Nondestructive Testing

Kerry Hall
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Adapted from L. J. Struble and J. S. Popovics

Motivation
US infrastructure is deteriorating: 2009 ASCE Report card for American infrastructure gave an overall grade of D estimated $2.2 trillion investment needed for improvements Infrastructure agencies are shifting efforts from building new structures to assessing and rehabilitating existing structures

Minneapolis I-35 bridge collapse

Momentum and Collisions

Elastic collisions, both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved Inelastic collision, momentum is conserved, but energy is absorbed Object impacts solid, energy absorbed, thus V2<V1 Low strength material absorbs more energy, thus lower rebound height

Rebound Hammer Test

adapted from J.S. Popovics

Rebound Hammer - ASTM C 805

Measures surface hardness Related to Modulus of Elasticity Affected by varied conditions
form material and type of finish moisture content aggregate type and proportion surface smoothness temperature direction of impact depth of carbonation of the surface

Rebound Hammer - ASTM C 805

Sometimes called the Schmidt Hammer or Swiss Hammer Light weight, portable, hand operated Spring loaded steel hammer impacts plunger hammer rebound is measured A test is the average rebound number of ten determinations made in a small area.

Penetrating Probe ASTM C 803

Drives steel probe or pin into concrete Measures toughness of the concrete, the ability to resist fracturing. Related to the tensile strength Affected by varied conditions
Nature of formed surface Coarse aggregate type, size and hardness Moisture content

Penetrating Probe ASTM C 803

A steel probe driven into the concrete surface using a powder actuated gun Hazardous wear protective equipment

Penetrating Probe ASTM C 803

Portable and hand operated May require a license to operate Three probes shot into the concrete and the average penetration determined.

Correlation with strength

A correlation of the nondestructive test parameter to strength for each type of concrete to be tested is necessary to determine in-place strength. A statistical evaluation of the correlated data is necessary ACI 228.1R, In-Place Methods to Estimate Concrete Strength presents methods for correlation and statistical analysis.

What are waves?

Propagation of a disturbance through a medium; mass is not transported in propagation direction
1.5

Mechanical body waves in solids: P-waves

also: Longitudinal (L-) Waves, Compression Waves Excitation

T
1

The time dependant disturbance is usually expressed in harmonic form The period (T) is the time required for wave motion to complete a round trip (measured in seconds)
phase delay

Dis place me nt

0.5 0 -0.5 -1 -1.5 0 20

<T. Voigt >

40

60

80

100

Time

The frequency (f) is the inverse of T (measured in 1/seconds or Hertz) In audible sound, frequency is interpreted as the pitch

Direction of Travel

Direction of Particle Motion

Frequency-wavelength relation for all harmonic waves Propagation velocity V V = f Wavelength in in units of distance units of distance per time = 2f is circular frequency and k = 1/ is wave number

Wave Velocity:

Governing Parameters Youngs Modulus E Poissons Ratio v Density

vP =

E(1 ) (1 + )(1 2 )

Mechanical body waves in solids: S-waves also: Transverse (T-) Waves, Shear Waves
<T. Voigt >

Guided wave modes

Excitation
<www.lamit.ro/earthquake-early-warning-system.htm>

Direction of Travel

Direction of Particle Motion

Rayleigh surface wave travels along free surface, slightly slower than S-wave

Wave Velocity in solids:

vS = G

Governing Parameters Shear Modulus G Density

no propagation in liquids or gases !

a propagating resonance, must be set up over distance or time propagation

v BAR =

VP > VS in all known solids

1-D bar wave travels along long cylinder or prism, slightly slower than P-wave

Guided waves in plates

Impact echo frequency

Reflection and refraction normal incidence

When an incident wave encounters the boundary with another material, part of the incident energy is reflected, and the rest is transmitted (refracted) pr/po is the reflection coefficient (r); pt/po is the transmission coefficient (t) r is maximized and t minimized when Z1>>Z2 or Z1<<Z2.
<Krautkramer and Krautkramer>

Lamb wave are set up in large plates Multiple (infinite) modes of propagation, with varying motion character and propagation velocity Can be visualized as a propagating resonance
Increasing frequency or plate thickness

<N. Ryden>

Acoustic impedance : Z = V

Reflection and refraction, mode conversion When an obliquely incident wave encounters the boundary with
another material, reflection and refraction become dependant on i (Snells law). Conversion to other wave modes also occurs.

Beam divergence
The principles of wave interference and superposition control the directivity of the generated pressure field. A given transducer may primarily generate P-wave energy in some directivity field, although some S-wave and Rayleigh wave energy, may also generated in solid media

The beam divergence angle of a given transducer can be estimated:

sin =
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1.2 D

<Gibson 2005>

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Beam divergence: point source of waves

Point sources of waves have poor directivity and generate P-waves, Swaves and Rayleigh waves

Scattering
The reflection of ultrasonic energy away from the original direction of propagation; caused by reflection, refraction and mode conversion from internal inclusions. Causes signal loss, signal dispersion and scattering noise

Solid material

<Richard et al. 1970>

Detected backscattered signal

<Oelze 2007>

Snapshot of wave fields (stress) in material owing to transient point load at some time t after wave excitation

Absorption and attenuation

Wave absorption is the conversion of ultrasonic wave energy to other forms of energy (heat). A significant source of wave energy loss for asphalt concrete Wave attenuation is the overall loss of wave energy with propagation, caused by * beam divergence (geometric) * scattering * absorption

Implications: transducer contact (coupling)

To eliminate significant wave reflection at the transducer-test material interface, must use a substance to displace air and ensure good contact: oil, gel, grease, solid Problematic for rough or uneven surfaces
<www.ndt-ed.org>

Dry point contact transducers obviate the need for couplant material. Each point transducer needs vertical pressure to ensure wave energy transfer

<http://www.greerindustries.com>

<www.ndt-ed.org>

<M. Schickert and MSIA Spectrum>

Implications: Detection of defects

Ultrasonic waves show large reflection at interfaces between high (concrete) and low (air-filled defects) acoustic impedance Echo height size of defects (but shape dependant!) Simplified A-scan

Implications: lateral defect resolution

The ability to resolve side by side reflectors is improved by reducing time voltage D

General Rule: Ultrasound can resolve defects of size x if x is the same size or larger than the wavelength of wave pulse.

voltage

Solution: use small (large f)

<www.ndt-ed.org>

sin =

1.2 D
Solution: use small (large f)

time

Application: Ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV)

Measurement of very first wave arrival (P-wave) through a specific wave path. Requires good coupling to surface Standard method in many countries (ASTM C597) Frequencies between 20kHz to 100 kHz typically used

UPV application: concrete strength?

Effects Parameter
w/cm ratio age moisture content Agg type and content Proximity of steel Presence of defects n/a n/a on UPV on concrete strength

useful for relative measurements within a single structure

<Naik, Carino and Popovics 2005>

However, UPV cannot be used to measure in place strength absolutely in most cases!

UPV application: defect detection?

void crack

UPV applications: Modulus determination

60

concrete specimens d = 0.20

50

E u measured from UPV, GPa

40

30

Paste Specimens d = 0.25

Limestone

20

River Gravel Air-Entrained High Strength

10

PC, w/c = 0.34 PC, w/c = 0.45

Loss of transmission or apparent lower velocity

Loss of transmission or apparent lower velocity

Little to no effect
0 0 10 20 30 40 E d measured from resonant frequency, GPa

50

60

Defects cause wave path to deviate, thus lowering the apparent velocity in most cases. However, UPV cannot be used to fully characterize defects (shape, depth, location, etc.)

Ed is directly related to VP by wave theory. However, measurements obtained from wave velocity (UPV) do not agree with those obtained by vibration! Wave propagation over predicts Ed for concrete samples, assuming median values of Poissons ratio

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity ASTM C 597

More sophisticated electronic equipment Portable, may require electrical power Usually requires two or more people for testing

Ultrasonic pulse velocity v >v >v

solids liquids gases

Calculate Young Youngs modulus from UPV (theoretical):

V=

(1 + )(1 2 )

Calculate strength from Young Youngs modulus (empirical):

E = 0.04 3 1.5
where V is velocity (m/s) E is Youngs m odulus (MPa) is Poissons Ratio is bulk density (kg/m 3) is compressive strength (MPa) Serway and Faughn

Dynamic (vibration) methods

Resonance Frequency Analysis

NDE Technique - shallow

Impact-echo (ASTM C 1383) Phenomena
Propagating waves generated by impact event. Multiply-reflected waves are detected by surface sensor. Reflected waves set up a resonance condition having a characteristic frequency

Impact-echo
Analysis
Reflection from slab bottom

The resonant frequency (at the peak) is related to distance to reflector (d) and wave velocity (V): f = V/(2 d) Thus, d = V/(2 f)
Reflection from delamination

Impact-echo
Analysis (contd) Strong wave reflectors more readily detected. Reflections from embedded rebar and at the interface of a slab and a stiff subgrade are weak.

Impact-echo
Advantages
Relatively simple test to perform; commercially available test equipment. Effective for detecting delamination and slab depth.

Disadvantages
Operator experience needed for data interpretation. Not as effective slabs over very stiff subgrade. Not effective for rebar detection.

Application
Slab depth and delamination detection for most slab systems.

NDE Technique - shallow

Ground Penetrating RADAR (ASTM D 4748) Phenomena
antenna

GPR
Analysis Many time domain signals stacked together to form an image
Scan direction

air: r = 1

Wave pulses are reflected at interfaces having a difference in electrical properties (r ) Reflected pulses (time and amplitude) are monitored in the time domain signal

concrete: r = 6 to 11 soil: r = 2 to 10

Slab depth

(water: r = 80; metal r = infinite)

GPR
Analysis (contd)
Large wave reflection from metallic objects and moist areas. Less reflection from slab-subgrade interfaces and air-filled cracks Slab surface
Scan direction

GPR
Physical contact between antenna and slab not needed
antenna

Allows for rapid non-contact scanning

Rebar reflections

GPR
Advantages
Very rapid data collection (non-contact technique). Sensitive to presence of embedded rebar and moisture.

NDT of Steel
Liquid Dye Penetrant Eddy Currents Ultrasound X-ray

Disadvantages
Very involved data interpretation; operator experience needed. Testing limited to 750mm depth. Not sensitive to delaminations. Not effective beyond congested reinforcement.

Application
Rapid scanning of slabs for depth or rebar location.

Defects in Steel
Observe visually Enhance with penetrating dye
Clean surface and apply penetrant Allow liquid to penetrate then remove excess from surface Apply developer (draws penetrant out of defects)

Liquid (Dye) Penetrants

No indication of crack depth No indication of subsurface defects Not for porous/rough materials

Liquid (Dye) Penetrants

Eddy currents
Magnetic fields setup electrical currents in a conductive material (eddies) They in turn generate a secondary magnetic field that counteracts the first This change in the field can be detected by original coil or a pick-up coil

Eddy currents

Ultrasonic Wave Reflection

incident wave i
Medium 1

reflected wave r

Medium 2

t transmitted wave

Reflected angle equals the incident angle Amplitude of reflected wave depends on the properties of the two media If media have large differences in stiffness and density, most energy is reflected (flaws!) If media have similar stiffness and density, most energy is transmitted

AngleAngle-Beam Transducer Inspection

Wave frequency 11-10 MHz Angle beams allow lateral detection of flaws in and around welded areas Vertical cracks are not detectable by normal beam incidence Reduce extra echoes with angle beam
Hole Crack Crack no detection Hole Crack, no detection Crack

Ultrasound: Steel vs. Concrete

Ultrasonic pulse echo not effective in concrete Why? Aggregate scattering!
f = V/ If aggregate size (D) is 1 1 and we need > D V = 4000m/s f < 150 kHz f was in MHz for steel!

Low frequency pulse echo is problematic

Difficult to manufacture transducers Low f leads to large beam divergence (poor lateral resolution) Transducer face must be very large

X-ray Radiography
Bright is low xx-ray intensity due to high absorption Dark is high xx-ray intensity due to low density

NDT Lab Today

Concrete tests
Schmidt rebound hammer: Surface hardness, strength Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity: thickness, strength, modulus Ultrasonic Resonance Frequency: modulus

Steel Tests
Dye Penetration: surface defects Ultrasonic wave reflection: thickness, defects X-ray: surface/internal defects Eddy Currents: surface defects