIinale
in lhe sludy area vas nol avaiIalIe, lhrough lhe
appIicalion of vave lransfornalion nalrix
approach, il vas possilIe lo lransforn vaves lo
any desired Iocalion fron lhe lhree source
vave dala Iocalions al CaIIe, KudaveIIa and
Hanlanlola. The sludy findings are usefuI in
assessing exlrene vave condilions, annuaI and
seasonaI vave cIinale for IilloraI drifl
caIcuIalions and shoreIine changes in differenl
seclors of lhe sludy area.
Rcfcrcnccs
1. Kanphuis, WiIIian, }., Inlroduclion lo CoaslaI
Lngineering and Managenenl, WorId Scienlific,
Singapore, 2OO2, pp. 81-1OO.
2. Lanka HydrauIic Inslilule (LHI), Hanlanlola
Seaporl DeveIopnenl Ihase I - MalhenalicaI
ModeI Tesl on Wave IieId, A Reporl prepared
for Sri Lanka Iorls Aulhorily, 2OO7.
3. Scheffer, H-}., Iernando, K.R.M.D., and Iillschen,
T., DireclionaI Wave CIinale Sludy Soulh Wesl
Coasl of Sri Lanka, Sri Lankan Cernan
Cooperalion, CCD_CTZ Coasl Conservalion
Irojecl, 1994.
4. vvv.spc.noaa.gov/faq/lornado/leauforl.hlnI,
Augusl 2O1O.
43
ENGINEER
ENGINEER - Vol. XXXXIV, No. 02, pp. [43-56], 2011
The Institution of Engineers, Sri Lanka
,UULJDWLRQ,QIUDVWUXFWXUH0DQDJHPHQW5HTXLUHPHQWV
WR(QVXUH:DWHU6HFXULW\IRU,PSRYHULVKHG5XUDO
3RSXODWLRQVXQGHU&OLPDWH&KDQJH6FHQDULR
176:LMHVHNHUD
,QWURGXFWLRQ
Reporls of lhe InlergovernnenlaI IaneI on
CIinale Change 2OO7 (IICC 2OO7a, 2OO7l)
provides lhe decision nakers vilh a nuch
lroader sel of evidence on olserved inpacls
coning fron a Iarger nunler of fieId sludies
vhen conpared vilh siniIar efforls in lhe pasl
lo idenfy cIinale changes, inpacls and
adaplalion neasures. Hovever sliII lhere is
nuch uncerlainily aloul lhe polenliaI cIinalic
changes and inpacls arising oul of such
changes. Sone of lhe anlicipaled chaIIenges
fron cIinalic change incIudes lhe changes lo
precipilalion and ils pallern, changes lo
irrigalion denands, changes lo soiI noislure
due lo lenperalure varialions, changes lo
quanlilies evaporaled fron irrigaled Iands and
irrigalion reservoirs. Il is aIso said lhal il is
possilIe lo Iose sensilive pIanl, fish and olher
Iiving organisns lhal dveII in lhe irrigaled
area ecosyslens.
Sri Lanka vhich is calegorised as an
agricuIluraI counlry has Irrigalion as lhe najor
valer use seclor. Oul of an eslinaled surface
valer avaiIaliIily of 43,OOO MCM, 28 is for
irrigalion usage (ID 2OO3). In lhe Dry zone
vhich consisls of lolh lhe dry and lhe
inlernediale regions of lhe counlry covers
approxinaleIy 75 of Sri Lanka (InluIana,
Eng. (Prof.) A.1.S. Wijesekera B.Sc. Eng . Hons, (Sri
Lanka), P.G.Dip (Moratuwa),M.Eng. (Tokyo), D.Eng.
(Tokyo), C.Eng., FIE(Sri Lanka), MICE(Lonaon),
Professor of Civil Engineering, Department of Civil
Engineering, University of Moratuwa
ENGINEER
44
55
ENGINEER
5HIHUHQFHV
1. Anarasinghe, U.A., Muluvalle L. and
SaklhivadiveI, R., Waler Scarcily
Varialions vilhin a Counlry: A Case Sludy
of Sri Lanka, Research Reporl 32,
InlernalionaI "Waler Managenenl
Inslilule, ISN 92-9O9O-383-X, ISSN 1O26-
O862, CoIonlo, Sri Lanka,1999.
2. Lvaporalion and Transpiralion, CIinale
Change CIearinghouse, Waler Research
Ioundalion,hllp://vvv.lhecIinalechang
ecIearin ghouse.org/-HydroIogicLffecls,
Visiled in Dec. 2OO9
3. Iernando, A.D.N., The Ancienl HydrauIic
CiviIislion of Sri Lanka in ReIalion lo
NaaluraI Resources, ]curna| cf |nc Sri |an|a
8rancn cf |nc Rcqa| Asia|ic Sccic|q, Reid
Avenue, CoIonlo 7, 1982
4. Iernando, T.K. and ChandrapaIa, L.,
CIolaI Warning and RainfaII VarialiIily
- The Sri Lankan Silualion., Prccccings cf
5
|n
|n|crna|icna| Mcc|ing cn S|a|is|ica|
C|ima|c|cgq, Toronlo, Canada, 1992
5. Ionrajah, A. }, I., Dcsign cf |rrigicn
Hcaucr|s fcr Sma|| Ca|cnmcn|s, 2
nd
Ldilion,
Irrigalion Deparlnenl, CoIonlo, Sri
Lanka, 1984
6. ID 2OO3 Irrigalion Deparlnenl, Ia|cr
S|a|is|ics nan|cc|, Deparlnenl of
Irrigalion, CoIonlo,Sri Lanka, 2OO3
7. InluIana, K.A.U.S., Wijesekera, N.T.S. and
Neupane .R., (eds.), Sri |an|a Na|icna|
Ia|cr Dctc|cpmcn| Rcpcr|, MAI&MD, UN-
WWAI, UNLSCO and Universily of
Moraluva, ISN 955 -8395-O1 -3, Sri
Lanka, Iaris and Nev DeIhi, 2OO6
8. SoIonon, S., Qin, D., Manning, M., Chen,
Z., Marquis, M., Averyl, K.., Tignor M.,
and MiIIer, H.L., (eds.)., Summarq fcr
Pc|icqma|crs. |n. C|ima|c Cnangc 2007. Tnc
Pnqsica| Scicncc 8asis. Ccn|ri|u|icn cf
Icr|ing Grcup | |c |nc |cur|n Asscssmcn|
Rcpcr| cf |nc |n|crgctcrnmcn|a| Panc| cn
C|ima|c Cnangc, Canlridge Universily
Iress, Canlridge, Uniled Kingdon and
Nev York, NY, USA.
9. Iarry, M.L., Canziani, O.I., IaIulikof, }.I.,
Vander Linden, I.}., and Hanson, C.L.,
Lds., Summarq fcr Pc|icqma|crs. |n. C|ima|c
Cnangc 2007. |mpac|s, Aap|a|icn an
Vu|ncra|i|i|q. Ccn|ri|u|icn cf Icr|ing Grcup
|| |c |nc |cur|n Asscssmcn| Rcpcr| cf |nc
|n|crgctcrnmcn|a| Panc| cn C|ima|c Cnangc,
Canlridge Universily Iress, Canlridge,
UK, 7-22.
1O. }ayaliIIake, H.M., ChandrapaIa, L.,
asnayake, .R.S.. and Dharnaralne,
C.H.I. Waler Resources and CIinale
Change Prccccings Icr|sncp cn Sri |an|a
Na|icna| Ia|cr Dctc|cpmcn| Rcpcr|, 2OO5.
11. }ayaliIIake, H.M., ChandrapaIa L.
asnayake .R.S.., Dharnaralne C.H.I.,
Waler Resources and CIinale Change,
Prccccings cf |nc Prcpara|crq Icr|sncp cn
Sri |an|a Na|icna| Ia|cr Dctc|cpmcn|
Prcjcc|, 2OO5.
12. }ayaliIIake, H.M., ChandrapaIa, L.,
asnayake, .R.S.. and Dharnaralne,
C.H.I., Waler Resources and CIinale
Change Prccccings Icr|sncp cn Sri |an|a
Na|icna| Ia|cr Dctc|cpmcn| Rcpcr|, eds.
Wijesekera, N.T.S., InluIana, K.A.U.S, and
Neupane, .,WorId Waler Assessnenl
Irogranne. Iaris, Irance, 2OO5
13. MaII, R. K, Cupla AkhiIesh, Singh Ranjeel,
Singh, R. S. and. Ralhore, L. S., Waler
Resources and CIinale Change: An Indian
Ierspeclive, Currcn| Scicncc, VoI. 9O, No.
12, 25, }une 2OO6.
14. MaII, R.K., halIa, R., and Iandey, S.N.,
Waler Resources in India and Inpacl of
CIinale Change, ]u|tigqun Samcc|snu,
VoI. 22, 2OO7.
15. jorn MaIngren, Ranalunge HuIugaIIa,
Yousay Hayashil and Takehiko Mikani,
Irecipilalion Trends In Sri Lanka Since
lhe 187Os and ReIalionships lo LI NiNo-
Soulhern OsciIIalion, |n|crna|icna| ]curna|
cf C|ima|c|cgq |n|. ]. C|ima|c|cgq. : 1235-
1252, IulIished OnIine in WiIey
Inlerscience, 2OO3.
16. Mukheilir, I., IossilIe CIinale Change
Inpacls on Iarge HydroeIeclricily,
Schenes in Soulhern Africa, ]curna| cf
|ncrgq in Scu|ncrn Africa, VoI 18 No 1,
Ielruary 2OO7
17. Navaz, N. R., AdeIoye, A. }., and
Monlaseri, M.,The Inpacl of CIinale
Change on Slorage-YieId Curves for MuIli-
Reservoir Syslens, Nordic HydroIogy, 3O
(2), 1999, 129-146
18. IraclicaI Aclion, Ironoling Adaplalion lo
CIinale Change in Sri Lanka, A lriefing
for Covernnenl Advisors and
ENGINEER
56
DeveIopnenl Iraclilioners,
hllp://praclicaIaclion.org/advocacy/docs
/advocacy/Adaplalion_lo_cIinale_chang
e_Sri_Lanka.pdf, visiled in Decenler 2OO9
19. Iarry, M.L., Canziani, O., I IaIulikof, }.I.,
vander Linden I.}., and Hanson, C.L.,
Lds., TechnicaI Sunnary. CIinale
Change 2OO7: Inpacls, Adaplalion and
VuIneraliIily. Conlrilulion of Working
Croup II lo lhe Iourlh Assessnenl5HSRUW
RI WKH ,QWHUJRYHUQPHQWDO 3DQHO RQ &OLPDWH
&KDQJH Canlridge Universily Iress,
Canlridge, UK, 23-78.
2O. Survey 1988, 7KH1DWLRQDO$WODVRI6UL/DQND
$JUR (FRORJLFDO 5HJLRQV Survey
Deparlnenl, ISN 955-9O59-OO-9, Sri
Lanka, 1988
21. Wijesekera, N.T.S., (ed in chief),
LnvironnenlaI AlIas of Sri Lanka,
CenlraI LnvironnenlaI Aulhorily,
Minislry of Lnvironnenl and NaluraI
Resources, allaranuIIa, ISN 955 -9O12-
31 -2, Sri Lanka, 2OO5
57
ENGINEER
ENGINEER - Vol. XXXXIV, No. 02, pp. [57-60], 2011
The Institution of Engineers, Sri Lanka
P. HcttIarachchI
Abstract: LnpIoying delenlion reservoirs for niligaling fIoods is a videIy appIied slralegy, aII over
lhe vorId. This is suilalIe for snaII urlan drainage syslens as veII as for Iarge fIuviaI fIood
proleclion schenes. This lechnique is noslIy appIicalIe for lhe urlan areas vhere conslruclion of
fIood lunds is reslricled due lo high vaIue of properlies lo le renoved.
Delenlion reservoir can le Iocaled vilhin lhe area lo le prolecled or sonevhere upslrean vilh Iov
popuIalion densily and Iov econonic vaIue. This viII nol onIy prolecl lhe area lo le prolecled fron
fIooding lul aIso provide faciIilies for valer lased recrealionaI aclivilies, an allraclive fealure of
nodern cilies. Iurlher, il is a suslainalIe and Iov cosl approach, free of adverse effecls such as Iand
sulsidence, depIelion of ground valer elc.
This paper viII discuss hov lhis lechnique couId le appIied for lhe proleclion of cilies Iocaled in fIood
pIains of najor rivers of our counlry.
1. IntrnductInn
IIood hazards of our counlry have increased,
draslicaIIy, in recenl hislory due lo
urlanizalion and popuIalion grovlh.
Irequency of high inlensily rainfaIIs is aIso
increasing due lo cIinale change. Ior exanpIe,
Sri Lankan connerciaI capilaI, CoIonlo cily
experienced lvo exlrene slorn evenls (494
nn in 18 hours and 44O nn in 9 hours) vilhin
18 years (in 1992 and 2O1O). olh evenls exceed
1OO year frequency rainfaII according lo our
cIassificalion (lased on lhe frequency anaIysis
of pasl records) and such high inlensily
rainfaIIs had nol leen olserved lefore. More
lhan 1OO,OOO faniIies vere affecled ly lhe
recenl fIood in Iasl Novenler.
Lven lhough il is difficuIl lo deveIop fIood
conlroI faciIilies lo cope vilh such lig evenls,
il has lo le reaIized lhal adopling sone kind of
proleclive neasures lo nininize lhe danages
are a paranounl necessily. Sone of lhe
foIIoving aIlernalives, depending on
geographicaI and socio-econonic fealures of
lhe area, can le adopled in niligaling such
hazards.
2 A!tcrnatIvc F!nnd Cnntrn!
Mcasurcs
i. Diversion of surpIus valer fron lhe
upper calchnenl lo adjacenl lasins
(lrans-lasin diversion).
ii. Reduclion of surface runoff ly
changing lhe Iand use pallern in lhe
upper calchnenl (valershed
nanagenenl).
iii. Increase of drainage capacilies ly
enIarging (videning and/or
deepening) river channeIs vhere ever
necessary.
iv. Inlroduclion of earIy varning syslen
and lineIy evacualion of peopIe and
vaIualIes fron lhe fIood prone areas.
v. Conslruclion of ly-pass canaIs lo
diverl peak fIovs in aIlernalive palhs.
vi. Conslruclion of nuIli- purpose slorage
reservoirs
vii. Conslruclion of delenlion reservoirs
for lenporary slorage and conlroIIed
reIease of fIoodvaler.
Conlinalion of severaI aIlernalives nenlioned
alove nay le nore appropriale for a
parlicuIar case. The Iasl oplion viII le videIy
discussed in lhis paper since lhis seens a nev
approach, nosl appropriale for lhe urlan
areas of our counlry. Converling lhis lo a
nuIlipurpose reservoir oplion viII nake il
(QJ0UV3+HWWLDUDFKFKL, %6F(QJ, C. |ng.,
M|| (Sri |an|a,06F+\GURORJ\
ENGINEER
58
possilIe lo address sone olher cruciaI
prolIens such as irrigalion, valer suppIy,
pover produclion elc. SingIe purpose (fIood
delenlion onIy) reservoir is nore suilalIe for
Iov Iying areas vhere providing a polenliaI
head required for hydropover or irrigalion is
nol possilIe. Hovever, lhis can le conlined
vilh sone olher purposes such as inIand
fishing, recrealion, nalure preserving elc.
Conslruclion cosls can le nininized ly
seIecling suilalIe naluraI geographic
fornalions such as naluraI Iakes and narshy
Iands vhich can easiIy le converled lo
delenlion ponds.
3. Typcs nf F!nnd DctcntInn
RcscrvnIrs
There are lvo dislincl lypes of fIood delenlion
reservoirs caIIed 'on slrean and 'off slrean,
depending on lhe Iocalion of lhe reservoir
reIalive lo lhe slrean, as iIIuslraled in lhe
FIgurc I. In an 'on slrean reservoir, dry
vealher fIov passes lhrough lhe slorage area
vhere as in 'off slrean reservoir dry vealher
fIov ly-passes lhe slorage area.
Iurlher cIassificalion is possilIe depending on
vhelher lhe slorage area is free of valer
during dry vealher condilions (dry reservoir)
or has a pernanenl pooI (vel reservoir). An
inlernediale case (vel & dry reservoir) is aIso
possilIe vhere lhe pernanenl pooI is nuch
snaIIer lhan lhe lolaI area avaiIalIe for
slorage. The Iasl lype is nosl appropriale for
nany of lhe cases having rapid infIovs
requiring vasl areas for lenporary delenlion.
Ior an 'off slrean reservoir, al Ieasl lvo fIov
conlroI slruclures are required al lhe poinls of
infIov lo lhe reservoir and al lhe oulIel of lhe
reservoir. Those inlakes and oulIels nay eilher
le veirs or conlroI gales depending on lhe
capacilies required and lhe lopography of lhe
area.
FIgurc 1-Twn Typcs nf F!nnd DctcntInn
RcscrvnIrs
4. Hnw It FunctInns
Whalever lhe lype of lhe reservoir il has lo le
discharged lo a naluraI slrean, arlificiaI canaI
or direclIy lo sea afler relaining fIood valer for
sone specified period unliI lhe slorn ceases or
lhe fIood peak passes lhe area. In an on-slrean
reservoir valer enlers lhe reservoir, lhrough
naluraI valer vays vhiIe in lhe olher lype
valer nay enler fron lhe river lhrough a
conlroI gale, veir or a spiIIvay. OulIel nay le
a veir or conlroI gale in lolh cases.
When lhere is a conlroIIed oulIel, lhe operalor
nay vary lhe gale opening so lhal during
rising Iinl of infIov hydrograph, lhe oulfIov
viII nalch lhe infIov unliI lhe capacily of lhe
dovnslrean channeI is reached (scc FIgurc 2).
Thereafler lhe gale nay le used lo nainlain
lhe oulfIov (nol exceeding dovnslrean canaI
capacily) vhiIe excess valer is laken inlo
slorage unliI lhe infIov reaches ils peak. On
lhe recession side of lhe infIov hydrograph lhe
sane oulfIov (capacily of dovnslrean canaI)
nay le nainlained in order lo evacuale
slorage as quickIy as possilIe. The oulfIov
nay le reduced lo ils dry vealher vaIue once
lhe infIov has reduced lo ils lase fIov IeveI.
OII stream
reservoir
Temporary
detention area
Permanent
pool
River
Sea
Inlet & Outlet
canals
On stream
reservoirs
59
ENGINEER
FIgurc 2 - FunctInn nf DctcntInn BasIn
5. Thc DcsIgn CnnsIdcratInns nf
F!nnd DctcntInn BasIn
In lhe preIininary slage of design, lhe
designer has lo sludy lhe lopography, soiIs,
Iand use, fIov characlerislics, fIood
frequencies and olher reIevanl socio -
econonic faclors in order lo seIecl nosl
appropriale fIood conlroI neasure for a
parlicuIar area or river lasin. If fIood delenlion
reservoir is nosl appropriale, lhe designer
nusl go for lhe hydroIogicaI design phase
vhich invoIves generalion of infIov
hydrographs and rouling lhen lhrough
proposed reservoirs elc. so as evaIuale lhe
perfornance of lhe enlire delenlion (or
relarding) lasin. Conlour survey of delenlion
lasin is necessary in lhis slep. Once lhe line
Iag lelveen infIov and oulfIov peaks and lhe
degree of allenualion have leen delernined,
lhe engineering design phase can le
connenced. Various decisions has lo le laken
in lhis slage incIuding lhe lype of pond, lhe
choice of conlroI slruclures, sizes of inIel and
oulIel canaIs and any olher deveIopnenls
necessary vilhin lhe pooI and lenporary
delenlion area.
6. Is thIs ApprnprIatc fnr Our
Prnb!cms
Mosl of lhe recenl fIood hazards vere reporled
fron lhe coaslaI cilies such as CoIonlo, CaIIe,
and Malara silualed in lhe Wel Zone of lhe
isIand. Those areas are highIy popuIaled and
experience reIaliveIy high rainfaIIs.
Irevious fIood conlroI vorks in lhose areas
vere confined lo lhe slralegy of enlanking
and channeIizalion vilh or vilhoul punping
faciIilies for slorn valer evacualion. This
nelhod is nol nuch appropriale for a
deveIoping counlry Iike ours due lo foIIoving
reasons.
1. Irolecled areas experience heavy
rainfaII (average annuaI rainfaII is
around 3OOO nn) concenlraled in
lvo nonsoonaI periods. Therefore
lhe voIune of surpIus valer lo le
evacualed is very high. Cravily
drainage is nol possilIe since lhe
areas are al Iov eIevalions,
sonelines leIov Mean Sea LeveI.
Lvacualion such Iarge voIune of
valer ly punping is exlreneIy
coslIy.
2. Incone generaled fron lhe prolecled
areas is reIaliveIy Iov and cosl of
operalion and nainlenance is nol
juslifialIe.
3. Conslruclion of fIood lunds is
reslricled due lo high vaIue of
properlies lo le renoved. Lven lhe
exisling lunds in such popuIaled
areas have leen encroached as shovn
in FIgurc 3
FIgurc 3 - Encrnachmcnts, Kc!anI F!nnd
Bunds
Conslruclion of delenlion reservoirs seens a
suslainalIe and affordalIe soIulion vhen
conpared lo olher fIood conlroI neasures.
CeneraIIy lhe Iand required is avaiIalIe in lhe
forn of inIand Iakes and narshy Iands (Iigure
4 and 5) vhich cannol le used for any olher
econonic purpose. CIearing, dredging and
renovaI of un-aulhorized conslruclions nay
le required lo increase lhe delenlion capacilies
of exisling Iakes and adjacenl narshy Iands.
D
i
s
c
h
a
r
g
e
Time
InIlow
hydrograph
OutIlow
Hydrograph
ENGINEER
60
Larlh noving operalions are nornaIIy
expensive and dredging is even nore
expensive. Therefore preserving exisling Iov
Iands is very inporlanl. Lven lhe funclion of
alandoned paddy Iands in conlroIIing fIoods
is invaIualIe. Therefore fiIIing paddy fieIds
shouId le avoided as far as possilIe.
FIgurc 4 - Marshcs and In!and Lakcs (grccn
and b!uc patchcs) In thc CIty nf Cn!nmbn
SecondIy lhe inprovenenl and reguIar
nainlenance of drainage canaI syslen is
exlreneIy inporlanl. CanaIs shouId le
accessilIe in lolh sides lo faciIilale
nainlenance vorks ly nachinery. CanaI
reservalions shouId le denarcaled and
nainlained properIy lo avoid encroachnenls.
IIood pIains and reservalions slipuIaled for
nain rivers shouId le nainlained vilhoul any
conslruclion olslrucling lhe fIov during
fIoods.
Cnnc!usInns
Irovision of delenlion reservoirs seens nosl
appIicalIe for fIood niligalion in lhe coaslaI
cilies of our counlry. These delenlion
reservoirs can serve for sone olher purposes
such as fish lreeding, nalure parks, vaIkvays
and valer lased recrealionaI aclivilies. Lov
Iands avaiIalIe in lhe forn of narshes or
inIand Iakes can econonicaIIy le uliIized for
lhis purpose. WeII nainlained fIood relarding
lasin is a suslainalIe and environnenl
friendIy soIulion for lhe prolIen of fIooding.
FIgurc 5 - KIra!akc!c Marsh at thc cIty nf
Matara (NI!wa!a BasIn)
Rcfcrcnccs
1. HaII, M. }., Hokin, D. L., and LIIis, }. .,
Dcsign cf ||cc S|cragc Rcscrtcirs, 1993
2 WippIe, W., Duc| Purpcsc Dc|cn|icn
8asins, 1979
61
ENGINEER
ENGINEER - Vol. XXXXIV, No. 02, pp. [61-72], 2011
The Institution of Engineers, Sri Lanka
,QWURGXFWLRQ
'Traffic ca|ming is a lern vhich is frequenlIy
used in discussions in urlan lraffic poIicy and
lraffic nanagenenl slralegy discussions in sone
deveIoped counlries, over lhe pasl coupIe of
decades. More recenlIy lraffic caIning lern has
leen used lo descrile a nuch vider conlexl of
lraffic nanagenenl and reslrain in cilies vorId
vide, incIuding cilies and lovns in sone
deveIoping counlries as veII. In shorl lhe lern
|raffic ca|ming incIude, any aclion or progranne
lhal reduces slreel lraffic and sIovs dovn nolor
vehicIes vilhin residenliaI and IocaI areas lo
nake lhe neighlourhoods safer and nore
peopIe friendIy (RusseII and Iharaoh, 199O).
)LJXUH6RPH&RPPRQ7UDIILF&DOPLQJ7RROV
(Scurcc.www.americantrails.org/i/resourceimages/ptnyt. )
Iigure 1 shov sone of lhe connonIy used
lraffic caIning looIs used lo sIov dovn nolor
vehicIes vilhin residenliaI and IocaI areas lo
nake lhe neighlourhoods safer and nore
peopIe friendIy.
AIlhough nunerous definilions of lraffic
caIning are found in Iileralure, aII lhese
definilions noslIy pIay around vilh differenl
vords, lul lasicaIIy vhal lhey nean is lhe
sane. Traffic caIning is lraffic conlroI aclions
& neasures lhal offer lo nininise lhe
undesiralIe inpacl of nolor vehicIes on IocaI
hunan aclivilies. Il is inporlanl lo nenlion
lhal ly caIning lraffic lhe accessiliIily and
noliIily shouId nol le significanlIy reduce for
lhe residenls, connerciaI connunily, vorkers
or visilors lo lhe area. Traffic caIning shouId
nol le nisunderslood as Iessening of lraffic in
an area, lul il is a conlroI neasure lo caIn dovn
lraffic ly reducing lhe average speeds of lraffic,
inpose road discipIine, and inprove lhe safely
of aII road users.
Eng. (Prof.) K. S. Weerasekera, 8Sc |ng (Mcra|uua),
M|ngSc (UNSI), PnD (UNSI), ||| (Sri |an|a), C|ng,
|n|P|(S|), M|| (Aus|), CP|ng, M|HT (UK), MASC|,
Prcfcsscr in Citi| |nginccring, Dcpar|mcn| cf Citi|
|nginccring, Tnc Opcn Unitcrsi|q cf Sri |an|a.
TraffIc Ca!mIng & Its App!IcabI!Ity In 5rI Lanka
K. 5. Wccrasckcra
Abstract: This paper exanines lhe concepl of lraffic caIning, looIs and nelhods avaiIalIe for lraffic
caIning process, ils effecliveness in counlries vhich lraffic caIning slralegies are adopled, and Iooks
al ils appIicaliIily in Sri Lanka especiaIIy in CoIonlo and ils sulurls. Sludy olserves lhe origin of
lraffic caIning, hov differenl lraffic caIning poIicies are pracliced in sone counlries, looIs and
devices used for lraffic caIning, hov il couId le nodified lo suil differenl silualions, and ils
adoplaliIily in lusy IocaI lovns nainIy in CoIonlo.
This paper is supporled ly a conprehensive Iileralure survey vhich exanine and sunnarise
previous sludies conducled on differenl aspecls of effecliveness of speed conlroIIing looIs used in
lraffic caIning operalions and lhe inpacls (lolh posilive and negalive) on aII road users and nearly
residenls. AIlhough lraffic caIning nay le a noveI experience lo Sri Lankan road engineers, il has
leen pracliced in sone counlries quile exlensiveIy over a consideralIe period of line. The expecled
oulcone of lhis paper is lo nake an avareness of lraffic caIning concepl and process anong lraffic
and highvay engineers in lhe counlry and encourage lhen lo praclice lraffic caIning poIicies
vherever appIicalIe neaningfuIIy in CoIonlo and ils lusy sulurls in Sri Lanka.
Kcywnrds: Traffic CaIning, LocaI Area Traffic Managenenl, LATM
1. IntrnductInn
ENGINEER
62
2. OrIgIn and HIstnry nf TraffIc
Ca!mIng
Looking inlo lhe origin and hislory of lraffic
caIning, as per Hass-KIau (199O), lhe lraffic
caIning lern is roughIy a lransIalion of Cernan
vord YHUNHKUVEHUXKLJXQJ Il is an anaIganalion
nade up fron YHUNHKU (lraffic) and EHUXKLJXQJ
(conforl, caIn or ease of nind). According lo
rindIe (1991) lhe vord YHUNHKUVEHUXKLJXQJ firsl
appeared in Cernan lechnicaI Iileralure in nid
197Os lo descrile speed conlroI neasures lhal
vere leing appIied lo IocaI slreels. Al lhe line
lhere vas a groving concern in Lurope lo
inprove lhe IivealiIily of urlan slreels ly
reducing lhe adverse inpacls of nolor vehicIes.
Traffic caIning evoIved in Lurope fron earIy
197Os in differenl counlries under differenl
lerninoIogies. In NelherIands lhe voonerf or
'shared zone concepl vas pracliced in oId
eslalIished residenliaI areas veII lefore 196Os.
The nain oljeclive of lhe Dulch ZRRQHUI
principIe vas lo design slreels vhich nade
sone kind of co-exislence possilIe lelveen
pedeslrian aclivilies and vehicIe usage on
residenliaI slreels (Hass-KIau, 199O).
In Cernany speed Iiniling praclices such as
Tenpo 3O, 4O, 5O (Iiniling speeds in residenliaI
and olher sensilive areas) vas pracliced in Iale
7Os (SchIeicher-}esler, 1989). Sveden adopled
TRAIIKILAN 77 in 1977. Laler in 1977,
SCAIT guideIines vere lried in sone Luropean
counlries.
In lhe nean line TRRL in UK vas invoIve in
deveIoping and experinenling vilh road
hunps for conlroIIing speeds in residenliaI
roads and speed lunps for parking areas
(Hodge 1992, uIpill 1995). These experinenls
Ied lo lhe deveIopnenl of fanous Walls profiIe
in 1973 (Walls, 1973). Dovn under in AuslraIia
lhe concepls of LocaI Area Traffic Managenenl
(LATM) schenes vere deveIoped in caIning or
pacifying lraffic in IocaI and residenliaI areas
(Ashlon 1981, rindIe 1991).
3. ObjcctIvcs and Lcvc!s nf TraffIc
Ca!mIng
The oljeclives of lraffic caIning can le lasicaIIy
calegorised in lo four areas, enhance safely,
space for novenenl, poIIulion reduclion, and
aeslhelics. They can le sunnarised as foIIovs.
3.1 Enhancc 5afcty
Lnhance safely lhrough eIininaling polenliaI
accidenl hazards. Il is ulnosl inporlanl lo
conlroI/guide vehicIe novenenls lo prolecl
hunan Iife, prevenl injuries lo aII road users
and avoid any properly danage.
3.2 5harc Urban 5pacc wIth Pcnp!c
When vasl expanses of road carriagevays are
eslalIished as space Iosl lo hunan aclivily,
parlicuIarIy vhen space is nol adequaleIy
uliIised ly vehicIes, lhen lhrough concepl of co-
exislence (or shared palhs) give lack sone road
space lo lhe pedeslrians and cycIisls vhiIe
ensuring lheir safely.
3.3 Rcducc Pn!!utInn and NnIsc
(MInImIsc EnvIrnnmcnta! Impacts)
The inpacls on environnenl lhrough vehicuIar
enissions, snoke, noise and, vilralion has lo le
nininised. The inporlance of proleclion of lhe
environnenl is veII underslood aII over lhe
vorId. Hence lhrough lraffic caIning aclions,
inpacl on environnenl shouId le nininised.
3.4 AcsthctIcs and AchIcvIng Harmnny
bctwccn PcdcstrIans, VchIc!cs & RcsIdcnts
Il is generaIIy accepled lhal nolor vehicIes are
inlrusive and doninaling eIenenls, parlicuIarIy
in residenliaI environnenls. Hence il is
inporlanl lo have a safe co-exislence and
harnony lelveen pedeslrians, vehicIes &
residenls.
If ve consider a reaI road nelvork, ve have
foIIoving lhree doninanl eIenenls, (i) arleriaI
roads, (ii) IocaI roads, and (iii) coIIeclor roads as
shovn in Iigure 2.
FIgurc 2 - Rnad HIcrarchy In a Rnad Nctwnrk
(i) ArleriaI Roads (AR)
(ii) LocaI Roads (LR)
(iii) CoIIeclor Roads (CR)
63
ENGINEER
The principaI funclion of a coIIeclor road is lo
dislrilule lraffic lelveen lhe arleriaI roads and
IocaI roads. Il 'coIIecls lraffic fron a calchnenl
of IocaI roads and lhen lranching off il and
connecls up lo a IocaI crossing road or arleriaI
road.
LocaI crossing roads are lhose roads vhich fuIfiI
a need lo direclIy cross a IocaI lraffic area
lecause in one dinension al-Ieasl, lhe area is loo
Iarge lo le reasonalIy circunnavigaled ly inlra-
sulurlan lraffic.
As per rindIe (1991) lhere are lhree IeveIs of
lraffic caIning lhal couId le adopled.
LeveI 1 Traffic CaIning - Aclions lo reslrain
lraffic speed and Iessen lraffic inpacls
al lhe IocaI IeveI, vhere lraffic voIunes,
IeveIs of service and nelvork capacily
are nol an issue.
In LeveI 1 lraffic caIning (al IocaI IeveI),
fev IocaI roads vilh prolIens are
seIecled and lreal lhen.
LeveI 2 Traffic CaIning - Aclions lo reslrain
lraffic speed and Iessen lraffic inpacls
al lhe corridor (inlernediale) IeveI,
vhere lraffic voIunes, IeveIs of service
and nelvork capacily are an issue.
In LeveI 2 lraffic caIning (al
inlernediale IeveI), seIecl a residenliaI
area and lreal as a unil.
LeveI 3 Traffic CaIning - Aclions al lhe nacro-
IeveI, lo Iessen lraffic IeveIs and inpacls
cily-vide.
In LeveI 3 lraffic caIning (al Macro
IeveI), seIecl a Iarge area incIuding
arleriaI roads and lreal lhe conpIele
syslen.
4. Gcncra! InfnrmatInn
In lhe posl-var scenario il is seen lhal Sri
Lankan lraffic poIice is naking a desperale
allenpl lo discipIine IocaI lraffic, and pul inlo
righl course lhe IocaI road users, lolh nolorisls
and pedeslrians. Il is encouraging lo see lhal Sri
Lankan lraffic poIice is vorking hard lhrough
various reguIaling schenes such as educalion
canpaigns, inlensive roadside offender
deleclion exercises, and noniloring
progrannes allenpling lo lring lhe Iav and
order in highvay usage. WhiIe enforcing is
conducled il is aIso inporlanl lo lake sleps lo
reguIarise lolh nolorisls, and pedeslrians
lhrough correcl poIicies.
WhiIe a lroad concepl of lraffic caIning is
covered in lhis paper, il is inporlanl lhal ve
adopl our nalionaI slandards depending on
IocaI denands and expeclalions lo suil IocaI
condilions.
y lraffic caIning lasicaIIy vhals leing carried
oul fron lraffic engineering poinl of viev are as
foIIovs:
Manage vehicuIar speeds lo desiralIe IeveIs
Inprove safely of lolh pedeslrians and
drivers
Change of lraffic fIovs
ConlroI noise IeveIs
ConlroI environnenlaI poIIulion (snoke,
dusl, harnfuI enissions)
TraveI line changes (increase / decrease)
LocaI residenls privacy
Road geonelry changes
Connunily alliludes (residenls & drivers)
Iassenger conforl
5. Why TraffIc Ca!mIng In 5rI
Lanka?
Il can le seen lhal on lop of aII safely avareness
canpaigns sphere-headed ly Sri Lanka Traffic
IoIice vilh olher reIevanl road agencies, lhe
road falaIilies and grievous injuries in Sri
Lankan roads are on lhe rise (TalIe 1). y
Iooking al lhe lolaI accidenl nunlers indicaled
al lhe lollon rov of TalIe 1, one nay gel lhe
inpression lhal accidenls are reducing over lhe
years, lul according lo lraffic poIice, lhese
nunlers indicaled in TalIe 1, refIecl nuch
Iover figures lhan lhe acluaI nunlers. The Iov
vaIues are due lo roadside sellIenenls arriving
ly affecled parlies vilhoul inforning poIice
vilh lhe heIp of insurance conpanies. Hence
nany of lhese ninor calegory accidenls are nol
gelling recorded in poIice looks. ul lhe ground
reaIily is lhal, Sri Lankan road accidenls are on
lhe rise. In lhis regard lo sonevhal ils
veIconing nevs lhal Sri Lanka Traffic IoIice
vilh lhe Defence Minislry approvaI has laken
sleps lo inslaII 1OO roadside cIosed circuil TV
caneras (CCTV) al cruciaI Iocalions in CoIonlo
for lraffic noniloring purposes. To inpIenenl
lhis isIand vide viII le a very coslIy affair.
ENGINEER
64
Table 1 - Thc Annua! AccIdcnt 5tatIstIcs
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
IalaI 2116 2141 2O65 2176 2157
Crievous 456O 4968 471O 5O36 4963
Non grievous 13918 14376 11866 12O42 11437
Danage onIy 32864 21686 14698 132O4 11863
TolaI 53458 43171 33339 32458 3O42O
(Source. Sri Lanka Traffic Police, 2009)
y olserving high IeveI of driver indiscipIine on
IocaI roads, and aIso poIice deleclion records of
driver fauIls connonIy found anong our
drivers over Iasl fev years il can le seen lhal
najorily of poIice deleclions are reIaled lo
speeding, vioIalion of road ruIes and unruIy
lehaviour ly lhree-vheeIer drivers elc. (TalIe
2). AII lhese high figures juslify lhe inporlance
and urgency lo caIn our lraffic on roads. Hence
il shovs lhe inporlance of caIning our lraffic
for leller safely and inproved road slandards.
Table 2 - Police Detections from 2004 to 2008
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
High Speeding 113543 136846 125261 153388 151702
Un Road -
worthy
vehicles 1729 1591 2319 1735 1417
Driving under
the InIluence
oI
Alcohol/Drugs 10526 12826 11418 163083 189133
Loading
Passengers
away Irom
Bus Halts 27029 25296 25199 27181 21413
OIIences
committed by
Three-Wheeler
Drivers 300470 322383 266238 279320 255710
OIIences
related to
violation oI
Road Rules 315959 338108 324727 372224 354399
Failing to stop
at Pedestrian
Crossing 38242 30629 198199 19762 7933
Violation oI
other Road
Rules 884169 678083 715682 803745 720726
Total 1691667 1545762 1669043 18204381702433
(Source. Sri Lanka Traffic Police, 2009)
6. FIndIngs nf PrcvInus 5tudIcs
An exlensive Iileralure survey vas conducled lo
sludy on speed reducing looIs used for lraffic
caIning purposes in various counlries and lheir
concIusions are sunnarised leIov. Irevious
sludies have idenlified lveIve differenl inpacls
resuIling fron lraffic caIning looIs as indicaled
in sul-seclions 6.1 lo 6.12. Iindings of lhese
sludies viII le very heIpfuI in deveIoping
appropriale lraffic caIning schenes for differenl
silualions.
6.1 VchIc!c 5pccds
Nexl paragraph indicales lhe generaI
concIusions arrived as an accunuIalion of
sludies conducled and pulIished ly foIIoving
research pulIicalions regarding lhe inpacl on
vehicIe speeds due lo lraffic caIning devices
|Walls, 1973 (UK), Sunner and aguIey, 1978
(UK), }arvis, 1978 (Ausl), Ashlon, 1981 (Ausl),
Kassen and AI-Nassari, 1982 (Saudi Aralia),
Daff and Siggins, 1982 (Ausl), Mehla, 1984
(Aus), TayIor and Rulherford, 1986 (Aus),
Cennaoui and Snilh, 1987 (Aus), Cornan el aI.,
1989 (USA), roadlend and SaInon, 1991 (UK),
ickneII, 1993 (UK), Lines, 1993 (USA), Tan and
Ward, 1994 (Aus), MacdonaId, 1995 (UK),
Weerasekera, 2OO9 (SL)j.
Il couId le concIuded fron sludies Iisled alove
lhal speed reduclions ly physicaI speed conlroI
devices used in lraffic caIning shov lhal speeds
near lhese devices can le conlroIIed ly varying
paranelers such as lhe lype of device, lhe
profiIe of lhe device, lhe spacing in lelveen
devices, lhe lypes of vehicIes riding over lhe
devices elc. AII of lhese sludies have
conlriluled lo lhe connon concIusion lhal
physicaI speed conlroI devices are capalIe of
effecliveIy reducing lhe average speeds and
percenliIe speeds near lhen. The spacing
lelveen lhe devices vas seen as an inporlanl
crilerion. Increases in lhe spacing lelveen
devices resuIled in higher average speeds and
higher naxinun inler-device speeds. The speed
reduclion al lhe devices depended on lhe
severily of forced changes of lrajeclory of lhe
vehicIes.
65
ENGINEER
6.2 5afcty nf DrIvcrs and PcdcstrIans
Nexl paragraph indicales lhe generaI
concIusions arrived as an accunuIalion of
sludies conducled and pulIished ly foIIoving
research pulIicalions on safely of drives and
pedeslrians |Sunner el aI., 1978 (UK), Sunner
and aguIey, 1978 (UK), }arvis, 198O (Aus),
Mehla, 1984 (Aus), Cornan el aI., 1989 (USA),
Iarker, 1989 (UK), Hodge, 1992 (UK), Lvans,
1994 (UK), uIpill, 1995 (UK), Weerasekera,
1998 (Aus), Weerasekera, 1999 (SL)j
Supporled ly an exlensive Iileralure survey of
'lefore and 'afler sludies, il has cIearIy shovn
grealer percenlage reduclions in accidenls,
sonelines as high as 8O in road slrelches vilh
road hunps. ased on olservalions nade on
Iarge nunler of lraffic caIning schenes, il is
nov veII accepled lhal speed conlroI devices
conlrilule grealIy lovards inproving lhe safely
of lolh pedeslrians and drivers.
6.3 TraffIc F!nw Changcs
Nexl paragraph indicales lhe generaI
concIusions arrived as an accunuIalion of
sludies conducled and pulIished ly foIIoving
research pulIicalions on lraffic fIov changes
due lo lraffic caIning schenes |Ashlon, 1981
(Aus), McDonaId and }arvis, 1981 (Aus), Iarker,
1989 (UK), Van den DooI and Iisher, 1989 (Aus),
Chua and Iisher, 1991 (Aus), Lines, 1993 (USA),
MacdonaId, 1995 (UK)j
AII of lhe alove sludies shoved lhal, fron
'lefore and 'afler lraffic counls, lraffic voIunes
vere reduced once speed conlroI devices vere
inslaIIed. These reduclions in lraffic voIunes
vere oflen significanl, and depended on lhe
degree of speed conlroI neasures appIied. Il is
evidenl lhal vhen speed conlroI devices are
used in lraffic caIning schenes, sone lraffic is
diverled lo adjacenl roules since lhese roules
lecone conparaliveIy nore allraclive for
lraveI. Hence, vhen lraffic caIning schenes are
pIanned, il is inporlanl lo ensure lhal lhe
peripheraI roads and adjacenl najor roads have
lhe aliIily lo acconnodale lhis diverled lraffic
vilhoul congeslion.
6.4 Gcnmctry
Nexl paragraph indicales lhe generaI
concIusions arrived as an accunuIalion of
sludies conducled and pulIished ly foIIoving
research pulIicalions on lhe geonelry of lraffic
caIning looIs |Walls, 1973 (UK), WaIsh, 1975
(USA), }arvis, 1978 (Aus), Kassen and AI-
Nassari, 1982 (Saudi Aralia), Hagan, 1985
(Aus), TayIor and Rulherford, 1986 (Aus),
Kjenlrup, 1988 (Dennark), Iva and Tan, 1992
(Singapore), MacdonaId, 1995 (UK)j.
The earIiesl sludies of various geonelricaI
designs of road hunps vere conducled ly
Walls (1973), and WaIsh (1975). Walls olserved
lhal very snaII hunps are nol effeclive for
aIlering lhe drivers of aII lypes of vehicIes. Il
vas found lhal lhe grealer lhe heighl of lhe
hunp, lhe nore severe lhe effecl, shorl hunps
of grealer heighls, hovever vere nol acceplalIe
on safely grounds. There has leen Iarge nunler
of experinenls carried oul in differenl counlries
reIaling lo lhe use of speed conlroI devices vilh
varying profiIes for achieving effeclive resuIls al
Iover cosls. TayIor and Rulherford (1986)
sludied lhe faniIy of 'diagonaI sIov poinls
devices used ly nany nunicipaIilies for speed
conlroI on IocaI slreels. VehicIe speed profiIes
vere neasured
6.5 NnIsc
Nexl paragraph indicales lhe generaI
concIusions arrived as an accunuIalion of
sludies conducled and pulIished ly foIIoving
research pulIicalions on noise changes due lo
lraffic caIning looIs |Sunner and aguIey, 1978
(UK), Sunner and aguIey, 1979 (UK),
McDonaId and }arvis, 1981 (Aus), TayIor, 1983
(Aus), Devar, 1984 (Aus), Mehla, 1984 (Aus),
Snilh, 1985 (Aus), Cennaoui and Snilh, 1987
(Aus), Chua and Iisher, 1991 (Aus), Van Lvery
and HoInes, 1992 (Aus)j.
A nunler of 'lefore and 'afler sludies
indicaled lhal lhere vas an overaII reduclion in
noise IeveIs vhere lraffic caIning neasures had
leen inpIenenled, nainIy due lo lhe reduclions
in lraffic voIunes and speeds (Sunner and
aguIey, 1978, 1979). In lhese sludies il vas
found lhal, near nid-lIock hunps and raised
pIalforns, lhere vas an increase in noise IeveIs
due lo lhe rallIing of goods in heavy vehicIes,
sudden lraking of vehicIes, and lhe conslanl
acceIeralion and deceIeralion of vehicIes. Il vas
noliced lhal lraffic noise is a very Iocalion-
specific inpacl and lhal lhe resuIls can
sonelines le confusing due lo faclors such as
shorl survey duralions, sudden fIuclualions in
lraffic fIov, occasionaI Ioud vehicIes, and noises
generaled IocaIIy. The duralions of noise
ENGINEER
66
recordings shouId le increased lo ollain nore
definile concIusions.
Chua and Iisher (1991) slaled lhal a 3 d(A)
change in noise IeveI is accepled as leing
necessary for lhe popuIalion as a vhoIe lo
nolice a difference in lhe noise. Hovever, lhe
avaiIalIe dala on lraffic speed and voIune
reduclion suggesled lhal a nolicealIe difference
of 3 d(A) occurred in silualions vhich had
reduclions of voIune ly 5O, or sonevhal
Iesser reduclions coupIed vilh grealer speed
changes (Sunner and aguIey 1978, 1979,
Mehla, 1984). More sludies of noise changes
around speed conlroI devices vilh Ionger
survey duralions have leen proposed.
6.6 CnmmunIty AttItudcs
Nexl fev paragraphs in seclion 6.6 indicales lhe
generaI concIusions arrived as an accunuIalion
of sludies conducled and pulIished ly
foIIoving research pulIicalions regarding
connunily alliludes lovards lraffic caIning
schenes and looIs used for lraffic caIning |Daff
and Siggins, 1982 (Aus), Cennaoui and Snilh,
1987 (Aus), Van den DooI and Iisher, 1989
(Aus), Cornan el aI., 1989 (USA), Chua and
Iisher, 1991 (Aus)j.
Connunily alliludes lovards speed-reducing
devices have leen revieved in lhe sludies Iisled
alove. There seened lo le slrong agreenenl
vilh lhe assunplion lhal residenliaI slreels are
prinariIy for lhe residenls and secondariIy for
lraffic. The sludies alove, nosl of vhich vere
lased on pulIic opinion surveys, inlervievs and
househoId queslionnaire surveys, shov lhal lhe
najorily of lhe residenls are in favour of speed-
reducing schenes in residenliaI areas. These
surveys aIso shoved lhal lhe najorily of lhe
residenls and divers vere in favour of physicaI
speed conlroI devices such as road hunps,
raised pIalforns and sIov poinls lul lhal lhere
vas aIvays a group vho opposed lhen. The
issue of physicaI speed conlroI devices as a
speed conlroI neasure has proved lo le a very
poIarising issue, eilher peopIe Iiked lhen or
disIiked lhen.
These sludies shov lhal lhe najorily of lhe
pulIic accepled lhe nolion lhal physicaI speed
conlroI devices heIped lo reduce overaII speeds
and lraffic voIunes on lhe roads hovever, lhere
vere sonevhal differenl opinions on lhe
foIIoving issues:
Safely near lhese devices
Minor danage and increased vear and
lear lo vehicIes
Appearance of lhese devices and
changes lo slreelscapes
Iedeslrian crossing difficuIlies
TraveI line differences
Road-side parking
Lffecls on nearly properly vaIues
Access fron drivevays
Shapes and sizes of lhe devices
The connon pulIic conpIainls aloul hunps
and raised pIalforns vee reIaled lo noise
generalion near lhese devices and
passenger/driver disconforl. AII of lhese
sludies shoved a generaI acceplance of lhese
devices ly lhe najorily of lhe connunily if
properIy uliIised.
6.7 DrIvcr and Passcngcr Cnmfnrt
Nexl lvo paragraphs in seclion 6.7 indicales lhe
generaI concIusions arrived as an accunuIalion
of sludies conducled and pulIished ly
foIIoving research pulIicalions regarding
driver and passenger conforl |Walls, 1973 (UK),
Sunner and aguIey, 1978 (UK), }arvis, 198O
(Aus), Kassen and AI-Nassari, 1982 (Saudi
Aralia), Kjenlrup, 1988 (Dennark), }arvis and
Ciunnarra, 1992 (Aus)j.
Kjenlrup (1988) connenled lhal lhe verlicaI
acceIeralion lo vhich a person is suljecled in
passing over a hunp depends on (i) lhe
geonelric design of lhe hunp, (ii) lhe verlicaI
speed, (iii) lhe vehicIe suspension syslen, (iv)
lhe vehicIe lyre pressure, and (v) lhe soflness of
lhe seal, elc.
}arvis (198O) produced a series of pIols
indicaling driver/passenger disconforl versus
vehicIe crossing speed for differenl lypes of
vehicIes, and for differenl profiIes of speed
conlroI devices, vhich suiled AuslraIian
condilions. Many disconforl IeveI (of
driver/passenger) sludies have leen foIIoved
in olher counlries as veII.
6.8 Effccts nn DIffcrcnt Typcs nf VchIc!cs
Nexl lvo paragraphs in seclion 6.8 indicales lhe
generaI concIusions arrived as an accunuIalion
of sludies conducled and pulIished ly
foIIoving research pulIicalions on lhe effecls on
differenl lypes of vehicIes |Walls, 1973 (UK),
67
ENGINEER
}arvis, 198O (Aus), Kjenlrup, 1988 (Dennark),
}arvis and Ciunnarra, 1992 (Aus)j.
Walls (1973) sludied lhe effecl of road hunps
on differenl lypes of vehicIes al varying crossing
speeds, ly giving differenl disconforl ralings
for vehicIes. Il concIuded lhal vilh respecl lo
speeds, Iarger goods vehicIes vere lhe nosl
affecled for lhe najorily of lhe differenl hunp
profiIes lhal vere invesligaled. Laler, lhe on-sile
lesls carried ly TRRL (Sunner & aguIey, 1978
& 1979) shoved Iarge reduclions of heavy
vehicIes and aIso a significanl reduclion in lhe
nunler of nolor cycIes on roads vilh hunp
inslaIIalions. SiniIar resuIls vere olserved fron
a Danish sludy (Kjenlrup, 1988) vhich
neasured lhe effecl of hunps (C-hunps and T-
hunps vilh varying dinensions) on 3 differenl
lypes of vehicIes (nornaI cars, luses and Iong,
arlicuIaled vehicIes). This sludy proved lhal
cars pass over lhese devices vilh nuch nore
ease lhan Ionger vehicIes.
Iron lhe ARR research on differenl profiIes of
raised pIalforns il vas found lhal raised
pIalforns vilh ranp Ienglhs of 2 neler and
heighls of 1OO nn produced acceplalIe crossing
characlerislics for luses al speeds up lo 24
kn/h (}arvis and Ciunnarra, 1992). Il vas
concIuded lhal raised pIalforns vilh lhis profiIe
had a good laIance lelveen lhe requirenenls
for conlroI of passenger car speeds, and lhe
need for lus occupanl conforl (lolh driver and
passengers).
6.9 Travc! TImc
Nexl lvo paragraphs in seclion 6.9 indicales lhe
generaI concIusions arrived as an accunuIalion
of sludies conducled and pulIished ly
foIIoving research pulIicalions on lraveI line
|Sunner and aguIey, 1978 (UK), Sunner and
aguIey, 1979 (UK), McDonaId and }arvis, 1981
(Aus), Daff and Siggins, 1982 (Aus), Melha, 1984
(Aus)j.
AII of lhe alove sludies indicaled lhal lhere vas
a definile increase in lraveI line depending on
lhe Ienglh of road for vhich lraffic caIning vas
done and lhe degree of neasures appIied. TRRL
sludies (Sunner & aguIey, 1978 & 1979)
shoved consideralIe increase in average lraveI
lines, in sone cases as high as 9O (al a
Iocalion vilh nine Walls profiIe hunps vilhin a
slrelch of 75O nelres) vhere lhe speed conlroI
devices vere severeIy appIied. Daff and Siggins
(1982) olserved a snaIIer percenlage in average
lraveI lines 3O on a 1.7 kn road slrelch vilh
seven horizonlaI dispIacenenl sIov poinls.
Mehla (1984) noled lhal in lhe evaIualion of
sone residenliaI area lraffic caIning schenes in
AuslraIia an average lraveI line increase of
lelveen 2O and 4O seconds conpared lo
vilhoul lraffic caIning looIs. This vas due lo
lraffic diversions lo peripheraIs, lhal resuIling
fron lhe conlroI neasures appIied lo lhe
residenliaI area.
6.10 Emcrgcncy Rcspnnsc TImcs
Nexl lhree paragraphs in seclion 6.1O indicales
lhe generaI concIusions arrived as an
accunuIalion of sludies conducled and
pulIished ly foIIoving research pulIicalions on
novenenl of energency vehicIes and effecl on
lheir response lines due lo lraffic caIning
schenes |Daff and Siggins, 1982 (Aus), Cornan
el aI., 1989 (USA), Lvans, 1994 (UK), uIpill,
1995 (UK)j.
Lvans (1994) olserved lhal fron a sludy done in
UK, lhe nosl vorrying crilicisn had cone fron
anluIance and fire services, vhich had olvious
concerns aloul lhe cunuIalive effecl on lheir
response lines.
In conlrariIy Cornan el aI. (1989) in lheir
evaIualion sludy of road hunps in Onaha in
US poinled oul lhal for energency vehicIes lhe
road hunps vere nol an issue as Iong as lhey
vere pIaced on coIIeclor and najor roads. They
suggesled lhal if a road hunp is lo le inslaIIed
on such a road, poIice and fire deparlnenls
shouId le consuIled lefore proceeding.
Hovever, lhey connenled lhal lhe acluaI
increase in response line lecause of a lypicaI
road hunp is of lhe order of a fev seconds and
argued lhal il is nol Iife-lhrealening in nosl
cases.
AII lhe alove sludies connonIy concIuded lhal
lhe inslaIIalion of physicaI speed conlroI devices
increases lhe response line of energency
vehicIes, aIlhough lhere are confIicling vievs on
lhe inporlance of lhis increase.
6.11 Fuc! CnnsumptInn
Nexl lvo paragraphs in seclion 6.11 indicales
lhe generaI concIusions arrived as an
accunuIalion of sludies conducled and
pulIished ly foIIoving research pulIicalions on
ENGINEER
68
lhe effecl on fueI consunplion due lo lraffic
caIning schenes |TayIor and Anderson, 1982
(Aus), Moses, 1989 (UK/USA), Zilo and TayIor,
1996 (Aus)j.
Iron a series of fieId experinenls using an
inslrunenled car equipped vilh ARRs fueI
lraveI line dala acquisilion syslen vilh a CIS
posilioning syslen and a speed and lraveI-line
noniloring syslen, Zilo & TayIor (1996)
olserved lhal a road slrelch vilh a series of
hunps increased vehicIe fueI consunplion,
vhereas lhe inlroduclion of nini-roundalouls
decreased lhe overaII fueI consunplion. These
resuIls confirned lhe earIier cIains ly Moses
(1989) lhal road hunps and unduIalions of road
surfaces increase lhe overaII fueI consunplion
of vehicIes, sonelines ly up lo 2O.
The increases in fueI consunplion vhen driving
over verlicaI dispIacenenl devices and sIov
poinls are allriluled lo lhe conslanl changing of
gears and lraveI in Iov gear near and on lhe
devices.
6.12 AIr Pn!!utInn frnm VchIc!c Exhausts
Nexl lvo paragraphs in seclion 6.12 indicales
lhe generaI concIusions arrived as an
accunuIalion of sludies conducled and
pulIished ly foIIoving research pulIicalions on
air poIIulion fron vehicIe exhausls due lo lraffic
caIning schenes |TayIor and Anderson, 1982
(Aus), Van Lvery and HoInes, 1992 (Aus),
uIpill, 1995 (UK)j.
Van Lvery & HoInes (1992), fron a reviev of
Iileralure on lhe environnenlaI and energy
lenefils of LATM, found sulslanliaI evidence of
a delerioralion of environnenlaI condilions due
lo increases in air poIIulion as a resuIl of
increased acceIeralion and lraking ly drivers
near physicaI speed conlroI devices. They
shared lhe viev lhal lhe inpacl on air quaIily as
a resuIl of an LATM schene is reIaled lo lhe
changes in fueI consunplion. In LATM schenes
vilh nid-lIock speed conlroI devices lhis is
nornaIIy a posilive change and lhe percenlage
increase in fueI consunplion vas found lo
depend on lhe degree of lraffic caIning
neasures appIied.
TayIor & Anderson (1982), ly appIying lhe
MULATM nodeI lo sone Soulh AuslraIian
LATM schenes, cane up vilh siniIar vievs.
uIpill (1995), ly anaIyzing sone lraffic caIning
schenes in lhe UK vhich invoIved road hunps
and raised pIalforns, nade siniIar olservalions
lo Van Lvery and HoInes (1992), and slaled lhal
vehicIe exhausls increase air poIIulion as
vehicIes speed up or sIov dovn over lhe
olslacIe course.
5ummary
Seclions 2, 3 and 5 of lhis paper invesligales lhe
concepl of lraffic caIning, ils origin and hislory,
lhe oljeclives al differenl IeveIs of lraffic
caIning, and reason oul vhy ils required in Sri
Lanka. Through lhe sludies conducled in
differenl parls of lhe vorId Iisled in seclion 6.1
lo 6.12 il vas olserved, lhe hisloricaI
lackground, lhe effecls of looIs used for lraffic
caIning, lheir inpacl on differenl aspecls, and
aIso hov al differenl parls of lhe vorId speed
nanagenenl issues in residenliaI, coIIeclor, and
sul-arleriaI roules vilhoul/vilh high
pedeslrian invoIvenenls are addressed lhrough
lraffic caIning.
7. Imp!cmcntatInn nf TraffIc
Ca!mIng 5chcmcs
Afler sludying lhe inporlance of
vehicIe/pedeslrian inleraclion and lhe neasures
adopled lo inprove lhis reIalionship in differenl
counlries il vas olserved lhal lhe
inpIenenlalion of slricl speed conlroI neasures
such as road hunps and raised pIalforns is nov
leconing faniIiar lo nany nunicipaIilies lhal
are lrying lo reduce lhe speeds in residenliaI
slreels as veII as sul-arleriaI roads vilh high
lraffic fIovs. Sone aulhorilies are nov nol
hesilaling lo use lhese devices on lusy arleriaI
roads running lhrough lovn cenlres (Hopper &
Cannon 1994, Creed & Menzies 1996). Traffic
caIning looIs such as, raised lhreshoIds, raised
pIalforns, curviIinear aIignnenls and lraffic
circIes are suilalIe devices for lusy arleriaI
roads.
Where lhe convenlionaI speed reducing
neasures vilh sIighl nodificalions are used in
roads vilh high lraffic vilh a high degree of
vehicIe/pedeslrian inleraclion il is inporlanl lo
have a lhorough underslanding of lhe
lehaviour of lhese devices and lheir inpacl on
fundanenlaI characlerislics of lraffic. This
Iileralure search has leen direcled lovards
achieving a conpIele underslanding of lhe
exisling knovIedge of lhe perfornance of
connonIy-used physicaI speed conlroI devices.
The presenl knovIedge aloul lhe perfornance
of lhese looIs has leen assessed.
69
ENGINEER
Iron lhe Iileralure sludy il vas noled lhal lhere
are sone connonIy used lraffic caIning looIs
vhich are exlensiveIy used aII over lhe vorId
for lraffic caIning operalions. They are Iisled
leIov:
Lnlry ThreshoIds
Speed Hunps
Offsel Carriagevay
Roundaloul/Traffic CircIe
Raised ThreshoId
Raised IIalforns
CurviIinear AIignnenl
One/Tvo Lane SIov Ioinls
Dianond SIov Ioinls
Inlerseclion Trealnenls
Curl Lxlensions
DiagonaI Diversions
Chicane
AngIed SIov Ioinls
Necking
T-Diversion
RunlIe Slrip
Median IsIand
Wonlal Crossing
Shared Zones
Appropriale Road Signs
LIeclronic Infornalion
CIose Circuil Caneras/Lnforcenenl
Appropriale Landscaping
Differenl Surface Trealnenls
Road CIosures & Diversions
Sone of lhe references indicaled in lhis sludy
offer conprehensive delaiIs of lhe lraffic
caIning looIs indicaled alove, vilh inporlanl
dinensions of lhis differenl lraffic caIning looIs,
and aIso suggesling lhe suilalIe Iocalions for
lheir effeclive inslaIIalions.
Iigure 2 indicales an exanpIe of a sinpIe
lypicaI lraffic caIning schene lhal couId le
adopled in a residenliaI area ly using sone of
lhe alove nenlioned lraffic caIning looIs.
SiniIar lype of lraffic caIning schenes
(IocaI/sile specific) couId le designed ly lraffic
engineers vilh lhe agreenenl of aII reIevanl
slake hoIders.
FIgurc 2 - TypIca! TraffIc Ca!mIng 5chcmc
8. App!IcabI!Ity In 5rI Lanka
Through lhis sludy il vas allenpled lo
denonslrale successfuI appIicaliIily of lraffic
caIning for a sanpIe of CoIonlo residenliaI
roads ly sludying a nelvork of roads around
HaveIock Tovn and Thinlirigasyaya in
CoIonlo 5.
Iigure 3 indicales lhe Iocalions of lraffic caIning
looIs lhal are proposed, and leIov indicales lhe
Iisl of looIs lhal couId le inslaIIed lo inpIenenl
lhe proposed CoIonlo lraffic caIning zone.
A - Roundaloul/Traffic CircIe
- Chicane
C - Roundaloul/Traffic CircIe
D/L - Raised IIalforns
I - Lnlry ThreshoId
C - Roundaloul/Traffic CircIe
H/I - Raised IIalforns
} - Raised ThreshoId
K - Roundaloul/Traffic CircIe
L - Traffic SignaIs
M - Roundaloul/Traffic CircIe
N - Traffic SignaIs
O - Speed Hunps
ENGINEER
70
FIgurc 3 - Prnpnscd TraffIc Ca!mIng 5chcmc
9. Cnnc!usInns
Il vas olserved fron sile invesligalions lhal lhe
proposed Traffic caIning schene al HaveIock
Tovn and Thinlirigasyaya in CoIonlo 5 couId
le inpIenenled vilh ease, since road vidlhs
are adequale for proposed lraffic caIning looIs.
ul lhis nay nol lhe silualion everyvhere.
When lraffic caIning schenes are lo le
inpIenenled under Sri Lankan conlexl
foIIoving are sone of lhe difficuIlies lhal couId
le anlicipaled.
1. Since lhe IocaI road users are nol
accusloned lo lraffic caIning schenes a
process of educalion nay le necessary.
2. AvaiIalIe carriagevay vidlhs of our roads
nay le nol sufficienl for sone of lhe lraffic
caIning looI lo le inslaIIed al sone
Iocalions. Therefore sone accepled looIs
used eIsevhere nay nol le suilalIe for
IocaI condilions.
3. Research and furlher sludies nay le
required in such cases. Research on space
uliIised, cosl of slruclures and road user
responses couId le conducled lo suil IocaI
condilions.
4. UnIike in sone silualions vhere IocaI area
lraffic caIning schenes have leen
successfuIIy inpIenenled in sone
deveIoped counlries, in Sri Lankan conlesl
since lhe avaiIalIe road vidlhs are narrov,
soIulions lhrough inlroducing curviIinear
aIignnenl or carriagevay narroving viII
nol le an appropriale soIulion.
5. The high cosls invoIved in sone
inslaIIalions nay creale difficuIlies lo lhe
reIevanl IocaI road agencies.
6. If heavy lraffic diversions occur on lo IocaI
or residenliaI roads residenls nay agilale.
7. Road aulhorilies nay have lo face
denands lroughl lhrough pressure groups
vilh vesled inleresls & poIilicaI
inlerferences lhal can lake pIace.
Il is inporlanl lo renenler lhal lhere is no
ideaI soIulion or lype pIan for any lraffic
caIning schene, lul every schene is differenl
fron one anolher and lhey are sile specific and
aIso shouId le acceplalIe lo lhe slake hoIders
vho are lhe finaI leneficiaries.
Rcfcrcnccs
1. Ashlon, N. R., 'Achieving Lover Speeds in
ResidenliaI Slreels, )LUVW 1DWLRQDO &RQIHUHQFH RQ
/RFDO *RYHUQPHQW (QJLQHHULQJ AdeIaide, Augusl
24-27, 1981.
2. ickneII, D., 'Traffic CaIning, 3URFHHGLQJV RI WKH
,QVWLWXWLRQ RI &LYLO (QJLQHHUV VoI. 98, Issue 1,
March 1993.
3. rindIe, R. L., 'Traffic CaIning in AuslraIia: A
Definilion and Connenlary, -RXUQDO RI WKH
$XVWUDOLDQ 5RDG 5HVHDUFK %RDUG, VoI. 21, No. O2,
}une 1991, pp. 37-55.
4. roadlend, K. and SaInon, A. M., 'An
Lxperinenl vilh Road Hunps, -RXUQDO RI
,QVWLWXWLRQ RI +LJKZD\V DQG 7UDQVSRUWDWLRQ VoI.
38, No. 11, Novenler 1991.
5. uIpill, M., 'Traffic CaIning - Have ve Civen
everyone lhe Hunp or Is il jusl a Load of
Chicanery`, -RXUQDORIWKH,QVWLWXWLRQRI+LJKZD\V
DQG 7UDQVSRUWDWLRQ VoI. 42, No. 12, Decenler
1995.
6. Chua, C. S. and Iisher, A. }., 'Ierfornance
Measurenenls of LocaI Area Traffic
Managenenl: A Case Sludy, -RXUQDO RI WKH
$XVWUDOLDQ 5RDG 5HVHDUFK %RDUG VoI. 21, No. 2,
}une 1991.
A
8
C
D L
I
G
n
I
I
k
L
M
N
C
71
ENGINEER
7. Creed, C. D. & Menzies, ., 'Traffic CaIning on
Trunk Roads in Lasl Canlridgeshire, ]curna| cf
|nc |ns|i|u|icn cf Hignuaqs an Transpcr|a|icn,
Lasl MidIands SpeciaI Issue, Seplenler 1996.
8. Daff, M. R. and Siggins, I. D. K., 'On Road TriaIs
of Sone Nev Types of SIov Ioinls, Prccccings
cf 11
|n
Aus|ra|ian Rca Rcscarcn 8car Ccnfcrcncc,
VoI. 11, Il. 4., 1982.
9. Devar, W., 'The Lasl RoseviIIe Lxperinenl:
Seplenler 1983 - March 1984, Prccccings cf |nc
3
r
A|TPM |crum, Sydney, 1984.
1O. Lvans, D., 'Traffic CaIning: The Iirsl Iive Years
and lhe Oxfordshire Lxperience, Prccccings cf
|nc |ns|i|u|icn cf Citi| |nginccrs - Municipa|
|nginccr, VoI. 1O3, Issue 1, March 1994.
11. Iva, T. I. and Tan, L. S., 'Ceonelric
Characlerizalion of Road Hunps for Speed-
ConlroI Design, ]curna| cf Transpcr|a|icn
|nginccring, VoI. 118, Nc. 4, ]u|q-Augus| 1992.
12. Cennaoui, I. R. and Snilh, I. A., 'Lffecliveness
of LATM Devices, 4
|n
Na|icna| |cca| Gctcrnmcn|
|nginccring Ccnfcrcncc, Ierlh, 17-21 Augusl
1987.
13. Cornan, M. N., Moussavi, M. and McCoy, I. T.,
'LvaIualion of Speed Hunp Irogran in lhe Cily
of Onaha, |T| ]curna|, |ns|i|u|c cf Transpcr|a|icn
|nginccrs, VoI. 59, No. 6, }une 1989.
14. Hagan, W. . 'IhysicaI Design CuideIines for
Use in ResidenliaI Slreel Managenenl, Tnir
Na|icna| |cca| Gctcrnmcn| |nginccring Ccnfcrcncc,
Mc||curnc, 26-29, Augusl 1985.
15. Hass-KIau, C, 'Tnc Pccs|rian Ci|q Traffic,
eIhavan Iress, London, 199O.
16. Hodge, A. R., 'A Reviev of lhe 2O niIe/h Speed
Zones: 1991, Traffic |nginccring an Ccn|rc|, VoI.
33, No. 1O, Ocloler 1992.
17. Hopper, K. and Cannon, R., 'Traffic CaIning
Herlfordshires Tovn Cenlres, Tnc ]curna| cf |nc
|ns|i|u|icn cf Hignuaqs an Transpcr|a|icn, VoI.
41, No. 1O, Ocloler 1994.
18. }arvis, }. R., 'A Survey of Traffic Speed ConlroI
Devices (Speed Hunps) found in and around
MeIlourne, Aus|ra|ian Rca Rcscarcn 8car,
|n|crna| Rcpcr|, A|R 284-1, 1978.
19. }arvis, }. R., 'The Off-road Tesling of Road
Hunps for Use Under AuslraIian Condilions,
Prccccings cf |nc 10
|n
Aus|ra|ian Rca Rcscarcn
8car Ccnfcrcncc, VoI. 1O, Il. 4., 198O.
2O. }arvis, }. R. and Ciunnarra, C., 'Hunps for Use
on us Roules, Rca an Transpcr| Rcscarcn, VoI.
1, No. 4, Decenler 1992.
21. Kassen, L. and AI-Nassar, Y., 'Dynanic
Consideralions of Speed ConlroI Hunps,
Transpcr| Rcscarcn, VoI. 16, No. 4, Augusl 1982.
22. Kjenlrup, K., 'Spcc Rcucing Mcasurcs,
Prccccings cf |nc Aus|ra|ian Rca Rcscarcn 8car,
VoI. Ils 1-2, 1988.
23. Lines, C. }., 'Road Hunps for lhe ConlroI of
VehicIe Speeds, Traffic |nginccring c Ccn|rc|,
}anuary 1993.
24. MacdonaId, C., 'Quanlifying VehicuIar user
ehaviour, Papcr prcscn|c a| |nc 7
|n
Icr|
Ccnfcrcncc cn Transpcr| Rcscarcn (ICTR),
Sydney, 1995.
25. McDonaId, I. L. and }arvis, }. R, 'The use of
Road Hunps on ResidenliaI Slreels in lhe Shire
of Corio ARR8 |n|crna|icna| Rcpcr|, A|R 335-2,
1981.
26. Mehla, A. |cca| Arca Traffic Managcmcn|. |csscns
|c a|c, Traffic Aulhorily of NSW, Novenler
1984.
27. Moses, I. }., 'LocaI Area Traffic Managenenl in
Lurope and Norlh Anerica, 5
|n
Na|icna| |cca|
Gctcrnmcn| |nginccring Ccnfcrcncc, Sydney,
24-29, Seplenler 1989.
28. Iarker, R. A, 'Road Hunps, Do They ReaIIy
Represenl Cood VaIue for Money`, Prccccings
cf |urcpcan Transpcr| an P|anning, 17
|n
Summcr
Annua| Mcc|ing, 11-15 Seplenler, ITRC
Lducalion and Research Services Lld., 1989.
29. RusseII, }. and Iharaoh, T., 'Speed Managenenl
and lhe RoIe of Traffic CaIning in Road Safely,
Rcscarcn Papcr Nc. 35, Dcpar|mcn| cf Tcun an
Ccun|rq P|anning, Heriol-Wall Universily,
Ldinlurgh, 199O.
3O. SchIeicher-}esler, I., 'Tenpo 3O in Tovns -
ResuIls of a Cernan Lxperinenl, Prccccings cf
|urcpcan Transpcr| an P|anning, 17
|n
Summcr
Annua| Mcc|ing, 11-15 Seplenler, ITRC
Lducalion and Research Services Lld, 1989.
31. Snilh, L. A., Traffic Ncisc an |ATM,
AuslraIian AcouslicaI Sociely - 1985
Conference, 1985.
32. Sunner, R., and aguIey, C., 'Speed ConlroI
Hunps in Norvich and Haringey, TRR|
Supp|cmcn|arq Rcpcr| SR 423, Transporl
Research Laloralory, Crovlhorne, 1978.
33. Sunner, R., urlon, }. and aguIey, C., 'Speed
ConlroI Hunps in Cuddesdon Way, CovIey,
Oxford, TRR| Supp|cmcn|arq Rcpcr| SR 350,
Transporl Research Laloralory, Crovlhorne,
1978.
ENGINEER
72
34. Sunner, R. and aguIey, C., 'Speed ConlroI
Hunps in Kensinglon and CIasgov, TRR|
Supp|cmcn|arq Rcpcr| SR 456, Transporl
Research Laloralory, Crovlhorne, 1979.
35. Tan, H. W. and Ward, ., 'VehicIes lhrough 9O
O
ends, Prccccings cf |nc Aus|ra|ian Rca
Rcscarcn 8car, VoI. 17, Il. 5., 1994.
36. TayIor, M. A. I., 'Design Aids for LocaI Area
Traffic Managenenl, 2
n
Na|icna| Ccnfcrcncc cn
|cca| Gctcrnmcn| |nginccring, rislane, 19-22
Seplenler 1983.
37. TayIor, M. A. I. and Anderson, M., 'ModeIing
IoIIulion and Lnergy Use in Urlan Road
Nelvorks, Prccccings cf |nc Aus|ra|ian Rca
Rcscarcn 8car, VoI. 13, Ils. 7-9, 1982.
38. TayIor, M. A. I. and Rulherford, L. M. 'Speed
IrofiIes al SIov Ioinls on ResidenliaI Slreels,
Prccccings cf |nc Aus|ra|ian Rca Rcscarcn 8car,
VoI. 13, Ils 7-9, 1986.
39. Van Den DooI, D. I. and Iisher, A. }., 'LATM
Design Oplinisalion Can We IIease Lveryone`,
5
|n
Na|icna| |cca| Gctcrnmcn| |nginccring
Ccnfcrcncc, Sydney, 24-29, Seplenler 1989.
4O. Van Lvery, . and HoInes, M., 'LocaI Area
Traffic Managenenl: Lffecls on lhe
Lnvironnenl, Lngineering and lhe
Lnvironnenl, |cca| Gctcrnmcn| |nginccring
Ccnfcrcncc, AdeIaide, 18-19 March, 1992,
Deparlnenl of Transporl, AdeIaide, 1992.
41. WaIsh, L. ., 'A S|uq cf Spcc 8umps,
Transporlalion Division, Depl. of IulIic Works,
Cily of San }ose, CaIifornia, 1975.
42. Walls, C. R. 'Road Hunps for lhe ConlroI of
VehicIe Speeds, Transpcr| an Rca Rcscarcn
|a|cra|crq 597, TRRL, UK, 1973
43. Weerasekera, K. S., 'Negalive Lffecls of Mid-
lIock Speed ConlroI Devices and lheir
Inporlance in lhe OveraII Inpacl of Traffic
CaIning on lhe Lnvironnenl, Transpcr|a|icn
Rcscarcn an |n|crna|icna| ]curna|, Iarl D:
Transporl and Lnvironnenl, VoI. 3D, No. 1,
pp.41-5O, LIsevier Science Lld, USA, 1998.
44. Weerasekera, K. S., 'Sone Disadvanlages of
SnaII Roundalouls or Traffic Rolaries
Prccccings cf |nc |n|crna|icna| Ccnfcrcncc cn
|ntircnmcn|a| Cna||cngcs fcr |nc Ncu Mi||cnnium,
Universily of }ania MiIia IsIania, Nev DeIhi,
India, 25-29, Novenler 1999.
45. Weerasekera, K. S., 'Achieving Iover speeds in
lhe CoIonlo RegionaI Cenlre, OUSL inlernaI
roads, Prccccings cf |nc Annua| Acacmic
Scssicns 2009 cf |nc Opcn Unitcrsi|q cf Sri |an|a,
15
lh
& 16
lh
Ocloler 2OO9.
46. Zilo, R. and TayIor, M. A. I. 'Speed IrofiIes and
VehicIe IueI Consunplion al LATM Devices,
Prccccings cf Rcas 96, Ccnfcrcncc, Il. 7, 1996.
47. uuu.amcrican|rai|s.crg/i/rcscurccimagcs/p|nq|
73
ENGINEER
ENGINEER - Vol. XXXXIV, No. 02, pp. [73-81], 2011
The Institution of Engineers, Sri Lanka
AdjudIcatInn In CnnstructInn Cnntracts
A. RanasInghc and J.C. Knra!c
Abstract: Adjudicalion is a forn of aIlernale dispule resoIulion nelhod used videIy in lhe
conslruclion induslry. This process is carried oul ly an independenl person seIecled ly lhe parlies in
a conlracl.
The Adjudicalor has lo carry oul a fairIy delaiIed sludy of lhe dispule referred lo hin and such vork
incIudes invesligalion, idenlificalion of lhe dispule, IegaI and conlracluaI issues. The parlies lo lhe
dispule are free lo nake lheir ovn presenlalions in lhe forn of docunenlary and verlaI evidence,
pholographs, reporls elc. The duralion of adjudicalion is Iiniled lo lhe nunler of days in lhe conlracl
agreenenl lhey have enlered inlo. The Adjudicalor aIso nighl have lo carry oul sile visils, neelings
elc. lo ollain furlher cIarificalion vilh respecl lo lhe dispuled nallers.
Il is aIso equaIIy inporlanl lhal lhe principIes of naluraI juslice have lo le foIIoved ly lhe
Adjudicalor. CeneraIIy, in adjudicalion, no IegaI represenlalions are nade ly lhe parlies and lhe
decision is nade ly lhe Adjudicalor noslIy fron lhe facluaI issues raised ly lhe parlies. The decision
of lhe Adjudicalor has lo le inpIenenled forlhvilh and lhe dissalisfied parly is free lo chaIIenge lhe
decision of lhe Adjudicalor in anolher lrilunaI depending on lhe agreed lerns.
Kcywnrds: Adjudicalion, Arlilralion, Condilions of Conlracl, IIDIC, ICTAD, NeulraI, ias,
Represenlalion.
1. IntrnductInn
Adjudicalion is an aIlernale dispule resoIulion
process vherein dispulanls refer a dispule lo a
neulraI and inparliaI lhird parly idenlified as
Adjudicalor, ly nuluaI agreenenl, lo decide on
lhe nallers in dispule and decIare an avard, i.e.
decision, vilhin a predelernined line frane or
such exlended line as agreed lelveen lhe
parlies, on inquiry of dispuled facls and Iav on
an inquisiloriaI nanner.
Mosl connerciaI dispules can le referred lo
adjudicalion.
In lhe case of conslruclion dispules in Sri Lanka
lhal are nol resoIved ly negolialion, Lngineers
decision or olher neans, nay inevilalIy reach
lhe slage of adjudicalion prior lo arlilralion or
Iiligalion as lhe case nay le as provided in lhe
conlracl.
Adjudicalion has lecone an exlreneIy popuIar
concepl in conslruclion dispule resoIulion. A
dispule nay le - 'adjudicaled on/adjudicaled
upon/adjudicaled lelveen A & . In so far as
dispule resoIulion is concerned. Adjudicalion
enconpasses anolher forn of aIlernalive
dispule resoIulion process.
2. Cnnf!Icts, DIsputcs & A!tcrnatc
DIsputc Rcsn!utInn
Il is vorlhvhiIe lo consider vhal is neanl ly
'AIlernalive Dispule ResoIulion (ADR). ADR
can le defined as lhose procedures or
nelhodoIogies of resoIving confIicls lhal are
aIlernalive lo Iiligalion and lhe Iike. ADR
enconpasses a nyriad of confIicl resoIulion
approaches ranging fron negolialion lo
arlilralion vhich incIudes faciIilalion and
nedialion as veII.|
1
j ADR is aIso defined as lhe
dispule resoIulion process vhich encourages or
faciIilales lhe dispulanls lo reach a soIulion lo
lheir dispules having appoinled lheir ovn
judges. Iurlhernore ADR aIso incIudes
conciIialion, nedialion and 'nini-lriaIs.|
2
j
ADR is groving inlo a variely of appIicalions
on lusiness conlracls incIuding lul nol Iiniled
lo civiI engineering and enpIoynenl.
(QJ$5DQDVLQJKH8Sc |ng (Hcns), M|ng, MTccn,
PGD, C|ng, ||ngP|, A|S|ruc||, ||| (Sri |an|a), M||
(Aus|), M|C|, A||crncq-a|-|au
Prcscn||q ucr|ing as a Ccnsu||an|, Ajuica|cr an
Ar|i|ra|cr. Visi|ing |cc|urcr a| Unitcrsi|q cf Mcra|uua,
Unitcrsi|q cf Pcracniqa, |C|P Ar|i|ra|icn Ccn|rc.
-&.RUDOH, 8Sc., MSc., |CMA, ACA,
Ccnsu||an| in Ccn|rac| Managcmcn| an Aminis|ra|icn,
Cnar|crc Acccun|an|, Cnar|crc Managcmcn| Acccun|an|,
Visi|ing |cc|urcr cn Ccnf|ic| Managcmcn|, Uta Ic||assa
Unitcrsi|q
ENGINEER
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&RQGXFWRI$GMXGLFDWLRQ
Il is cuslonary lhal lhe conducl of adjudicalion
is suljecl lo a line frane. In a case vhere
adjudicalion is required lo le concIuded vilhin
28 days a lypicaI progranne is appended
leIov:
InnedialeIy afler, lhe Adjudicalor vouId
sludy lhe Slalenenl of CIain and prepare lhe
provisionaI linelalIe for lhe Adjudicalion. A
lypicaI progranne is shovn alove in Iigure 1.
The linelalIe viII shov hov he proposes lo
conpIele his vork vilhin lhe line period
vhich is pernilled ly lhe conlracl procedure,
lased on his assunplions as lo lhe aclion vhich
viII le necessary. Il viII aIso lake inlo accounl
any requesls fron lhe parlies, logelher vilh lhe
requirenenls of his ovn diary. If lhe conlracl
procedure does nol aIIov specificaIIy for a
response fron lhe responding parly lhen lhe
Adjudicalor nay incIude a suilalIe provision.
The Adjudicalor viII revise lhe iniliaI linelalIe
as lhe adjudicalion proceeds and furlher
infornalion lecones avaiIalIe. The linelalIe
viII incIude a period for lhe Adjudicalor lo
assess lhe infornalion vhich he has received, lo
Arrive al his decision and lo prepare his vrillen
decision.
10.Thc AdjudIcatnr's DccIsInn
The ain of adjudicalion is for lhe parlies lo
receive an inparliaI decision on lheir dispule
vilhin lhe slipuIaled line. The vrillen
decision vhich is sonelines knovn as lhe
Delerninalion of lhe Adjudicalor is lhe producl
of lhe Adjudicalors vork vhich lhe parlies
receive in exchange for a fee.
The Adjudicalors decision is nol an arlilraI
avard and viII nornaIIy le shorler lhan an
avard on a conparalIe dispule. There is no
slandard fornal or generaIIy agreed Iisl of
conlenls for a Decision. The conlracls are
vrillen conlracls as required ly lhe Iav so lhal
lhe Adjudicalors decision viII le a vrillen
decision.
There are saIienl fealures in lhe process such as
lhe response of lhe line period of Adjudicalion,
exislence of NaluraI juslice, adjudicalion
neelings, sile visils, ascerlainnenl of facls and
Claimant refers and sends
statement of claim
Receives claim: confirms and
considers statement is advice needed?
Drafts programme
Day 1
ssues directions and sets
programme all by fax
Day 2
Further info/docs from
claimant
Day 4
Respondent's statement or
documents
Day 8
Any tests
Day 9
nspection/meeting
D
a
y
s
9
-
1
1
Hearing
Further info
Days 12-21 reserved for further inquiries if necessary
And any advice from specialist consultants.
Days
12-21
Days 22-28 reserved for drafting and delivery decision
(with reasons if required under procedure)
Days
22-28
)LJXUH$GMXGLFDWLRQ'RFXPHQW)ORZ7\SLFDO3URJUDPPH
79
ENGINEER
Lav perlaining lo lhe adjudicalion as veII as
ollaining of speciaIisls advice ly lhe
Adjudicalor.
11.Thc Rcspnnsc
When lhe referring parly has senl a Slalenenl
of CIain lo lhe adjudicalor, lhe olher parly viII
vanl lo respond. The response nay need lo le
sulnilled vilhin lhe slipuIaled line period
eilher as per lhe conlracl or on lhe direclion of
lhe Adjudicalor. Once lhe Adjudicalor receives
lhe response he can assess lolh parlies poinls
of viev. When an issue has cone lo lhe poinl of
nolice of adjudicalion, lhe parlicuIar dispule
vouId have leen discussed, negolialed over a
consideralIe period of line and invesligaled
over lhe sane period and a cerlain poinl of
response nighl have leen deveIoped. The
responding parly viII knov aII aloul lhe iniliaI
prolIen, have decided lo rejecl lhe cIain and
during lhis process appropriale invesligalions
vouId have leen conducled and lhe lasis of
lhe rejeclion is readiIy avaiIalIe vilh lhen. If
lhe referring parly has crealed an anlush
silualion lhen lhe responding parly viII le
faced vilh a difficuIl or even inpossilIe lask.
The Response lo a delaiIed Slalenenl of CIain
nay incIude:
x A lrief sunnary of lhe dispule and lhe
prolIen vhich Ied lo lhe dispule,
expIaining lhe counler poinl of viev and
reasons for rejecling lhe cIain
x LegaI and conlracluaI counler argunenls
vilh aulhorilies
x Lvidence in lhe forn of docunenls,
pholographs, vilnesses and/ or experl
opinion lo supporl any counler argunenls
and aIIegalions
In such a silualion lhe ruIes lhal have lo le
foIIoved ly lhe Respondenl are lo:
x Read carefuIIy any cIain slalenenl
x DeaI vilh lhe naller lhoroughIy
x Ask for cIarificalion of any anliguily
x Insisl lhal any aIIegalion is supporled ly
evidence, incIuding delaiIs of vhen and
vhere any aIIeged evenls are said lo have
laken pIace
x Make sure lhal il has deaIl vilh every
poinl nade or inpIied
x Ioinl oul every facluaI error and coIIale
evidence vhich viII assisl vilh lhe
Adjudicalors underslanding of lhe case
x Consider any conlracluaI or IegaI poinl
and nake sure lhal everylhing vhich can
le relulled is relulled
x Adnil lhose lhings vhich are correcl lul
nake il cIear exaclIy vhich poinls are
conlesled
x Make sure lhe record is conpIele
x If lhe CIainanl has given onIy haIf lhe
slory, adnil lhal vhich is lrue lul expIain
fuIIy lhe nissing parl of lhe piclure vhich
nay pul a differenl conpIexion on lhe
vhoIe affair.|
12
j
12.Thc AdjudIcatInn tImc pcrInd
The purpose of adjudicalion is a fasl decision.
The line period vhich is avaiIalIe for lhe
adjudicalion process depends on a conlracl and
is aIvays reslricled and cannol le uniIaleraIIy
exlended ly lhe Adjudicalor. The Adjudicalor
is required lo assess aII eslalIished reIevanl
facls and Iav, reach a good decision on
differenl nallers. This viII depend on lhe
delaiIs of dispule and lhe cooperalion of lhe
parlies. In lerns of lhe IIDIC Condilions of
Conlracl lhe Adjudicalor has leen given 84
days lo resoIve a dispule and lo give a decision
vhereas in lhe ICTAD SD (Slandard idding
Docunenl) lhe duralion has leen shorlened lo
28 days or such olher period agreed ly lhe
parlies. The vhoIe idea of reducing lhe nunler
of days is lo faciIilale a quick decision during
lhe progress of conslruclion. Hovever, lhis
does nol, under any circunslances nean lhal
lhe Adjudicalor has lo consider onIy a porlion
of lhe facls lhal he couId grasp and give a hasly
decision. Il shouId le enphasised lhal lhe
Adjudicalor has a grealer responsiliIily lo give
a proper decision ly carefuI consideralion of aII
lhe facls avaiIalIe, since lhe decision of lhe
Adjudicalor has lo le given effecl forlhvilh ly
lhe parlies. This has leen slaled in CIause 2O.4
of lhe IIDIC Condilion of Conlracl. Iaragraph
4 of CIause 2O.4 slales lhal WKH GHFLVLRQ VKDOO EH
ELQGLQJ RQ ERWK SDUWLHV ZKR VKDOO SURPSWO\ JLYH
HIIHFW WR LW XQOHVV DQG XQWLO LV VKDOO EH UHYLVHG LQ DQ
DPLFDEOH VHWWOHPHQW RU DQ DUELWUDO DZDUG.
SiniIarIy, CIause 19.3 Irocedure for
Adjudicalion in ICTAD SD, Major Conlracls
(ICTAD/SD/O2) slales lhal, 7KHGHFLVLRQRIWKH
$GMXGLFDWRUVKDOOEHGHHPHGILQDODQGELQGLQJRQWKH
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SDUWLHV LI QHLWKHU SDUW\ UHIHUV WKH GLVSXWH WR
DUELWUDWLRQ
Il is perlinenl lo nole lhal lhe line given lo lhe
Adjudicalor is very Iiniled and lherefore il is
lhe responsiliIily of lhe parlies nol lo refer
dispules of a very conpIex nalure in ones
reference. Iarlies have lo le very carefuI nol lo
aIIov a dispule lo accunuIale inlo a very
conpIex nalure as lhe Adjudicalor viII nol le
alIe lo decide vilhin a very Iiniled line.
13.AdjudIcatnr McctIngs, 5Itc VIsIts,
AsccrtaInmcnt nf Fact and Law and
5pccIa!Ists AdvIcc
The Adjudicalor nay decide lo hoId a neeling
vilh lhe parlies and give an opporlunily lo
expIain lheir ovn case in person and sulnil
oraI evidence. The neeling viII faciIilale:
x To resoIve any queries on jurisdiclion, lhe
inlerprelalion of lhe Nolice of
Adjudicalion or olher preIininary nallers.
x To cIarify any poinls in lhe Slalenenl of
CIain or response
x To visil lhe sile and lo inspecl any
parlicuIar parl of lhe Works
x To arrange for lesls or opening up of lhe
vork and inspecl lhe resuIls
x To hear oraI evidence
x To discuss queries and resoIve any
prolIens vhich can le sorled oul quickIy
ly discussion lhan ly correspondence.
Sile visils are essenliaI fealures in nosl dispule
adjudicalions lecause any dispule viII invoIve
quaIily of vorknanship or sonelhing
happening in lhe conslruclion sile and hence
lhe Adjudicalor nay olserve lhe prolIen
hinseIf. The sile nay le under lhe conlroI of
one parly yel lhe Adjudicalor nay ollain
necessary pernission fron lhe olher parly as
veII lhus avoiding lhe silualion in vhich one
parly lakes advanlage of lhe sile visil ly lrying
lo infIuence lhe Adjudicalor vilh nev
argunenls and facls lhal are aIien lo lhe olher
parly for vhich lhe opposing parly can le
presenl if so desired. The Adjudicalor is under
no olIigalion lo ascerlain aII lhe facls and lhe
Iav and il vouId nol le possilIe for hin lo do
so vilhin lhe reslricled line. Il nay nol le
vilhin lhe pernissilIe line for delaiIed forensic
invesligalions in lo lhe prolIen, for exanpIe, lo
lake sanpIes and conducl lesls al lines nay
require nore lhan 28 days. Hovever, lhe
Adjudicalor can nake his ovn inilialive lo
nake inquires, lesls and seek experl opinion if
he considers lhose viII heIp hin reach a good
decision.
A naluraI consequence of pover lo lake
inilialion in ascerlaining facls and lhe Iav
exlend lhe pover lo consuIl or ollain speciaIisl
advice. The lype of speciaIisl, lechnicaI or IegaI,
viII depend on lhe suljecl of lhe dispule and
lhe experlise of lhe Adjudicalor. The expenses
of lhese sile visils, invesligalions, experl advice
and opinions are lo le lorne ly lhe parlies.
14.AdjudIcatInn and Natura! JustIcc
Adjudicalion is a process vherely parly
aulonony is recognized and is nol an end in
ilseIf. In a sense Adjudicalors lhe decision
shaII le linding unliI lhe dispule is finaIIy
delernined ly Iiligalion, arlilralion or
sellIenenl.
The vord 'nalure IileraIIy neans lhe innale
lendency or quaIily of lhings or oljecls and lhe
vord 'jusl neans uprighl, fair or proper. The
expression 'naluraI juslice vouId lherefore
nean lhe innale quaIily of leing fair.
NaluraI juslice, vhich is anolher nane for
connon sense juslice, is ' lhe naluraI sense of
vhal is righl and vrong and is lhe nane of
lhose principIes vhich conslilule lhe nininun
requirenenl of juslice and vilhoul adherence
lo vhich, juslice vouId le a lravesly. The
purpose of foIIoving lhe principIes of naluraI
juslice is prevenlion of niscarriage of juslice
and hence lhe olservance lhereof is lhe
pragnalic requirenenl of fair pIay in aclion. In
lhe fanous case of %DQJODGHVK 6WHDPHU $JHQWV
$VVRFLDWLRQ Y %DQJODGHVK Hon. }udge Narnan }
said ... Iirsl, I lhink lhal lhe person accused
shouId knov lhe nalure of lhe accusalion nade,
secondIy, lhal he shouId le given an
opporlunily lo slale his case, and lherely, of
course, lhal lhe lrilunaI shouId acl in good
failh. I do nol lhink lhal lhere reaIIy is
anylhing nore|
13
j.
The adjudicalion procedure provides parlies
lhe nolice of adjudicalion neelings, copies of
slalenenl of case, copies of response, lines of
sile visils nade knovn lo parlies, opporlunily
of forvarding lheir ovn case, opporlunily of
81
ENGINEER
leing heard, leing presenl and le represenled,
aII of vhich are ingredienls of naluraI juslice
enlaiIed in lhe process as lhe parlies cooperale
for a decision vilhin a very shorl period of
line. The Adjudicalor acls inparliaIIy,
independenlIy and free of aII lias. This is
anolher forn of NaluraI }uslice so lhal he couId
uphoId juslice on lhe naller in dispule. In a
sense lhe adjudicalion process, vhen conducled
properIy, provides naluraI juslice for lhe
dispulanls.
15.Cnnc!usInn
The Adjudicalor is in charge of lhe adjudicalion
and has a conlracl vilh lhe parlies under vhich
he has an olIigalion lo reach a decision on lhe
dispule vilhin a fixed line frane. In order lo
achieve lhe desired resuIl, parlies shouId
endeavour lo provide lhe Adjudicalor aII
necessary infornalion, avaiIalIe reporls, lesls
of invesligalion, assislance and cooperalion. Il
is a nandalory requirenenl lhal aII reIevanl
docunenls le copied lo lolh sides, oraI
infornalion lo le confirned vilh docunenlary
evidence. The Adjudicalor shouId aIso vork
vilhin lhe lerns of reference, ruIes and lhe
procedure under vhich his appoinlnenl has
leen nade. If a parly considers a parlicuIar
decision is unreasonalIe or oulside lhe
aulhorily of lhe Adjudicalor, he couId nake his
fornaI oljeclion and lhe Adjudicalor shaII deaI
vilh lhe oljeclion in a fair and reasonalIe
nanner. If eilher parly faiIs lo conpIy vilh lhe
direclion of lhe Adjudicalor, lhe Adjudicalor
nay conlinue in lhe lesl vay possilIe and any
such faiIure viII le delrinenlaI lo lhe parly
vho faiIs lo conpIy. If an Adjudicalor receives
or discovers infornalion afler lhe slipuIaled
cIosing dale il is vilhin his jurisdiclion lo use
such infornalion invarialIy vilh an agreed
exlension. Once lhe Adjudicalor has reached
and deIivered his decision he has conpIeled his
lask. If eilher parly is nol salisfied vilh lhe
decision such parly nay proceed in lerns of lhe
Iav lo arlilralion or Iiligalion, lhus once again
enjoying anolher forn of NaluraI }uslice i.e. lhe
righl of appeaIing.
The adjudicalion process is a nev process
vhich has leen inlroduced lo lhe conslruclion
induslry. When conparing vilh lhe cosl of
arlilralion, lhe cosl of adjudicalion is very
nuch Iess. Il aIso shouId le enphasised lhal a
speedier decision couId le ollained ly parlies
referring lheir dispules lo adjudicalion.
CeneraIIy in adjudicalion no IegaI
represenlalion is nade ly eilher parly.
Therefore lhere is very IillIe IegaI oljeclion
laken ly lhe parlies. MoslIy il vouId le
decided ly lhe facls presenled ly lhe parlies.
The aulhor aIso leIieves lhal lhis proposaI has
nade a revoIulionary change in resoIving
conslruclion dispules and lhe professionaIs
vho are invoIved in lhe conslruclion induslry
have lo le lrained sufficienlIy lo handIe
adjudicalion so lhal aII parlies concerned couId
save a sulslanliaI line and noney in resoIving
conslruclion dispules. The co-operalion of aII
parlies lo lhe conlracl is a nusl lo ensure a
successfuI fulure for conslruclion adjudicalion.
Rcfcrcnccs
1. Marick, I., Maslers el aI, &RPSOHWH *XLGH WR
&RQIOLFW5HVROXWLRQ 2
nd
Ldilion, (Sveel & MaxeII),
2OO2, Iage 1O
2. }ohn Tinpson and rian TollerdiII, $GMXGLFDWLRQ
IRU $UFKLWHFWV DQG (QJLQHHUV Thonas TeIford,
1999, Iage 12, 168, 252
3. Hornly AS eleI, Oxford Advance Diclionary,
Oxford Universily Iress, 7
lh
Ldilion, page 319
4. ilid
5. Slephen I. Rollins, 2UJDQL]DWLRQDO %HKDYLRXU
LIevenlh Ldilion, IrenhaII.Con/rolinlinsd),
2OO2, Iage 96
6. Ilid (1)
7. Weddikkara, Chilra, 7KH ,PSDFW RI 3URIHVVLRQDO
&XOWXUH RQ 'LVSXWH 5HVROXWLRQ LQ 7KH %XLOGLQJ
,QGXVWULHV RI $XVWUDOLD DQG 6UL /DQND Slanden,
1987, Iage 158.
8. Ceoffrey Havker, }ohn, Uff, &KDUOHV 7LPPV
$UELWUDWLRQ3UDFWLFH 2
nd
Ldilion, Thonas TeIford,
1986, Iage 128.
9. hllp://vvv.fidic.org
1O. ICTAD, 6WDQGDUG %LGGLQJ 'RFXPHQW
3URFXUHPHQW RI :RUNV Iirsl Ldilion, ICTAD,
2OO2, Iage 42.
11. Ilid (2)
12. Ilid(2)
13. Tapash Can Choudhury, 3HQXPEUD RI 1DWXUDO
-XVWLFH Second Ldilion, Laslern Lav House,
2OO1, Iage 1,5,9, 265.