Chapter 1 • Introduction to Proof
Solutions for Selected Problems
Exercise 1.1
4. c. Clearly if n
41 the expression becomes 412  41
 41 or 41  43, which is composite.
Actually, if n
40, we have 402  40  41
40
(40  1)  41
412.
The expression gives a prime number for n
1, 2,
3, … , 39, but not for 40.
6. The expression to be tested is n2  9, n even.
For n
4, n2 – 9
7, which is not composite.
The statement is not true.
7. The expression to be examined is n2  9, n odd.
For n
5, n2  9
16, which is divisible by 8.
For n
7, n2  9
40, which is divisible by 8.
For n
9, n2  9
72.
For n
13, n2  9
160.
For n
15, n2  9
216.
All are divisible by 8.
8. The expression to be tested is n2  3.
For n
5, n2  3
22.
For n
6, n2  3
33.
For n
7, n2  3
46.
For n
8, n2  3
61, which is prime.
The expression is not a composite number for all
values of n.
Exercise 1.2
2. Every odd integer n can be written as 2p  1, where
p
1, 2, 3, …. Now, p itself can be either even
or odd. If p is even, set p
2k, k
0, 1, 2, 3, ….
If p is odd, set p
2k  1, k
0, 1, 2, 3, ….
Then every odd number can be written as n
4k  1
or n
4k  3, k
0, 1, 2, 3, ….
If n
4k  1, then n  7
4k  8
4(k  2).
If n
4k  3, then n  5
4k  8
4(k  2).
Hence one of n  5, n  7 is always divisible by 4.
3. n3  4n
n(n2  4)

n(n  2)(n  2).
If n is even, then set n
2k, k
1, 2, 3, ….
Now n3  4n
2k(2k  2)(2k  2)

8k(k  1)(k  1).
Since k  1, k, k  1 are three consecutive integers
for all values of k, one of them is divisible by 2 and
one (possibly the same one) is divisible by 3.
Then k(k  1)(k  1) is divisible by 6.
Therefore n3  4n is divisible by 8  6
48.
4. Every odd integer n can be written as n
2p1,
k
0, 1, 2, ….
Then n2
4p2  4p  1

4p (p  1)  1.
Now p and p  1 are consecutive integers, so one of
them is even. Then p(p  1)
2k. Therefore n2

8k  1, where k is an integer.
5. Since 71 ends in 7, 72 ends in 49, 73 ends in 43, 74
ends in 01, then 75
71  74 ends in 07, 76

72  74 ends in 49, 77
73  74 ends in 43, and 78

74  74 ends in 01.
Then 79 ends in 07, 710 ends in 49, 711 ends in 43, and
712 ends in 01.
This cycle continues.
Hence 74k+1 ends in 07, 74k+2 ends in 49, and so on.
Since 201
4  50  1, 7201 ends in 07.
6. If x and y are integers, then 2x is even and 4y is even.
Hence the left side of the equation is divisible by 2,
which is impossible if the right side is 5. Then it is
impossible for x and y both to be integers.
7. n5  5n3  4n
n(n4  5n2  4)

n(n2  1)(n 2  4)

(n  2)(n  1)n(n  1)(n  2).
This is the product of 5 consecutive integers, so one of
them is divisible by 5, and at least one is divisible by
each of 4, 3, and 2, provided that n  3.
Then the expression is divisible by 5  4  3  2

120, for n  3 and an integer.
Chapter 1: Introduction to Proof 1
8. Since p and q are odd primes, then p  q is even, so 2 a
divides p  q.
pq b x
Now, if q  p, then  lies between p and q. It is
2 y
larger than p and smaller than q. d
But every number between p and q is composite,
pq
since p and q are consecutive odd primes, so 
2
has at least two divisors. c
Then p  q has at least three divisors.
4. Let ∠ABC be 2x and ∠ACB be 2y.
9. Every integer can be written as 3k, 3k  1, or 3k  2. Then 2x  2y  90
180 (angles in a triangle).
Hence there are two possibilities. The first is that there Therefore x  y
45.
are three of a1, a2, a3, a4, a5, of the same form. That Now ∠BDC  x  y
180 (angles in a triangle).
is, three of them are of the form 3k1, 3k2, 3k3, or they Therefore ∠BDC
135.
are 3k1  1, 3k2  1, 3k3  1, or they are 3k1  2, ∠BDC
135.
3k2  2, 3k3  2. In each case their sum is divisible B
by 3.
The second case is that there are not three of the same xx
form, so there must be at least one of each form, say
3k1, 3k2  1, 3k3  2. But now this sum is 3(k1  k2
 k3  1), which is divisible by 3.
Hence there is always at least one subset of three
numbers whose sum is divisible by 3. D
y
y
A C
10. Consider n2  4
(n  2)(n  2).
If n  3, then each of n  2 and n  2 is greater
than 1, and n2  4 is a composite number. 5. In ∆ PQR, ∠PQR
∠PRQ (isosceles triangle).
In ∆ QRS, ∠QRS
∠QSR (isosceles triangle).
11. Every odd integer n can be written as n
2k  1, Then ∠SQR  2 ∠QSR
180 (angles in a triangle).
k  2, if we wish integers greater than 5. Also ∠SQR  ∠PQR
180.
Now n2  25
(2k  1) 2  25 Then ∠PQR
2 ∠QSR.

4k2  4k  24 Then ∠PQS
3 ∠QSR.

4(k)(k  1)  24.
P
Now k and k  1 are consecutive integers, so one of
them is even. Then 4k(k  1) is divisible by 8.
Since 24 is also divisible by 8, then n2  25 is
divisible by 8 for n  5.

Exercise 1.3
Q R
3. Let the angles in any quadrilateral have measures a,
b, c, d, and let the exterior angles at opposite
vertices have measures x and y, as shown.
Then a  b  c  d
360 (angles in a
quadrilateral). S
Also b  x
180 and d  y
180 (straight angles).
Then b  x  d  y
360.
Therefore a  x  c  y
0 by subtraction and
a  c
x  y.
The sum of the exterior angles at opposite vertices
is equal to the sum of the interior angles at the other
two vertices.

2 Chapter 1: Introduction to Proof

6. If the polygon has n sides and n angles each of size x, 8. Mark angles as shown.
180(n  2)
nx Since b  2x
180
b
180n  nx
360 x
90 – .
2
360 a b
n
. In ∆ ABD,   b  90 –   t
180 (angle sum)
180  x 2 2
Note that (180  x) must divide evenly into 360 if the 1
t   (a  b)
90
polygon is constructable. 2
2t  (a  b)
180
7. Mark angles as shown, using the given information. In ∆ ABC, c  (a  b)
180 (angle sum)
Since AB
AD, ∠ADB
b.
Subtracting 2t  c
0
Since AB
BE, ∠BEA
a. 1
Now 2x  a
180 t
 C
2
1
so x
90 –  a. 1
or ∠APB
 ∠ACB.
2 2
Also 2y  b
180
1 A
so y
90 – b.
2
1 a a
In ∆ ABD, b  b  a  90 –  a
180 2 2
2
a4b
180.
1
In ∆ ABE, a  a  b  90 –  b
180
2
B b c C
4a  b
180.
Adding 5a  5b
360 x x
a  b
72.
In ∆ ABC, a  b  c
180
Then c
180  72

108.
∠BCA is 108.
t

A P
x
a x
9. a. For the polygon ABCDEFG the sum of the exterior
angles is 360.
But each exterior angle occurs twice.
Hence ∠P  ∠Q  ∠R∠S∠T  ∠U∠V720
B b c
7 180.
y y C D Then ∠P  ∠Q  ∠R  ∠S  ∠T  ∠U  ∠V

540.
P
A B Q
V

G C
E
R

U D
F
E S
T

Chapter 1: Introduction to Proof 3

 b. In general, if there are n sides then there are n 8. Let ∆ ABC be any triangle and let its coordinates be
small triangles surrounding the inner polygon. Let (2b, 2c), (0, 0), and (2a, 0), as shown.
the sum of the angles at the tips of the star be S. If D is the midpoint of AB, its coordinates are (b, c).
Then S  720
n 180 If E is the midpoint of AC, its coordinates are
S
180(n  4). (a  b, c).
The slope of BC is 0 and the slope of DE is 0, so they
are parallel.
Exercise 1.4 The length of BC is 2a and the length of DE is a,
1
so DE
 BC.
6. Name the vertices as in the diagram, using properties 2
of the rectangle. The line segment joining the midpoints of two sides
of a triangle is parallel to the third side and equal to
Then AC

a
2
b2 one-half of it.
and BD

a
2
b2 y
Therefore AC
BD.
Note that positioning the rectangle makes the proof A(2b, 2c)
simple.
y
D(b, c) E(a + b, c)

A(0, b) B(a, b)
x
B(0, 0) C(2a, 0)

x
D(0, 0) C(a, 0) 9. Let the parallelogram be positioned as shown, and let
the coordinates of A be (b, c), D be (0, 0), and C be
7. Name the vertices as in the diagram. Since we use (a, 0). Then since AB is equal and parallel to DC, the
midpoints, we name vertices appropriately. coordinates of B are (a  b, c).
Since W is the midpoint of A(0, 2b) Now AB2  BC2  CD2  DA2
(b2  c2) 
and B(2a, 2b), its coordinates are (a, 2b). [(a  b  b) 2  02]  [(a  b  a)2  c2]  a2
Similarly X has coordinates (2a, b), Y has coordinates
b2  c2  a2  b2  c2  a2
(a, 0), and Z has coordinates (0, b).
2 (a2  b2  c2).
Also AC2  BD2
(a  b)2  c2  (a  b)2  c2
Now WX

(2
a
a
)2
(b
2b
)2

a
2
b2


2(a2  b2  c2).
XY

(2
a
a
)2
(b
0
)2

a
2
b2
 The sum of the squares of the sides is equal to the
sum of the squares of the diagonals.
YZ

a
2
b2

y
ZW

(0  a)2
(b
2b
)2

a2
b2.
These are all equal. Then WXYZ is a rhombus. A(b, c) B(a + b, c)
y

A(0, 2b) W(a, 2b) B(2a, 2b)

Z(0, b) X(2a, b)
x
D(0, 0) C(a, 0)
x
D(0, 0) Y(a, 0) C(2a, 0)

4 Chapter 1: Introduction to Proof

10. Let the triangle be positioned as shown, and let the B X C
coordinates of B be (0, 0), C be (2a, 0), and A be
(b, c). p
Since D is the midpoint of BC its coordinates are
(a, 0).
Then AB2  AC2
b2  c2  (2a  b)2  c2

4a2  2b2  2c2  4ab
Also 2BD  2AD
2(a2)  2 ((b  a)2  c2)
2 2

4a2  2b2  2c2  4ab.

The statement is true. A Y D

y A(b, c)
12. Position the triangle as shown and let the coordinates
of the vertices be A (0, a), B (–b, 0), and C (c, 0).
Then the perpendicular from A meets BC at O (0, 0),
and the equation of AO is x
0.
a
The slope of AB is , so the slope of CE is – b, and
b a
b
the equation of CE is y  0
  (x  c).
a
x The intersection of AO and CE is the point P and for
B(0, 0) D(a, 0) C(2a, 0)
the coordinates of P we set x
0 in the equation
of CE.
bc
Then y
.
a
11. a. Let the rectangle be positioned as shown. Let P
(x, y) be any point in the interior. Then 0 x a
 bc
P is the point 0,  .
a 
and 0  y b. bc
  0
Now PA2  PC2
x2  y2  (a  x) 2  (b  y2) a –– c .
Then the slope of the line BF is ––––––


2x2  2y2  a2  b2  0b a
2ax  2by.
Also PB2  PD2
x2  (y  b)2  (a  x)2  y2 a
The slope of AC is .

2x2  2y2  a2  b2  2ax  c
2by.
Then PA2  PC2
PB2  PD2.
  
c a
Now  
1.
a c
Then BF ⊥ AC, and the altitudes are concurrent.
B(0, b) C(a, b)
y

P(x, y)
A(0, a)

A(0, 0) D(a, 0) E

P
b. Through P draw XY ⊥ AD and BC, as shown.
Then AY
BX and YD
XC. x
Now PA2
PY2  AY2 B(–b, 0) O C(c, 0)
and PC2
PX2  XC2
so PA2  PC2
PY2  PX2  AY2  XC2.
Also PB2  PD2
PX2  BX2  PY2  YD2

PX2  AY2  PY2  XC2.
Then PA  PC
PB2  PD2.
2 2

Chapter 1: Introduction to Proof 5

13. Position the triangle as shown and let the coordinates Chapter 1 Test
be A(2a, 2b), B(–2c, 0) and C(2c, 0).
Then the median from A meets BC at D (0, 0). 1. c(x, y) must lie on the right bisector of AB. The
The median from C meets AB at E (a  c, b). equation of the right bisector is x
2.
b
The equation of AD is y
 x.
a 2. In a convex hexagon there are six vertices at each of
b
The equation of CE is y  0
 x  2c .
a  3c   which there is an interior and an exterior angle. The
sum of the interior and exterior angles at a vertex is
These lines intersect at P, and for intersection
180. Then the sum of the six interior and six exterior
b b

 x
 x  2c
a a  3c  angles is 6  180
1080.
The sum of the six interior angles is 180(6  2)
(a  3c) x
a (x  2c)
720.
–3cx
–2ac Therefore the sum of the exterior angles is
2a 1080  720
360.
x

3
b 2b 3. Let the trapezium be positioned as shown and let the
Then y
 x
.
a 3 coordinates of the vertices be A(2a, 2b), B(2c, 2b),

2a 2b
P has coordinates ,  .
3 3  C(2e, 0), and D(0, 0).
Then the coordinates of P, Q, R, S, are P(a, b),
The median from B meets AC at F (a  c, b). Q(c  e, b), R(c, b), S(a  e, b).
All of these points are b units above the x-axis, so all
b
The equation of BF is y
 x  2c .
a  3c   of them lie on the line whose equation is y
b.
y
We check that P lies on BF.
2b b 2a
For y
, the right side is    2c
3 a  3c 3   A(2a, 2b) B(2c, 2b)

b

 
a  3c 3
2a  6c
 •
P
• • •
Q
2b R S

.
3
Point P is on BF, and the medians are concurrent. x
D(0, 0) C(2e, 0)
y

A(2a, 2b) 4. Let the equal parts of ∠ABC be x and let the equal
parts of ∠ACD be y. Now let ∠ACB be z.
Because ∠BCD
180, 2y  z
180,
E In ∆ ABC, 2x  z  58
180
F 2x  z
122
Then 2x  2y  2z
302
x  y  z
151.
In ∆ EBC, ∠E  x  y  z
180
x
D Therefore ∠E
29.
B(–2c, 0) C(2c, 0)
A
E
58º

x y
x Z y
B D
C

6 Chapter 1: Introduction to Proof

 ac a
5. Solution 1.    
Let the three consecutive even numbers be 2k2, 2k, 2 2
The slope of DF is 
2k2. b b2  c2  ac
  
Then (2k  2)2  (2k)2  (2k  2)2 2 2b

4k2  8k  4  4k2  4k2  8k  4 c


12k2  8 2

–-–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

4(3k2  2) b2  b2  c2  ac

22(3k2  2). 
b
The expression is always divisible by 2, 2, and at least c

–––––––––
one other number. ac  c2

6. Let D be the midpoint of AB. D has coordinates b

0, a2. b

.
ac
a
The right bisector of AB has equation y
.
2 ca b
Let E be the midpoint of BC. The product of these slopes is   
1.
b ac

b c
E has coordinates ,  .
2 2  Then PF is the right bisector of AC.
c Therefore the right bisectors are concurrent.
The slope of BC is . y
b
Then the right bisector of BC has slope – b.
c A(0, a)
The equation of the right bisector of BC is • F
•
c b

y  
  x  
2 c
b
2  P
• C(b, c)

b b2 c •
or y
  x     D E
c 2c 2
b b2  c2

  x  . x
c 2c
B(0, 0)
These right bisectors intersect at P. For the
coordinates of P solve the equations:
a b b2  c2
y
 and y
  x   7. a. D
92  4(8)(10)
2 c 2c

239
a b b2  c2 Since D 0 the equation has imaginary roots.

  x  
2 c 2c
b b2  c2 a b. For the equation (n  1) x2  nx  (n  1)
0,
 x
  
c 2c 2 D
n2  4(n  1)(n  1)
b2  c2  ac
n2  4(n2  1)


3n2  4.
2c
Since the coefficients are positive integers, n  2.
b2  c2  ac Then D 0 for all n.
x

2b Therefore the equation has imaginary roots for all n.

b  c2  ac a

2
P has coordinates ,  .
2b 2


b ac

We now show that if F ,  is the midpoint of
2 2
AC, then PF is the right bisector of AC. This requires
only that PF ⊥ AC, or that the product of the slopes
of PF and AC be –1.
ca
The slope of AC is .
b

Chapter 1: Introduction to Proof 7