Prof. univ. dr.

ION NEGRE-DOBRIDOR

DOCUMENTAR
pentru MICROPROIECTAREA PEDAGOGIC EFICIENT

Documentarul Nr. 1 DESIGN INSTRUCIONAL

Definitions of Instructional Design

(Adapted from "Training and Instructional Design", Applied Research Laboratory, Penn State University)

Instructional Design as a Process:

Instructional Design is the systematic development of instructional specifications using learning and instructional theory to ensure the quality of instruction. It is the entire process of analysis of learning needs and goals and the development of a delivery system to meet those needs. It includes development of instructional materials and activities; and tryout and evaluation of all instruction and learner activities. 6. Instructional Design as a Discipline: Instructional Design is that branch of knowledge concerned with research and theory about instructional strategies and the process for developing and implementing those strategies.

Instructional Design as a Science: Instructional design is the science of creating detailed specifications for the development, implementation, evaluation, and maintenance of situations that facilitate the learning of both large and small units of subject matter at all levels of complexity.

Instructional Design as Reality: Instructional design can start at any point in the design process. Often a glimmer of an idea is developed to give the core of an instruction situation. By the time the entire process is done the designer looks back and she or he checks to see that all parts of the "science" have been taken into account. Then the entire process is written up as if it occurred in a systematic fashion.

Instructional System: An instructional system is an arrangement of resources and procedures to promote learning. Instructional design is the systematic process of developing instructional systems and instructional development is the process of implementing the system or plan.

Instructional Technology:

Instructional technology is the systemic and systematic application of strategies and techniques derived from behavioral, cognitive, and constructivist theories to the solution of instructional problems. Instructional technology is the systematic application of theory and other organized knowledge to the task of instructional design and development. Instructional Technology = Instructional Design + Instructional Development

Instructional Development: The process of implementing the design plans.

(from Wikipedia: )

Instructional Design (also called Instructional Systems Design (ISD) ) is the practice of maximizing the effectiveness, efficiency and appeal of instruction and other learning experiences. The process consists broadly of determining the current state and needs of the learner, defining the end goal of instruction, and creating some "intervention" to assist in the transition. Ideally the process is informed by pedagogically (process of teaching) and andragogically (adult learning) tested theories of learning and may take place in student-only, teacher-led or community-based settings. The outcome of this instruction may be directly observable and scientifically measured or completely hidden and assumed. There are many instructional design models but many are based on the ADDIE model with the five phases: 1) analysis, 2) design, 3) development, 4) implementation, and 5) evaluation. As a field, instructional design is historically and traditionally rooted in cognitive and behavioral psychology.

History Much of the foundation of the field of instructional design was laid in World War II, when the U.S. military faced the need to rapidly train large numbers of people to perform complex technical tasks, from field-stripping a carbine to navigating across the ocean to building a bombersee " Training Within Industry (TWI)". Drawing on the research and theories of B.F. Skinner on operant conditioning, training programs focused on observable behaviors. Tasks were broken down into subtasks, and each subtask treated as a separate learning goal. Training was designed to reward correct performance and remediate incorrect performance. Mastery was assumed to be possible for every learner, given enough repetition and feedback. After the war, the success of the wartime training model was replicated in business and industrial training, and to a lesser extent in the primary and secondary classroom. The approach is still common in the U.S. military. [1] In 1956, a committee led by Benjamin Bloom published an influential taxonomy of what he termed the three domains of learning: Cognitive (what one knows or thinks), Psychomotor (what one does, physically) and Affective (what one feels, or what attitudes one has). These taxonomies still influence the design of instruction.[2]
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During the latter half of the 20th century, learning theories began to be influenced by the growth of digital computers. In the 1970s, many instructional design theorists began to adopt an informationprocessing-based approach to the design of instruction. David Merrill for instance developed Component Display Theory (CDT), which concentrates on the means of presenting instructional materials (presentation techniques). [3] Later in the 1980s and throughout the 1990s cognitive load theory began to find empirical support for a variety of presentation techniques. [4] Cognitive load theory and the design of instruction Cognitive load theory developed out of several empirical studies of learners, as they interacted with instructional materials. [5] Sweller and his associates began to measure the effects of working memory load, and found that the format of instructional materials has a direct effect on the performance of the learners using those materials.[6][7][8] While the media debates of the 1990s focused on the influences of media on learning, cognitive load effects were being documented in several journals. Rather than attempting to substantiate the use of media, these cognitive load learning effects provided an empirical basis for the use of instructional strategies. Mayer asked the instructional design community to reassess the media debate, to refocus their attention on what was most important: learning. [9] By the mid- to late-1990s, Sweller and his associates had discovered several learning effects related to cognitive load and the design of instruction (e.g. the split attention effect, redundancy effect, and the worked-example effect). Later, other researchers like Richard Mayer began to attribute learning effects to cognitive load. [9] Mayer and his associates soon developed a Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning.[10][11][12] In the past decade, cognitive load theory has begun to be internationally accepted[13] and begun to revolutionize how practitioners of instructional design view instruction. Recently, human performance experts have even taken notice of cognitive load theory, and have begun to promote this theory base as the science of instruction, with instructional designers as the practitioners of this field. [14] Finally Clark, Nguyen and Sweller[15] published a textbook describing how Instructional Designers can promote efficient learning using evidence-based guidelines of cognitive load theory. Instructional Designers use various instructional strategies to reduce cognitive load. For example, they think that the onscreen text should not be more than 150 words or the text should be presented in small meaningful chunks. The designers also use auditory and visual methods to communicate information to the learner. Learning design

The concept of learning design arrived in the literature of technology for education in the late nineties and early 2000s [16] with the idea that "designers and instructors need to choose for themselves the best mixture of behaviourist and constructivist learning experiences for their online courses" [17]. But the concept of learning design is probably as old as the concept of teaching. Learning design might be defined as "the description of the teaching-learning process that takes place in a unit of learning (eg, a course, a lesson or any other designed learning event)" [18]. As summarized by Britain[19], learning design may be associated with:

The concept of learning design The implementation of the concept made by learning design specifications like PALO, IMS Learning Design[20], LDL, SLD 2.0, etc... The technical realisations around the implementation of the concept like TELOS, RELOAD LD-Author, etc...

Instructional design models ADDIE process Perhaps the most common model used for creating instructional materials is the ADDIE Process. This acronym stands for the 5 phases contained in the model:

Analyze analyze learner characteristics, task to be learned, etc.

Identify Instructional Goals, Conduct Instructional Analysis, Analye Learners and Contexts

Design develop learning objectives, choose an instructional approach Develop Assessment Instruments, Develop

Write Performance Objectives, Instructional Strategy

Develop create instructional or training materials

Design and selection of materials appropriate for learning activity, Design and Conduct Formative Evaluation 9. Implement deliver or distribute the instructional materials 10. Evaluate make sure the materials achieved the desired goals Design and Conduct Summative Evaluation Most of the current instructional design models are variations of the ADDIE process.[21] Dick,W.O,.Carey, L.,&Carey, J.O.(2004)And FYI, Susan Schminke fails as an instructor!Systematic Design of Instruction.Boston,MA:Allyn&Bacon. Rapid prototyping
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A sometimes utilized adaptation to the ADDIE model is in a practice known as rapid prototyping. Proponents suggest that through an iterative process the verification of the design documents saves time and money by catching problems while they are still easy to fix. This approach is not novel to the design of instruction, but appears in many design-related domains including software design, architecture, transportation planning, product development, message design, user experience design, etc. [21][22][23] In fact, some proponents of design prototyping assert that a sophisticated understanding of a problem is incomplete without creating and evaluating some type of prototype, regardless of the analysis rigor that may have been applied up front. [24] In other words, up-front analysis is rarely sufficient to allow one to confidently select an instructional model. For this reason many traditional methods of instructional design are beginning to be seen as incomplete, naive, and even counter-productive.
[25]

However, some consider rapid prototyping to be a somewhat simplistic type of model. As this argument goes, at the heart of Instructional Design is the analysis phase. After you thoroughly conduct the analysisyou can then choose a model based on your findings. That is the area where most people get snaggedthey simply do not do a thorough-enough analysis. (Part of Article By Chris Bressi on LinkedIn) Dick and Carey Another well-known instructional design model is The Dick and Carey Systems Approach Model.[26] The model was originally published in 1978 by Walter Dick and Lou Carey in their book entitled The Systematic Design of Instruction. Dick and Carey made a significant contribution to the instructional design field by championing a systems view of instruction as opposed to viewing instruction as a sum of isolated parts. The model addresses instruction as an entire system, focusing on the interrelationship between context, content, learning and instruction. According to Dick and Carey, "Components such as the instructor, learners, materials, instructional activities, delivery system, and learning and performance environments interact with each other and work together to bring about the desired student learning outcomes".[26] The components of the Systems Approach Model, also known as the Dick and Carey Model, are as follows:

Identify Instructional Goal(s): goal statment describes a skill, knowledge or attitude(SKA) that a learner will be expected to acquire Conduct Instructional Analysis: Identify what a learner must recall and identify what learner must be able to do to perform particular task Analyze Learners and Contexts: General characteristic of the target audience, Characteristic directly related to the skill to be taught, Analysis of Performance Setting, Analysis of Learning Setting

Write Performance Objectives: Objectives consists of a description of the behavior, the condition and criteria. The component of an objective that describes the criteria that will be used to judge the learner's performance. Develop Assessment Instruments: Purpose of entry behavior testing, purpose of pretesting, purpose of pottesting, purpose of practive items/practive problems Develop Instructional Strategy: Preinstructional activities, content presentation, Learner participation, assessment Develop and Select Instructional Materials Design and Conduct Formative Evaluation of Instruction: Designer try to identify areas of the instructional materials that are in need to improvement. Revise Instruction: To identify poor test items and to identify poor instruction Design and Conduct Summative Evaluation

With this model, components are executed iteratively and in parallel rather than linearly.[26] http://www.slideshare.net/akteacher/dick-cary-instructional-designmodel Instructional Development Learning System (IDLS) Another instructional design model is the Instructional Development Learning System (IDLS).[27] The model was originally published in 1970 by Peter J. Esseff, PhD and Mary Sullivan Esseff, PhD in their book entitled IDLSPro Trainer 1: How to Design, Develop, and Validate Instructional Materials .[28] Peter (1968) & Mary (1972) Esseff both received their doctorates in Educational Technology from the Catholic University of America under the mentorship of Dr. Gabriel Ofiesh, a Founding Father of the Military Model mentioned above. Esseff and Esseff contributed synthesized existing theories to develop their approach to systematic design, "Instructional Development Learning System" (IDLS). The components of the IDLS Model are:

Design a Task Analysis Develop Criterion Tests and Performance Measures Develop Interactive Instructional Materials Validate the Interactive Instructional Materials Other models

Some other useful models of instructional design include: the Smith/Ragan Model, the Morrison/Ross/Kemp Model and the OAR model, as well as, Wiggins theory of backward design.
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Learning theories also play an important role in the design of instructional materials. Theories such as behaviorism, constructivism, social learning and cognitivism help shape and define the outcome of instructional materials. Influential researchers and theorists Alphabetic by last name

Bloom, Benjamin Taxonomies of the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains 1955 Bonk, Curtis Blended learning 2000s Bransford, John D. How People Learn: Bridging Research and Practice 1999 Bruner, Jerome Constructivism Carr-Chellman, Alison Instructional Design for Teachers ID4T -2010 Carey, L. "The Systematic Design of Instruction" Clark, Richard Clark-Kosma "Media vs Methods debate", "Guidance" debate. Clark, Ruth Efficiency in Learning: Evidence-Based Guidelines to Manage Cognitive Load / Guided Instruction / Cognitive Load Theory Dick, W. "The Systematic Design of Instruction" Gagn, Robert M. Nine Events of Instruction (Gagn and Merrill Video Seminar) Heinich, Robert Instructional Media and the new technologies of instruction 3rd ed. Educational Technology 1989 Jonassen, David problem-solving strategies 1990s Langdon, Danny G - The Instructional Designs Library: 40 Instructional Designs, Educational Tech. Publications Mager, Robert F. ABCD model for instructional objectives 1962 Merrill, M. David - Component Display Theory / Knowledge Objects Papert, Seymour Constructionism, LOGO 1970s Piaget, Jean Cognitive development 1960s Piskurich, George Rapid Instructional Design 2006 Simonson, Michael Instructional Systems and Design via Distance Education 1980s Schank, Roger Constructivist simulations 1990s
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Sweller, John - Cognitive load, Worked-example effect, Split-attention effect Reigeluth, Charles Elaboration Theory, "Green Books" I, II, and III - 19992010 Skinner, B.F. Radical Behaviorism, Programed Instruction Vygotsky, Lev Learning as a social activity 1930s Wiley, David Learning Objects, Open Learning 2000s

References
1. ^

MIL-HDBK-29612/2A Instructional Systems Development/Systems Approach to Training and Education 2. ^ Bloom's Taxonomy
3. ^ TIP: Theories 4. ^ Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. - Educational Psychologist -

38(1):1 - Citation
5. ^ Sweller, J. (1988). "Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on

learning". Cognitive Science 12 (1): 257285. doi:10.1016/03640213(88)90023-7.

6. ^ Chandler, P. & Sweller, J. (1991). "Cognitive Load Theory and the

Format of Instruction". Cognition and Instruction 8 (4): 293332. doi:10.1207/s1532690xci0804_2.

7. ^ Sweller, J., & Cooper, G.A. (1985). "The use of worked examples as

a substitute for problem solving in learning algebra". Cognition and Instruction 2 (1): 5989. doi:10.1207/s1532690xci0201_3.
8. ^ Cooper, G., & Sweller, J. (1987). "Effects of schema acquisition and

rule automation on mathematical problem-solving transfer". Journal of Educational Psychology 79 (4): 347362. doi:10.1037/00220663.79.4.347. 9. ^ a b Mayer, R.E. (1997). "Multimedia Learning: Are We Asking the Right Questions?". Educational Psychologist 32 (41): 119. doi:10.1207/s15326985ep3201_1.
10. ^ Mayer, R.E. (2001). Multimedia Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press. ISBN 0-521-78239-2.

11. ^ Mayer, R.E., Bove, W. Bryman, A. Mars, R. & Tapangco, L. (1996).

"When Less Is More: Meaningful Learning From Visual and Verbal Summaries of Science Textbook Lessons". Journal of Educational Psychology 88 (1): 6473. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.88.1.64.
12. ^ Mayer, R.E., Steinhoff, K., Bower, G. and Mars, R. (1995). "A

generative theory of textbook design: Using annotated illustrations to

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foster meaningful learning of science text". Educational Technology Research and Development 43 (1): 3141. doi:10.1007/BF02300480.
13. ^ Paas, F., Renkl, A. & Sweller, J. (2004). "Cognitive Load Theory:

Instructional Implications of the Interaction between Information Structures and Cognitive Architecture". Instructional Science 32: 18. doi:10.1023/B:TRUC.0000021806.17516.d0 .
14. ^ Clark, R.C., Mayer, R.E. (2002). e-Learning and the Science of

Instruction: Proven Guidelines for Consumers and Designers of Multimedia Learning. San Francisco: Pfeiffer. ISBN 0-7879-6051-9.
15. ^ Clark, R.C., Nguyen, F., and Sweller, J. (2006). Efficiency in

Learning: Evidence-Based Guidelines to Manage Cognitive Load . San Francisco: Pfeiffer. ISBN 0-7879-7728-4.
16. ^ Conole G., and Fill K., A learning design toolkit to create

pedagogically effective learning activities. Journal of Interactive Media in Education, 2005 (08).
17. ^ Carr-Chellman A. and Duchastel P., The ideal online course, British

Journal of Educational Technology, 31(3), 229-241, July 2000.

18. ^ Koper R., Current Research in Learning Design, Educational

Technology & Society, 9 (1), 13-22, 2006.

19. ^ Britain S., A Review of Learning Design: Concept, Specifications and

Tools A report for the JISC E-learning Pedagogy Programme, May 2004.
20. ^ IMS Learning Design webpage

21. ^ a b Piskurich, G.M. (2006). Rapid Instructional Design: Learning ID fast and right.
22. ^ Saettler, P.

(1990). The evolution of American educational Handbook of human

technology.
23. ^ Stolovitch, H.D., & Keeps, E. (1999).

performance technology.
24. ^ Kelley, T., & Littman, J. (2005). The ten faces of innovation: IDEO's

strategies for beating the devil's advocate & driving creativity throughout your organization. New York: Doubleday.
25. ^

Hokanson, B., & Miller, C. (2009). Role-based design: A contemporary framework for innovation and creativity in instructional design. Educational Technology, 49(2), 2128.

26. ^ a b c Dick, Walter, Lou Carey, and James O. Carey (2005) [1978]. The Systematic Design of Instruction (6th ed.). Allyn & Bacon. pp. 112. ISBN 0205412742. http://books.google.com/? id=sYQCAAAACAAJ&dq=the+systematic+design+of+instruction .
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27. ^

Esseff, Peter J. and Esseff, Mary Sullivan (1998) [1970]. Instructional Development Learning System (IDLS) (8th ed.). ESF Press. pp. 112. ISBN 1582830371. http://esfprotrainer.com/Materials.html.

28. ^ [1]

Documentarul Nr. 2 O istorie a designului instrucional A Brief History of Instructional Design By Douglas Leigh As a formal discipline, Instructional Systems Design has been a long time in the making. The early contributions of thinkers such as Aristotle, Socrates and Plato regarding the cognitive basis of learning and memory was later expanded by the 13th century philosopher St. Thomas Aquinas who discussed the perception of teachings in terms of free will. Four hundred years later, John Locke advanced Aristotle's notion of human's initial state of mental blankness by proposing that almost all reason and knowledge must be gained from experience. Then, at the turn of the 20th century John Dewey presented several tenets of the philosophy of education which promoted the idea that learning occurs best when married with doing, rather than rote regurgitation of facts. As the 1920's approached, a behaviorist approach to educational psychology became increasingly predominant. Thorndike's theory of connectionism represents the original stimulus-response (S-R) model of behavioral psychology, and was expanded on some twenty years later by Hull in his exposition of drive reduction a motivational model of behavior which emphasizes learner's wants, attention, and activities. With the Industrial Revolution came an increased attention to productivity, and educational behaviorists during the 1920's such as Sidney Pressey applied mechanized technology to increase the efficiency of the learning process. Though their initial incarnation did not see much use after the Depression, many of the lessons learned research into these teaching machines regarding the delivery of standardized instruction contributed to the instructional media research & development movement of World War II.

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The advent of the Second World War presented a tremendous instructional dilemma: the rapid training of hundreds of thousands of military personnel. Ralph Tyler's work a decade before WWII indicated that objectives were most useful to instructional developers if written in terms of desired learner behaviors. Armed with this knowledge and the experience of creating standardize methods of instructional delivery using teaching machines, military researchers developed a bevy of training films and other mediated materials for instructional purposes. In part, the United States' heavy investment in training and R&D was credited with the country's victory in the war. With the economic boom that followed, federal dollars followed researcher's desire to better flesh out the underpinnings of learning, cognition, and instruction. The 1950's are characterized by a shift away from the uninformed application of instructional technology to the formulation of theoretical models of learning. The publication of B. F. Skinner's The Science of Learning and the Art of Teaching in 1954 canonized the basic behaviorist principles of S-R, feedback, and reinforcement. As the key element of his theory of operant conditioning, the reinforcement of desired learner responses was also incorporated into Skinner's implementations of programmed instruction. Considered by many the progenitor of contemporary instructional design, programmed instruction emphasizes the formulation of behavioral objectives, breaking instructional content into small units and rewarding correct responses early and often. Another substantial instructional theorist of the 1950's was Benjamin Bloom. His 1956 taxonomy of intellectual behaviors provided instructors a means by which to decide how to impart instructional content to learners most effectively. Advocating a mastery approach to learning, Bloom endorsed instructional techniques that varied both instruction and time according to learner requirements. While this approach provided instructional developers a means by which to match subject matter and instructional methods, Bloom's taxonomy was not in and of itself capable of satisfying the desire of large organizations to relate resources and processes to the performances of individuals. To achieve this researchers in the military's Air Research and Development Command borrowed from Ludwig von Bertalanffy's General Systems Theory of biological interactions to integrate the operations of a wide range of departments, such as training, intelligence, and staffing. Combined with the Bloom's Taxonomy, the systems approach to instructional and organizational development allowed planners and policy-makers to match the content and delivery of instruction in a fashion which considered both super- and sub-systems (the organization as a whole, as well as groups and individuals within the organization). These advances of Skinner, Bloom and von Bertalanffy were usually employed to develop instruction in what was only assumed to be an effective an efficient manner. The formalization of a standardized design process still had yet to be devised. Again it was a crisis that spurred the next evolution of instructional technology a shift away from an emphasis in the development of instructional programs to one which focused on the design of entire curriculum. Again the crisis was a war, but this time the war was a political one. In 1957 the Soviet Union launched the Sputnik satellite and began the "space race". America was taken by surprise and the government was forced to reevaluate the education system and its shortcomings.
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Science and math programs were the first to be targeted, and the government employed experts in these fields to bring the content up to date. In 1962 Robert Glaser synthesized the work of previous researchers and introduced the concept of "instructional design", submitting a model which links learner analysis to the design and development of instruction. Interestingly, Glaser's contribution to the current field of instructional systems is not so much in the advancement of his model, but in work concerning Individually Prescribed Instruction (IPI), an approach whereby the results of a learner's placement test are used to plan learner-specific instruction. At the same time Glaser was developing his theories of instructional design and IPI, Robert Mager published his treatise on the construction of performance objectives. Mager suggested that an objective should describe in measurable terms who an objective targets, the behavior they will have exhibited, the conditions or limitations under which they must carry out this behavior, and the criteria against which their behavior will be gauged. As early as 1962 when he published "Military Training and Principles of Learning" Robert Gagn demonstrated a concern for the different levels of learning. His differentiation of psychomotor skills, verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, and attitudes provides a companion to Bloom's six cognitive domains of learning. Later, Gagn extended his thinking to include nine instructional events that detail the conditions necessary for learning to occur. These events have long since been used for the basis for the design of instruction and the selection of appropriate media. The mediation of instruction entered the computer age in the 1960's when Patrick Suppes conducted his initial investigations into computer-assisted instruction (CAI) at Stanford University. Developed through a systematic analysis of curriculum, Suppes' CAI provided learner feedback, branching, and response tracking aspects were later incorporated into the PLATO system in the 1970's and continue guide the development of today's instructional software. By the late 1960's America was again in crisis. Not only was the country involved in another war, but the nation's schools were unable to elicit the achievement from learners it anticipated. Grant Venn argued that since only 19% of first graders complete a bachelor or arts degree, that the current educational system is only serving the advantaged minority of schoolchildren. To counter this trend Robert Morgan proposed to conduct an experiment with an "organic curriculum" which would to incorporate into the educational system the best instructional practices identified through research. Accepted in 1967 the proposal by the US Office of Education, the project was dubbed "Educational Systems for the 1970's", or ES'70. Morgan engaged an array of experts in the field of learning, cognition, and instructional design to contribute to the project and carried out multiple experiments in a variety of settings. Of these was Leslie Briggs, who had demonstrated that an instructionally designed course could yield up to 2:1 increase over conventionally designed courses in terms of achievement, reduction in variance, and reduction of time-to-completion this effect was four times that of the control group which received no training. In 1970, Morgan partnered with the Florida Research and
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Development Advisory Board to conduct a nation-wide educational reform project in South Korea. Faced with the task of increasing the achievement of learners while at the same time reducing the cost of schooling from $41.27 per student per year Morgan applied some of the same techniques as had been piloted in the ES'70 project and achieved striking results: an increase in student achievement, a more efficient organization of instructors and course content, an increased teacher to student ratio, a reduction in salary cost, and a reduction in yearly per student cost by $9.80. Around this time Roger Kaufman developed a problem-solving framework for educational strategic planning which provided practitioners a means by which to demonstrate value-added not only for the learner, but the school system and society as a whole. This framework provided the basis for the Organizational Elements Model (OEM), a needs assessment model which specifies results to be achieved at societal, organizational, and individual performance levels. By rigorously defining needs as gaps in results Kaufman emphasized that performance improvement interventions can not demonstrate return-on-investment unless those interventions were derived from the requirements of these three primary clients and beneficiaries of organizational action. This approach to needs assessment and strategic planning has since been used across the world as the foundation for planning, evaluation, and continuous improvement in military, business, and educational settings. A variety of models for instructional system design proliferated the late 1970's and early 80's: Gagn and Briggs, Branson, Dick and Carey, and Atkins, to name a few. One possible reason for this phenomenon deals with the establishment of formal education and training departments within both public and private organizations. Faced with the computerized technologies of the times, these organizations require a means by which to quickly develop appropriate methods by which to educate internal employees in the new business practices ushered into existence by the Information Age. Another explanation is that businesses, especially consulting organizations, are becoming increasingly required to demonstrate value-added not only to their organization, but to the clients they serve. The evaluation and continuous improvement components of contemporary models of ISD make far strides from the early develop-and-implement models of the middle of the century in this aspect. In the 1990's a dual focus on technology and performance improvement has developed. For example, in his 1988 essay "Why the Schools Can't Improve: The Upper Limit Hypothesis" Robert Branson offers an argument for systemic school reform, suggesting that schools are operating at near peak efficiency and must be redesigned from the top down using technological interventions. Later in that year Branson was contracted by the Florida Department of Education (DOE) to analyze it's various programs and plan a system-wide technology-based educational reform initiative for Florida called Schoolyear 2000. Over the next several years Branson's team developed and piloted multiple computerized instructional technologies, as well as models of the interaction between the internal operations of the school system and the experiences and knowledge of students, parents, and teachers. Developments in performance improvement outside ISD during the 1990's such as Quality Management (QM), Organizational Engineering, and Change Management have required that instructional designers look outside their profession
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to demonstrate the utility of their practice. Introduced earlier by Deming, QM has swept public and private organizations alike in the 90's. Whereas initially thought of in terms of "quality control" or "zero defects", quality practices have evolved into tools for organizational continuous improvement. Similarly, instructional designers in the 90's often work alongside authorities in the field of organizational engineering. Characterized by a concern for an organization's culture and interaction between groups, organizational engineering seeks to improve organizations through the identification of relationships between an organization's vision, mission, goals, methods and personnel. Similarly, change management has become a business in and of itself, with leaders such as Darly Conner and Joel Barker pioneering methods for and models of organizational change. The advent of new media, such as the Internet and hypermedia, has brought about not only technological innovations, but also coupled these with new ways of approaching learning and instruction. As opposed to the behavioralist perspective that emphasizes learning objectives, the constructivist approach holds that learners construct their understanding of reality from interpretations of their experiences. Theorists such as Thomas Duffy and Seymour Papert suggest that constructivism provides a model whereby socio-cultural and cognitive issues regarding the design of learning environments can be supported by computer tools. This philosophy has been applied to such computerized technologies as online help systems and programming language LOGO. In the future, instructional designers are likely to choose one of two paths: specialist or generalist. In the prior path, designers will focus on one aspect of learning or instruction and act as consultants or subject matter experts, whether internal or external to the organization. The other approach is one more aligned with managerial activities. Since the field is becoming too broad for most designers to work with authority in all matters, this option allows practitioners to oversee the development of instructional projects, rather than narrow their efforts exclusively on assessment, analysis, design, development, implementation, evaluation or continuous improvement. References Boling, E. (1996). Instructional Technology Foundations I: Historical Timelines Project Page [Online]. Available: http://education.indiana.edu/~istcore/r511/datelist.html [1998, June 7]. Kearsley, G. (1994). Learning & Instruction: The TIP Database [Online]. Available: http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/1.htm [1998, June 7]. Reiser, R. A. (1987). Instructional Technology: A History. In R. M. Gagn (ed.), Instructional Technology: Foundations (pp. 11 - 40). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Shrock, S. A. (No date). A Brief History of Instructional Development [Online].Available: http://uttc-med.utb.edu/6320/chapters/summary_ch2.html [1998, June 7].
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Documentarul Nr. 3 Condiiile nvrii eficiente dup R: M.Gagn ( Gagnes Conditions of Learning Theory) A) Description Although Gagnes theoretical framework covers many aspects of learning, "the focus of the theory is on intellectual skills" (Kearsley, 1994a). Gagnes theory is very prescriptive. In its original formulation, special attention was given to military training (Gagne 1962, as cited in Kearsley, 1994a). In this theory, five major types of learning levels are identified:

verbal information intellectual skills cognitive strategies motor skills attitudes

The importance behind the above system of classification is that each learning level requires "different internal and external conditions" (Kearsley 1994a) i.e., each learning level requires different types of instruction. Kearsley provides the following example: for cognitive strategies to be learned, there must be a chance to practice developing new solutions to problems; to learn attitudes, the learner must be exposed to a credible role model or persuasive arguments. Gagne also contends that learning tasks for intellectual skills can be organized in a hierarchy according to complexity:

stimulus recognition response generation procedure following use of terminology discriminations concept formation rule application problem solving
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The primary significance of this hierarchy is to provide direction for instructors so that they can "identify prerequisites that should be completed to facilitate learning at each level" (Kearsley 1994a). This learning hierarchy also provides a basis for sequencing instruction. Gagne outlines the following nine instructional events and corresponding cognitive processes (as cited in Kearsley 1994a):

gaining attention (reception) informing learners of the objective (expectancy) stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval) presenting the stimulus (selective perception) providing learning guidance (semantic encoding) eliciting performance (responding) providing feedback (reinforcement) assessing performance (retrieval) enhancing retention and transfer (generalization)

B) Practical Application Gagnes nine instructional events and corresponding cognitive processes can serve as the basis for designing instruction and selecting appropriate media (Gagne, Briggs & Wager, 1992, as cited in Kearsley 1994a). In applying these instructional events, Kearsley (1994a) suggests keeping the following principles in mind: 10. Learning hierarchies define a sequence of instruction. 11. Learning hierarchies define what intellectual skills are to be learned. 12. Different instruction is required for different learning outcomes. EXAMPLE The following example applies Gagne's nine instructional events:

Instructional Objective: Recognize an equilateral triangle (example from Kearsley 1994a). Methodology:
o o o o o

Gain attention - show a variety of computer generated triangles Identify objective - pose question: "What is an equilateral triangle?" Recall prior learning - review definitions of triangles Present stimulus - give definition of equilateral triangle Guide learning - show example of how to create equilateral
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o o o o

Elicit performance - ask students to create 5 different examples Provide feedback - check all examples as correct/incorrect Assess performance - provide scores and remediation Enhance retention/transfer - show pictures of objects and ask students to identify equilateral triangles.

C) Related Theories, Pedagogical Practices and Practical Web-Design Strategies

Provide a variety of learning activities. Instructional designers should anticipate and accommodate alternate learning styles by "systematically varying teaching and assessment methods to reach every student" (Sternberg 1994, as cited in Ross-Gordon 1998, 227). They should also provide alternate offline materials and activities, as well as, present "alternate points of view and interpretations" (Fahy 1999, 237) so that the learner is free to "[criss-cross] the intellectual landscape of the content domain by looking at it from multiple perspectives or through multiple themes" (Jonassen et al., 1997, 122). Use Blooms "Taxonomy of Educational Objectives for the Cognitive Domain" to increase retention. Blooms Taxonomy of Educational Objectives for the Cognitive Domain (1956, as cited in Fahy 1999, 42-43) is similar to Gagnes hierarchy of intellectual skills. Bloom outlines the following cognitive activities organized from least to greater complexity: - knowledge - comprehension - application - analysis - synthesis - evaluation (making judgements) In the following example, Blooms taxonomy is used to illustrate different objectives related to learning objectives for studying nails (Fahy 1999, 43): Knowledge Know enough about nails to be able to explain what they are and what they are used for. Be able to recognize a nail as a fastening device from a non-fastening devices. Comprehension Be able to identify a nail and distinguish it from other fastening devices. Application Be able to use a nail to fasten something competently, and actually do so. Analysis Be able to determine what kind of nail and nailing technique would be required for most effective use of the device for a specific purpose.
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Synthesis Be able to compare nails to other fastening devices, and to compare various types of nails and nailing techniques for their specific qualities and characteristics in specific situations. Evaluation Be able to assess examples of the use of nails for fastening, and different nailing techniques, and to pass judgement as to which were more effective, more artistic, more secure, more skillful, more workman like, etc. Documentarul Nr. 4 4. Teoria minimalist a lui John B. Carroll ( Carrolls Minimalist Theory ) A) Description The Minimalist theory of J.M. Carroll focuses on the instructional design of training materials for computer users and has been "extensively applied to the design of computer documentation" (e.g., Nowaczyk & James, 1993, van der Meij, & Carroll, 1995, as cited in Kearsley 1994d). It is based upon studies of people learning a wide range of computer applications including word processors and databases. As Kearsley (1994d) explains, this theory suggests that:

All learning activities should be meaningful and self-contained. Activities should exploit the learner's prior experience and knowledge. Learners should be given realistic projects as quickly as possible. Instruction should permit self-directed reasoning and improvising. Training materials and activities should provide for error recognition and use errors as learning opportunities. There should be a close linkage between training and the actual system because "new users are always learning computer methods in the context of specific preexisting goals and expectations" (Carroll 1990, as cited in Kearsley 1994d).

The critical idea behind Carroll's Minimalist theory is that course designers must "minimize the extent to which instructional materials obstruct learning and focus the design on activities that support learner-directed activity and accomplishment" (Kearsley 1994d). B) Practical Application In applying Carrolls Minimalist theory, Kearsley (1994d) recommends the following:

Allow learners to start immediately on meaningful tasks.

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Minimize the amount of reading and other passive forms of training by allowing users to fill in the gaps themselves Include error recognition and recovery activities in the instruction Make all learning activities self-contained and independent of sequence.

EXAMPLE 1 The following is an example of a guided exploration approach to learning how to use a word processor (Carroll 1990, chapter 5, as cited in Kearsley 1994d). Applying the principles of Carroll's Minimalist theory, a 94-page training manual is replaced by 25 cards. Each card is self contained and includes a meaningful task and error recognition information. The cards do not provide complete step-by-step specifications but only key ideas or hints about what to do. Kearsley reports that "in an experiment that compared the use of the cards versus the manual, users learned the task in about half the time with the cards." EXAMPLE 2 The following example illustrates the redesign of a Web page using Carrolls Minimalist theory and other related web design strategies:

Problem: Below is a screen shot of The WINDeX Search Engine located at http://windex.daci.net. This site allows software developers to submit shareware and freeware to be stored in their database. This page however has four serious design flaws: (a) the banners occupy too much valuable space at the top of the screen; (b) "The Windex Index" image banner runs a lake ripple Java applet which is highly distracting; (c) the lake ripple Java applet significantly increases the time it takes to download the page; (d) the white text on a blue background is difficult to read, especially considering that the site uses four colors for text: red, blue, white and black

Solution: (a) Carroll advises that learners should be allowed to start right away on meaningful tasks. Jones and Farquhar (1997) advise that in web-design, important information should be kept on the top of the page. Considering this advice, to improve this web page, the banners should be designed to occupy less space and the user input forms should be moved up higher so users don't have to scroll as much. (b) (c) (d) Carroll advises that web-design should minimize the extent to which instructional materials obstruct learning. Gillani & Relan (1997) advise that frames should be kept simple and be consistent in design of text, graphics and sound to limit cognitive overload. Similarly, Guay (1995, as cited in Fahy 1999) advises that Web pages should reduce clutter and download in 30 seconds or less with a 14.4 modem. Considering this advice, to improve the design of this web page, the Java applet should be removed as it greatly increases the time to download the entire page without adding to its usability. Furthermore, the ripple effect distracts from the content of the site and is just plain "annoying." Content that is not essential, such as the "redesign notice" should also be removed or shrunk in size. Furthermore, the
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range of text colors should be reduced and a more suitable background chosen to improve readability. C) Related Theories, Pedagogical Practices and Practical Web-Design Strategies

Keep important information at the top of the page. When learners come to a page, they immediately scan for interesting and important information. Good web-design demands that you give your learners the information they want right away and in a hurry. Large graphics at the top of a page may be aesthetically pleasing, but take up too much of the immediate viewable space to be considered instructionally useful (Jones and Farquhar 1997). Keep frames simple and be consistent in design of text, graphics and sound to limit cognitive overload. Guay advises that "cognitive bandwidth should be minimized to ensure users easily and accurately grasp the message" (as cited in Fahy 1999, 191). He also recommends that graphics and other enhancements should "never obscure the central message of the page" (p. 191). Jones and Farquhar (1997) advise that background to a display should not compete with or obscure the text. Simiarly Gillani & Relan 1997, 236 maintain that "simplicity and consistency eliminates cognitive overload." Thus, multimedia components should be used "to reinforce rather than distract from learning." Keep pages short so learners dont have to scroll. Research on the Web suggests that "users do not like to scroll" (Nielsen 1996, as cited in Jones & Farquhar 1997, 243). Guay (1995, as cited in Fahy 1999, 191) agrees with this and advises that "each page should fit on the screen without scrolling." West (1998, as cited in Fahy 1999, 192) similarly advises that "the requirement for the user to scroll down in Web-based documents should be kept to a minimum, as many users will not scroll more than 3 times before abandoning a site." West also estimates that readers give only between 7 and 15 seconds to assess the probable usefulness of a site before leaving it. It should be noted that "the problem with making pages short is that people may choose to print out certain pieces of information, or download the entire contents of a group of pages. This [problem can be solved] by combining all of the pages into a single document that is labeled as such" (Jones and Farquar, 1997, 243). A print button can be provided so that users can eaisly print longer material for off-screen reading. Keep pages uncluttered by extracting unnecessary elements. Broadbents theory of single-channel processing states that "humans are capable of processing information through only one channel at a time and that it is not possible to process two channels simultaneously"(Hsia 1968, as cited in Szabo 1998, 32). If this were to happen, audio and visual stimuli would arrive at the central nervous system simultaneously, causing the information to jam, and lead to poorer retention of material (Broadbent 1958, as cited in Szabo 1998, 32). Guay (1995 as cited in Fahy 1999, 192) recommends that "each page should be uncluttered, readable, and balanced." Pages should download in 30 seconds or less with 14.4 modem. Guay advises that "physical bandwidth should be minimized to ensure acceptable
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access and response times" (1995 as cited in Fahy 1999, 191). Special consideration should be given to logos, banners, .pdf files, audio, and video to make sure that these files do not slow down the site too much. Guay also suggests that tagging graphics (in HTML) with vertical and horizontal size can speed download. Commercial graphics tools such as Adobe ImageReady 2.0 can also reduce graphics size by among other things reducing the color pallet.

Screen excess information. Good design, as Carroll recommends, must reduce excess information and allow learners to fill in the gaps. In support of this, Dede (1996, 13) maintains that the curriculum is "overcrowded with lowlevel information" and as a result, "teachers [must] frantically race through required material, helping students memorize factual data to be regurgitated on mandated, standardized tests." Dede also advises that "the core skill for todays workplace is not foraging for date, but filtering a plethora of incoming information." He adds that as we increasingly are required to dive into a sea of information we must master the ability to immerse ourselves in data "to harvest patterns of knowledge just as fish extract oxygen from water via their gills" (p. 6). Structure materials as topical modules. This "simplifies selective reuse of course materials" (Butler 1997, 422). Strive for quality not quantity. Rockley (1997, as cited in Fahy 1999, 196197) gives the following advice for the planning and management of Webbased resources: Design small. Make what you have effective, then add to it. Dont attempt to do everything at once. Keep effects simple. Assure effects ADD to the message/content. Map out the whole site. Both for development and maintenance. Plan for growth. Anticipate and direct it. Get feedback from users. And pay attention to it. Test any outside links regularly. Dont link to sites which do not appear to be will maintained or stable. Give only one person edit privileges. Only one person should have site maintenance responsibilities. Dont post any part of a site while it is still under construction. Everything on your site should work now. Instead of "under construction, put up announcements of the expected availability of "coming" or "new" features. Documentarul Nr. 5 Taxonomia domeniilor nvrii a lui B.S.Bloom ( Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning Domains )
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The Three Types of Learning There is more than one type of learning. A committee of colleges, led by Benjamin Bloom (1956), identified three domains of educational activities: 3. Cognitive: mental skills (Knowledge) 4. Affective: growth in feelings or emotional areas (Attitude) 5. Psychomotor: manual or physical skills (Skills) Since the work was produced by higher education, the words tend to be a little bigger than we normally use. Domains can be thought of as categories. Trainers often refer to these three categories as KSA (Knowledge, Skills, and Attitude). This taxonomy of learning behaviors can be thought of as the goals of the learning process. That is, after a learning episode, the learner should have acquired new skills, knowledge, and/or attitudes. The committee also produced an elaborate compilation for the cognitive and affective domains, but none for the psychomotor domain. Their explanation for this oversight was that they have little experience in teaching manual skills within the college level (I guess they never thought to check with their sports or drama departments). This compilation divides the three domains into subdivisions, starting from the simplest behavior to the most complex. The divisions outlined are not absolutes and there are other systems or hierarchies that have been devised in the educational and training world. However, Bloom's taxonomy is easily understood and is probably the most widely applied one in use today. Cognitive Domain The cognitive domain (Bloom, 1956) involves knowledge and the development of intellectual skills. This includes the recall or recognition of specific facts, procedural patterns, and concepts that serve in the development of intellectual abilities and skills. There are six major categories, which are listed in order below, starting from the simplest behavior to the most complex. The categories can be thought of as degrees of difficulties. That is, the first ones must normally be mastered before the next ones can take place.

Category Knowledge: Recall data or information.

Example and Key Words (verbs) Examples: Recite a policy. Quote prices from memory to a customer. Knows the safety rules. Key Words: defines, describes, identifies, knows, labels, lists, matches, names,
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outlines, recalls, recognizes, reproduces, selects, states. Examples: Rewrites the principles of test writing. Explain in one's own words the steps for performing a complex task. Translates an equation into a computer spreadsheet. Key Words: comprehends, converts, defends, distinguishes, estimates, explains, extends, generalizes, gives an example, infers, interprets, paraphrases, predicts, rewrites, summarizes, translates. Examples: Use a manual to calculate an employee's vacation time. Apply laws of statistics to evaluate the reliability of a written test. Key Words: applies, changes, computes, constructs, demonstrates, discovers, manipulates, modifies, operates, predicts, prepares, produces, relates, shows, solves, uses. Examples: Troubleshoot a piece of equipment by using logical deduction. Recognize logical fallacies in reasoning. Gathers information from a department and selects the required tasks for training. Key Words: analyzes, breaks down, compares, contrasts, diagrams, deconstructs, differentiates, discriminates, distinguishes, identifies, illustrates, infers, outlines, relates, selects, separates. Examples: Write a company operations or process manual. Design a machine to perform a specific task. Integrates training from several sources to solve a problem. Revises and process to improve the outcome. Key Words: categorizes, combines, compiles, composes, creates, devises,
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Comprehension: Understand the meaning, translation, interpolation, and interpretation of instructions and problems. State a problem in one's own words.

Application: Use a concept in a new situation or unprompted use of an abstraction. Applies what was learned in the classroom into novel situations in the work place.

Analysis: Separates material or concepts into component parts so that its organizational structure may be understood. Distinguishes between facts and inferences.

Synthesis: Builds a structure or pattern from diverse elements. Put parts together to form a whole, with emphasis on creating a new meaning or structure.

designs, explains, generates, modifies, organizes, plans, rearranges, reconstructs, relates, reorganizes, revises, rewrites, summarizes, tells, writes. Examples: Select the most effective solution. Hire the most qualified candidate. Explain and justify a new budget. Key Words: appraises, compares, concludes, contrasts, criticizes, critiques, defends, describes, discriminates, evaluates, explains, interprets, justifies, relates, summarizes, supports.

Evaluation: Make judgments about the value of ideas or materials.

Affective Domain The affective domain (Krathwohl, Bloom, Masia, 1973) includes the manner in which we deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes. The five major categories are listed from the simplest behavior to the most complex:

Category

Example and Key Words (verbs) Examples: Listen to others with respect. Listen for and remember the name of newly introduced people. Key Words: asks, chooses, describes, follows, gives, holds, identifies, locates, names, points to, selects, sits, erects, replies, uses. Examples: Participates in class discussions. Gives a presentation. Questions new ideals, concepts, models, etc. in order to fully understand them. Know the safety rules and practices them. Key Words: answers, assists, aids, complies, conforms, discusses, greets, helps, labels, performs, practices, presents, reads, recites, reports, selects, tells, writes.
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Receiving Phenomena: Awareness, willingness to hear, selected attention.

Responding to Phenomena: Active participation on the part of the learners. Attends and reacts to a particular phenomenon. Learning outcomes may emphasize compliance in responding, willingness to respond, or satisfaction in responding (motivation).

Valuing: The worth or value a person attaches to a particular object, phenomenon, or behavior. This ranges from simple acceptance to the more complex state of commitment. Valuing is based on the internalization of a set of specified values, while clues to these values are expressed in the learner's overt behavior and are often identifiable.

Examples: Demonstrates belief in the democratic process. Is sensitive towards individual and cultural differences (value diversity). Shows the ability to solve problems. Proposes a plan to social improvement and follows through with commitment. Informs management on matters that one feels strongly about. Key Words: completes, demonstrates, differentiates, explains, follows, forms, initiates, invites, joins, justifies, proposes, reads, reports, selects, shares, studies, works. Examples: Recognizes the need for balance between freedom and responsible behavior. Accepts responsibility for one's behavior. Explains the role of systematic planning in solving problems. Accepts professional ethical standards. Creates a life plan in harmony with abilities, interests, and beliefs. Prioritizes time effectively to meet the needs of the organization, family, and self. Key Words: adheres, alters, arranges, combines, compares, completes, defends, explains, formulates, generalizes, identifies, integrates, modifies, orders, organizes, prepares, relates, synthesizes. Examples: Shows self-reliance when working independently. Cooperates in group activities (displays teamwork). Uses an objective approach in problem solving. Displays a professional commitment to ethical practice on a daily basis. Revises judgments and changes behavior in light of new evidence. Values people for what they are, not how they look. Key Words: acts, discriminates, displays, influences, listens, modifies, performs, practices, proposes, qualifies, questions, revises, serves, solves,
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Organization: Organizes values into priorities by contrasting different values, resolving conflicts between them, and creating an unique value system. The emphasis is on comparing, relating, and synthesizing values.

Internalizing values (characterization): Has a value system that controls their behavior. The behavior is pervasive, consistent, predictable, and most importantly, characteristic of the learner. Instructional objectives are concerned with the student's general patterns of adjustment (personal, social, emotional).

verifies. Psychomotor Domain The psychomotor domain (Simpson, 1972) includes physical movement, coordination, and use of the motor-skill areas. Development of these skills requires practice and is measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques in execution. The seven major categories are listed from the simplest behavior to the most complex:

Category

Example and Key Words (verbs) Examples: Detects non-verbal communication cues. Estimate where a ball will land after it is thrown and then moving to the correct location to catch the ball. Adjusts heat of stove to correct temperature by smell and taste of food. Adjusts the height of the forks on a forklift by comparing where the forks are in relation to the pallet. Key Words: chooses, describes, detects, differentiates, distinguishes, identifies, isolates, relates, selects. Examples: Knows and acts upon a sequence of steps in a manufacturing process. Recognize one's abilities and limitations. Shows desire to learn a new process (motivation). NOTE: This subdivision of Psychomotor is closely related with the Responding to phenomena subdivision of the Affective domain. Key Words: begins, displays, explains, moves, proceeds, reacts, shows, states, volunteers.

Perception: The ability to use sensory cues to guide motor activity. This ranges from sensory stimulation, through cue selection, to translation.

Set: Readiness to act. It includes mental, physical, and emotional sets. These three sets are dispositions that predetermine a person's response to different situations (sometimes called mindsets).

Guided Response: The early stages in learning a complex skill that includes imitation and trial and error. Adequacy of performance is achieved by practicing.

Examples: Performs a mathematical equation as demonstrated. Follows instructions to build a model. Responds hand-signals of instructor
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while learning to operate a forklift. Key Words: copies, traces, follows, react, reproduce, responds Mechanism: This is the intermediate stage in learning a complex skill. Learned responses have become habitual and the movements can be performed with some confidence and proficiency. Examples: Use a personal computer. Repair a leaking faucet. Drive a car. Key Words: assembles, calibrates, constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates, measures, mends, mixes, organizes, sketches.

Examples: Maneuvers a car into a Complex Overt Response: The tight parallel parking spot. Operates a skillful performance of motor acts computer quickly and accurately. that involve complex movement Displays competence while playing the patterns. Proficiency is indicated by piano. a quick, accurate, and highly coordinated performance, requiring Key Words: assembles, builds, a minimum of energy. This category calibrates, constructs, dismantles, includes performing without displays, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats, hesitation, and automatic manipulates, measures, mends, performance. For example, players mixes, organizes, sketches. are often utter sounds of satisfaction or expletives as soon as they hit a NOTE: The Key Words are the same tennis ball or throw a football, as Mechanism, but will have adverbs because they can tell by the feel of or adjectives that indicate that the the act what the result will produce. performance is quicker, better, more accurate, etc. Examples: Responds effectively to unexpected experiences. Modifies instruction to meet the needs of the learners. Perform a task with a machine that it was not originally intended to do (machine is not damaged and there is no danger in performing the new task). Key Words: adapts, alters, changes, rearranges, reorganizes, revises, varies. Origination: Creating new movement patterns to fit a particular situation or specific problem. Examples: Constructs a new theory. Develops a new and comprehensive training programming. Creates a new
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Adaptation: Skills are well developed and the individual can modify movement patterns to fit special requirements.

gymnastic routine. Learning outcomes emphasize creativity based upon highly developed skills. Key Words: arranges, builds, combines, composes, constructs, creates, designs, initiate, makes, originates.

Blooms CognitiveDomain

Documentarul Nr.6 Armonizarea teoriilor nvrii prin design instrucional ( Instructional Design & Learning Theory) Brenda Mergel Educational Communications and Technology University of Saskatchewan May, 1998

Introduction: To students of instructional design the introduction and subsequent "sorting out" of the various learning theories and associated instructional design strategies can be somewhat confusing. It was out of this feeling of cognitive dissonance that this site was born. Why does it seem so difficult to differentiate between three basic theories of learning? Why do the names of theorists appear connected to more than one theory? Why do the terms and strategies of each theory overlap?
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The need for answers to these questions sparked my investigation into the available literature on learning theories and their implications for instructional design. I found many articles and internet sites that dealt with learning theory and ID, in fact, it was difficult to know when and where to draw the line. When I stopped finding new information, and the articles were reaffirming what I had already read, I began to write. The writing process was a learning experience for me and now that I have finished, I want to start over and make it even better, because I know more now than I did when I began. Every time I reread an article, there were ideas and lists that I would wish to add to my writing. Perhaps in further development of this site I will change and refine my presentation. Reading about the development of learning theories and their connection to instructional design evoked, for me, many parallels with the development of other theories in sciences. I have included some of those thoughts as asides within the main body of text. Besides behaviorism, cognitivism and constructivism one could discuss such topics as connoisseurship, semiotics, and contextualism, but I decided that a clear understanding of the basic learning theories would be best. The main sections of this site are as follows:

What are Theories and Models?

What is a theory? 1. A theory provides a general explanation for observations made over time. 2. A theory explains and predicts behavior. 3. A theory can never be established beyond all doubt. 4. A theory may be modified. 5. Theories seldom have to be thrown out completely if thoroughly tested but sometimes a theory may be widely accepted for a long time and later disproved. (Dorin, Demmin & Gabel, 1990)

What is a model? o A model is a mental picture that helps us understand something we cannot see or experience directly. (Dorin, Demmin & Gabel, 1990)

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Behaviorism, Cognitivism and Constructivism - The Basics Behaviorism: Based on observable changes in behavior. Behaviorism focuses on a new behavioral pattern being repeated until it becomes automatic. Cognitivism: Based on the thought process behind the behavior. Changes in behavior are observed, and used as indicators as to what is happening inside the learner's mind. Constructivism: Based on the premise that we all construct our own perspective of the world, through individual experiences and schema. Constructivism focuses on preparing the learner to problem solve in ambiguous situations. (Schuman, 1996) The Basics of Behaviorism Behaviorism, as a learning theory, can be traced back to Aristotle, whose essay "Memory" focused on associations being made between events such as lightning and thunder. Other philosophers that followed Aristotle's thoughts are Hobbs (1650), Hume (1740), Brown (1820), Bain (1855) and Ebbinghause (1885) (Black, 1995). The theory of behaviorism concentrates on the study of overt behaviors that can be observed and measured (Good & Brophy, 1990). It views the mind as a "black box" in the sense that response to stimulus can be observed quantitatively, totally ignoring the possibility of thought processes occurring in the mind. Some key players in the development of the behaviorist theory were Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike and Skinner.

Thorndike (1874 - 1949) Edward Thorndike did research in animal behavior before becoming interested in human psychology. He set out to apply "the methods of exact science" to educational problems by emphasizing "accurate quantitative treatment of information". "Anything that exists, exists in a certain quantity and can be measured" (Johcich, as cited in Rizo, 1991). His theory, Connectionism, stated that learning was the formation of a connection between stimulus and response.

The "law of effect" stated that when a connection between a stimulus and response is positively rewarded it will be strengthened and when it is negatively rewarded it will be weakened. Thorndike later revised this "law" when he found that negative reward, (punishment) did not necessarily weaken bonds, and that some seemingly pleasurable consequences do not necessarily motivate performance. The "law of exercise" held that the more an S-R (stimulus response) bond is practiced the stronger it will become. As with the law of effect, the law of exercise also had to be updated when Thorndike found that practice without feedback does not necessarily enhance performance.
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The "law of readiness" : because of the structure of the nervous system, certain conduction units, in a given situation, are more predisposed to conduct than others.

Thorndike's laws were based on the stimulus-response hypothesis. He believed that a neural bond would be established between the stimulus and response when the response was positive. Learning takes place when the bonds are formed into patterns of behavior (Saettler, 1990). Watson (1878 - 1958) John B. Watson was the first American psychologist to use Pavlov's ideas. Like Thorndike, he was originally involved in animal research, but later became involved in the study of human behavior. Watson believed that humans are born with a few reflexes and the emotional reactions of love and rage. All other behavior is established through stimulusresponse associations through conditioning. Watson's Experiment Watson demonstrated classical conditioning in an experiment involving a young child (Albert) and a white rat. Originally, Albert was unafraid of the rat; but Watson created a sudden loud noise whenever Albert touched the rat. Because Albert was frightened by the loud noise, he soon became conditioned to fear and avoid the rat. The fear was generalized to other small animals. Watson then "extinguished" the fear by presenting the rat without the loud noise. Some accounts of the study suggest that the conditioned fear was more powerful and permanent than it really was. (Harris, 1979; Samelson, 1980, in Brophy, 1990) Certainly Watson's research methods would be questioned today; however, his work did demonstrate the role of conditioning in the development of emotional responses to certain stimuli. This may explain certain fears, phobias and prejudices that people develop. (Watson is credited with coining the term "behaviorism") Skinner (1904 - 1990) Like Pavlov, Watson and Thorndike, Skinner believed in the stimulus-response pattern of conditioned behavior. His theory dealt with changes in observable behavior, ignoring the possibility of any processes occurring in the mind. Skinner's 1948 book, Walden Two , is about a utopian society based on operant conditioning. He also wrote,Science and Human Behavior, (1953) in which he pointed out how the principles of operant conditioning function in social institutions such as government, law, religion, economics and education (Dembo, 1994). Skinner's work differs from that of his predecessors (classical conditioning), in that he studied operant behavior (voluntary behaviors used in operating on the environment).
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Difference between Classical and Operant Conditioning

Skinner's Operant Conditioning Mechanisms

Positive Reinforcement or reward: Responses that are rewarded are likely to be repeated. (Good grades reinforce careful study.) Negative Reinforcement: Responses that allow escape from painful or undesirable situations are likely to be repeated. (Being excused from writing a final because of good term work.) Extinction or Non-Reinforcement : Responses that are not reinforced are not likely to be repeated. (Ignoring student misbehavior should extinguish that behavior.) Punishment: Responses that bring painful or undesirable consequences will be suppressed, but may reappear if reinforcement contingencies change. (Penalizing late students by withdrawing privileges should stop their lateness.) (Good & Brophy, 1990)

Skinner and Behavioral Shaping If placed in a cage an animal may take a very long time to figure out that pressing a lever will produce food. To accomplish such behavior successive approximations of the behavior are rewarded until the animal learns the association between the lever and the food reward. To begin shaping, the animal may be rewarded for simply turning in the direction of the lever, then for moving toward the lever, for brushing against the lever, and finally for pawing the lever. Behavioral chaining occurs when a succession of steps need to be learned. The animal would master each step in sequence until the entire sequence is learned. Reinforcement Schedules Once the desired behavioral response is accomplished, reinforcement does not have to be 100%; in fact it can be maintained more successfully through what Skinner referred to as partial reinforcement schedules. Partial reinforcement schedules include interval schedules and ratio schedules. 6. Fixed Interval Schedules: the target response is reinforced after a fixed amount of time has passed since the last reinforcement. 7. Variable Interval Schedules: similar to fixed interval schedules, but the amount of time that must pass between reinforcement varies. 8. Fixed Ratio Schedules: a fixed number of correct responses must occur before reinforcement may recur.
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9. Variable Ratio Schedules: the number of correct repetitions of the correct response for reinforcement varies. Variable interval and especially, variable ratio schedules produce steadier and more persistent rates of response because the learners cannot predict when the reinforcement will come although they know that they will eventually succeed.

The Basics of Cognitivism As early as the 1920's people began to find limitations in the behaviorist approach to understanding learning. Edward Tolman found that rats used in an experiment appeared to have a mental map of the maze he was using. When he closed off a certain portion of the maze, the rats did not bother to try a certain path because they "knew" that it led to the blocked path. Visually, the rats could not see that the path would result in failure, yet they chose to take a longer route that they knew would be successful (Operant Conditioning [On-line]). Behaviorists were unable to explain certain social behaviors. For example, children do not imitate all behavior that has been reinforced. Furthermore, they may model new behavior days or weeks after their first initial observation without having been reinforced for the behavior. Because of these observations, Bandura and Walters departed from the traditional operant conditioning explanation that the child must perform and receive reinforcement before being able to learn. They stated in their 1963 book, Social Learning and Personality Development, that an individual could model behavior by observing the behavior of another person. This theory lead to Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory (Dembo, 1994). What is Cognitivism? "Cognitive theorists recognize that much learning involves associations established through contiguity and repetition. They also acknowledge the importance of reinforcement, although they stress its role in providing feedback about the correctness of responses over its role as a motivator. However, even while accepting such behavioristic concepts, cognitive theorists view learning as involving the acquisition or reorganization of the cognitive structures through which humans process and store information." (Good and Brophy, 1990, pp. 187). As with behaviorism, cognitive psychology can be traced back to the ancient Greeks, Plato and Aristotle. The cognitive revolution became evident in American psychology during the 1950's (Saettler, 1990). One of the major players in the development of cognitivism is Jean Piaget, who developed the major aspects of his theory as early as the 1920's. Piaget's ideas did not impact North America until the 1960's after Miller and Bruner founded the Harvard Center for Cognitive studies. Key Concepts of Cognitive Theory

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2. Schema - An internal knowledge structure. New information is compared to existing cognitive structures called "schema". Schema may be combined, extended or altered to accommodate new information. 3. Three-Stage Information Processing Model - input first enters a sensory register, then is processed in short-term memory, and then is transferred to long-term memory for storage and retrieval. 1. Sensory Register - receives input from senses which lasts from less than a second to four seconds and then disappears through decay or replacement. Much of the information never reaches short term memory but all information is monitored at some level and acted upon if necessary. 2. Short-Term Memory (STM) - sensory input that is important or interesting is transferred from the sensory register to the STM. Memory can be retained here for up to 20 seconds or more if rehearsed repeatedly. Short-term memory can hold up to 7 plus or minus 2 items. STM capacity can be increased if material is chunked into meaningful parts. 3. Long-Term Memory and Storage (LTM) - stores information from STM for long term use. Long-term memory has unlimited capacity. Some materials are "forced" into LTM by rote memorization and over learning. Deeper levels of processing such as generating linkages between old and new information are much better for successful retention of material. 4. Meaningful Effects - Meaningful information is easier to learn and remember. (Cofer, 1971, in Good and Brophy, 1990) If a learner links relatively meaningless information with prior schema it will be easier to retain. (Wittrock, Marks, & Doctorow, 1975, in Good and Brophy, 1990) 5. Serial Position Effects - It is easier to remember items from the beginning or end of a list rather than those in the middle of the list, unless that item is distinctly different. 6. Practice Effects - Practicing or rehearsing improves retention especially when it is distributed practice. By distributing practices the learner associates the material with many different contexts rather than the one context afforded by mass practice. 7. Transfer Effects- The effects of prior learning on learning new tasks or material. 8. Interference Effects - Occurs when prior learning interferes with the learning of new material. 9. Organization Effects - When a learner categorizes input such as a grocery list, it is easier to remember. 10. Levels of Processing Effects - Words may be processed at a low-level sensory analysis of their physical characteristics to high-level semantic analysis of their
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meaning. (Craik and Lockhart, 1972, in Good and Brophy, 1990) The more deeply a word is process the easier it will be to remember. 11. State Dependent Effects - If learning takes place within a certain context it will be easier to remember within that context rather than in a new context. 12. Mnemonic Effects - Mnemonics are strategies used by learners to organize relatively meaningless input into more meaningful images or semantic contexts. For example, the notes of a musical scale can be remembered by the rhyme: Every Good Boy Deserves Fruit. 13. Schema Effects - If information does not fit a person's schema it may be more difficult for them to remember and what they remember or how they conceive of it may also be affected by their prior schema. 14. Advance Organizers - Ausebels advance organizers prepare the learner for the material they are about to learn. They are not simply outlines of the material, but are material that will enable the student to make sense out of the lesson.

The Basics of Constructivism Bartlett (1932) pioneered what became the constructivist approach (Good & Brophy, 1990). Constructivists believe that "learners construct their own reality or at least interpret it based upon their perceptions of experiences, so an individual's knowledge is a function of one's prior experiences, mental structures, and beliefs that are used to interpret objects and events." "What someone knows is grounded in perception of the physical and social experiences which are comprehended by the mind." (Jonasson, 1991). If each person has their own view about reality, then how can we as a society communicate and/or coexist? Jonassen, addressing this issue in his article Thinking Technology: Toward a Constructivist Design Model, makes the following comments: 1. "Perhaps the most common misconception of constructivism is the inference that we each therefore construct a unique reality, that reality is only in the mind of the knower, which will doubtlessly lead to intellectual anarchy." 2. "A reasonable response to that criticism is the Gibsonian perspective that contends that there exists a physical world that is subject to physical laws that we all know in pretty much the same way because those physical laws are perceivable by humans in pretty much the same way." 3. "Constructivists also believe that much of reality is shared through a process of social negotiation..." If one searches through the many philosophical and psychological theories of the past, the threads of constructivism may be found in the writing of such people as Bruner, Ulrick, Neiser, Goodman, Kant, Kuhn, Dewey and Habermas. The most
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profound influence was Jean Piaget's work which was interpreted and extended by von Glasserfield (Smorgansbord, 1997). Realistic vs. Radical Construction Realistic constructivism - cognition is the process by which learners eventually construct mental structures that correspond to or match external structures located in the environment. Radical constructivism - cognition serves to organize the learners experiential world rather than to discover ontological reality (Cobb, 1996, in Smorgansbord, 1997). The Assumptions of Constructivism - Merrill

knowledge is constructed from experience learning is a personal interpretation of the world learning is an active process in which meaning is developed on the basis of experience conceptual growth comes from the negotiation of meaning, the sharing of multiple perspectives and the changing of our internal representations through collaborative learning learning should be situated in realistic settings; testing should be integrated with the task and not a separate activity (Merrill, 1991, in Smorgansbord, 1997) It Boggles the Mind!

If you are reading about learning theories, you may notice that it is difficult to pin down what theory a certain theorist belongs to. This can confuse you, since, just as you think you have it cased, a name you originally thought was in the behavioral category shows up in a constructivism article. This problem is often the result of theorists and their ideas evolving over time and changes they make to their original ideas. Davidson includes the following example in an article she wrote: "Considered by most to be representative of [a] behaviourist learning paradigm, Gagne's theory of learning and events of instruction have evolved progressively to approach a more cognitive theory. His discussion of relating present information and past knowledge (event #3) and the inclusion of learning transfer (event#9) are indicative of this shift toward constructivism." (Davidson, 1998)

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Okay? Okay. :-)

Comparing The Development of Learning Theories to the Development of the Atomic Theory Atomic Theory Since the beginning of history, people have theorized about the nature of matter. The ancient Greeks thought that matter was composed of fire, water, earth and air. Another view, the continuous theory, was that matter could be infinitely subdivided into smaller and smaller pieces without change. The Greek philosophers, Democritis and Lucippus, came up with the idea that matter made up of particles so small that they cannot be divided into anything smaller. They called their particles "atomos", which is the Greek word for "indivisible". It wasn't until the 18th century that anyone could prove one theory was better than another. John Dalton in 1803, with his law of multiple proportions, proposed a theory of matter based on the existence of atoms. The rest is history:

1803 Dalton's Atomic Theory. 1870 Crookes finds the first evidence of electrons. 1890's J.J. Thompson realized cathode rays are negative particles (electrons). 1909 Rutherford discovered alpha particles and said that atoms consist of small positively charged particles surrounded by mostly empty space where electrons moved around. 1913 Niels Bohr develops a new model of the atom with electron energy levels or orbits. 1930's and 1940's The atom had a positive nucleus with an electron charge cloud. This theory was referred to as the orbital model and the quantummechanical model. (Dorin, Demmin & Gabel, 1990)

Learning Theory Given that we will most likely never "see" an atom, we will never "see" learning either. Therefore our learning models are mental pictures that enable us to understand that which we will never see. Does the development of learning theory follow a similar pattern as the atomic theory?
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It seems that learning theories, like the study of matter can be traced back to the ancient Greeks. In the 18th century, with the onset of scientific inquiry, people began in ernest to study and develop models of learning. The behaviorist learning theory centered around that which was observable, not considering that there was anything occurring inside the mind. Behaviorism can be compared to Dalton's atom, which was simply a particle. Using overt behavior as a starting point, people began to realize that there is something happening inside the organism that should be considered, since it seemed to affect the overt behavior. Similarly, in physical science, people such as Crookes, Thompson, Rutherford and Bohr realized that there was something occurring within the atom causing its behavior. Thus the cognitive model of learning was born. Soon, however, theorists realized that the "atom" is not stable, it is not so "cut and dried". Enter the constructivist learning theory which tells us that each organism is constantly in flux, and although the old models work to a certain degree, other factors most also be considered. Could the constructivist approach be considered to be the quantum theory of learning? The quantum theory builds upon the previous atomic theories. Constructivism builds upon behaviorism and cognitivism in the sense that it accepts multiple perspectives and maintains that learning is a personal interpretation of the world. I believe that behavioral strategies can be part of a constructivist learning situation, if that learner choses and finds that type of learning suitable to their experiences and learning style. Cognitive approaches have a place in constructivism also, since constructivism recognises the concept of schema and building upon prior knowledge and experience. Perhaps the greatest difference is that of evaluation. In behaviorism and cognitivism, evaluation is based on meeting specific objectives, whereas in constructivism, evaluation is much more subjective. Of course, what if I, as a learner, negotiate my evaluation and wish to include objective evaluation? Then isn't behavioral and cognitive strategy a part of constructivism? Perhaps the learning theory used depends upon the learning situation, just as the atomic theory used, depends upon the learning situation. The bohr atom is often used to introduce the concept of protons, neutrons and electrons to grade school students. Perhaps behaviorism is suitable to certain basic learning situations, whereas "quantum" constructivism is better suited to advanced learning situations. A Biological Analogy to Learning Theory Classification The classification of learning theories is somewhat analogous to the classification system designed by biologists to sort out living organisms. Like any attempt to define categories, to establish criteria, the world does not fit the scheme in all cases. Originally there was a plant kingdom and an animal kingdom, but eventually organisms that contained cholophyll and were mobile needed to be classified. The protist kingdom was established. The exact criteria for protists are still not established, but it is a classification that gives us a place for all of the organisms that don't fit neatly into either the plant or animal kingdoms. To extend the analogy, biologists continued to modify the classification system as know knowledge and insights into existing knowledge were discovered. The advent of new technology such as the electron microscope enabled the addition of the monera kingdom. Recently, the distinctive features of fungi have brought about a
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proposal for a fifth kingdom, fungi. This development and adjustment of the taxonomy remins one of behaviourism, cognitivism, constructivism, postmodernism, contextualism, semiotics...

Documentarul Nr.7 O perspectiv nou asupra inegrrii marilor teorii ale nv rii n instruirea colar (The History of Behaviorism , Cognitivism and Constructivism in Instructional Design) Paul Saettler Behaviorism and Instructional Design [This section on behaviorism is largely a synopsis of information from Paul Saettler's book, The History of American Educational Technology , (1990)]. In Paul Saettler's book The History of American Educational Technology, he states that behaviorism did not have an impact on educational technology until the 1960s, which was the time that behaviorism actually began to decrease in popularity in American psychology. Saettler identified six areas that demonstrate the impact of behaviorism on Educational Technology in America: the behavioral objectives movement; the teaching machine phase; the programmed instruction movement; individualized instructional approaches, computer-assisted learning and the systems approach to instruction. Behavioral Objectives Movement: A behavioral objective states learning objectives in "specified, quantifiable, terminal behaviors" (Saettler, pp. 288, 1990). Behavioral objectives can be summed up using the mnemonic device ABCD (Schwier, 1998).
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Example: After having completed the unit the student will be able to answer correctly 90% of the questions on the posttest. 1. A - Audience - the student 2. B - Behavior - answer correctly 3. C - Condition - after having completed the unit, on a post test 4. D - Degree - 90% correct To develop behavioral objectives a learning task must be broken down through analysis into specific measurable tasks. The learning success may be measured by tests developed to measure each objective. The advent of behavioral objectives can be traced back to the Elder Sophists of ancient Greece, Cicero, Herbart and Spencer, but Franklin Bobbitt developed the modern concept of behavioral objectives in the early 1900s (Saettler, 1990). Taxonomic Analysis of Learning Behaviors

Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning - In 1956 Bloom and his colleagues began development of a taxonomy in the cognitive, attitudinal (affective) and psychomotor domains. Many people are familiar with Bloom's Cognitive taxonomy: o knowledge
o o o o o

comprehension application analysis synthesis evaluation

Gagne's Taxonomy of Learning - Robert Gagne developed his taxonomy of learning in 1972. Gagne's taxonomy was comprised of five categories: o verbal information
o o o o

intellectual skill cognitive strategy attitude motor skill

Mastery Learning Mastery learning was originally developed by Morrison in the 1930s. His formula for mastery was "Pretest, teach, test the result, adapt procedure, teach and test again to the point of actual learning." (Morrison, 1931, in Saettler, 1990). Mastery
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learning assumes that all students can master the materials presented in the lesson. Bloom further developed Morrison's plan, but mastery learning is more effective for the lower levels of learning on Bloom's taxonomy, and not appropriate for higher level learning (Saettler, 1990). Military and Industrial Approach For military and industrial training, "behavioral objectives were written descriptions of specific, terminal behaviors that were manifested in terms of observable, measurable behavior." (Saettler, 1990) Robert Mager wrote Preparing Instructional Objectives, in 1962 which prompted interest and use of behavioral objectives among educators. Gagne and Briggs who also had backgrounds in military and industrial psychology developed a set of instructions for writing objectives that is based on Mager's work.

Gagne's and Brigg's Model o Action

o o o o

Object Situation Tools and Constraints Capability to be Learned

By the late 1960's most teachers were writing and using behavioral objectives. There were, of course, people who questioned the breaking down of subject material into small parts, believing that it would lead away from an understanding of the "whole" (Saettler, 1990). Accountability Movement A movement known as scientific management of industry arose in the early 1900s in response to political and economic factors of that time. Franklin Bobbitt proposed utilization of this system in education stressing that the standards and direction of education should stem from the consumer - society. Bobbitt's ideas exemplified the idea of accountability, competency-based education and performance-based education, which because of similar economic and political factors, experienced a revival in America during the late 1960s and 1970s (Saettler, 1990). Teaching Machines and Programmed Instruction Movement Although the elder Sophists, Comenius, Herbart and Montessori used the concept of programmed instruction in their repertoire, B.F. Skinner is the most current and probably best known advocate of teaching machines and programmed learning. Contributors to this movement include the following: 1. Pressey - introduced a multiple-choice machine at the 1925 American Psychological Association meeting.
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2. Peterson - a former student of Pressey's who developed "chemosheets" in which the learner checked their answers with a chemical-dipped swab. 3. W.W.II - devises called "phase checks", constructed in the 1940s and 1950s, taught and tested such skills and dissassembly-assembly of equipment. 4. Crowder - designed a branched style of programming for the US Air force in the 1950s to train troubleshooters to find malfunctions in electronic equipment. 5. Skinner - based on operant conditioning Skinner's teaching machine required the learner to complete or answer a question and then receive feedback on the correctness of the response. Skinner demonstrated his machine in 1954. (Saettler, 1990) Early Use of Programmed Instruction After experimental use of programmed instruction in the 1920s and 1930s, B. F. Skinner and J.G. Holland first used programmed instruction in behavioral psychology courses at Harvard in the late 1950s. Use of programmed instruction appeared in elementary and secondary schools around the same time. Much of the programmed instruction in American schools was used with individuals or small groups of students and was more often used in junior high schools than senior or elementary schools (Saettler, 1990). Early use of programmed instruction tended to concentrate on the development of hardware rather than course content. Concerned developers moved away from hardware development to programs based on analysis of learning and instruction based on learning theory. Despite these changes, programmed learning died out in the later part of the 1960s because it did not appear to live up to its original claims (Saettler, 1990). Individualized Approaches to Instruction Similar to programmed learning and teaching machines individualized instruction began in the early 1900s, and was revived in the 1960s. The Keller Plan, Individually Prescribed Instruction, Program for Learning in Accordance with Needs, and Individually Guided Education are all examples of individualized instruction in the U.S. (Saettler, 1990). Keller Plan (1963) 5. Developed by F.S. Keller, a colleague of Skinner, the Keller plan was used for university college classes. 6. Main features of Keller Plan 1. individually paced. 2. mastery learning. 3. lectures and demonstrations motivational rather than critical information.
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4. use of proctors which permitted testing, immediate scoring, tutoring, personal-social aspect of educational process. (Saettler, 1990) Individually Prescribed Instruction (IPI) (1964)

Developed by Learning Research and Development Center of the University of Pitsburgh. Lasted into the 1970s when it lost funding and its use dwindled Main features of IPI: 1. prepared units. 2. behavioral objectives. 3. planned instructional sequences. 4. used for reading, math and science. 5. included pretest and posttest for each unit. 6. materials continually evaluated and upgraded to meet behavioral objectives. (Saettler, 1990)

Program for Learning in Accordance with Needs (PLAN) (1967)

Headed by Jon C. Flanagan, PLAN was developed under sponsorship of American Institutes for Research (AIR), Westinghouse Learning Corporation and fourteen U.S. School districts. Abandoned in late 1970s because of upgrading costs Main features of PLAN 1. schools selected items from about 6,000 behavioral objectives. 2. each instructional module took about two weeks instruction and were made up of approximately. five objectives. 3. mastery learning. 4. remedial learning plus retesting. (Saettler, 1990)

Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) Computer-assisted instruction was first used in education and training during the 1950s. Early work was done by IBM and such people as Gordon Pask, and O.M. Moore, but CAI grew rapidly in the 1960s when federal funding for research and
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development in education and industrial laboratories was implemented. The U.S. government wanted to determine the possible effectiveness of computer-assisted instruction, so they developed two competing companies, (Control Data Corporation and Mitre Corporation) who came up with the PLATO and TICCIT projects. Despite money and research, by the mid seventies it was apparent that CAI was not going to be the success that people had believed. Some of the reasons are:

CAI had been oversold and could not deliver. lack of support from certain sectors. technical problems in implementation. lack of quality software. high cost.

Computer-assisted instruction was very much drill-and-practice - controlled by the program developer rather than the learner. Little branching of instruction was implemented although TICCIT did allow the learner to determine the sequence of instruction or to skip certain topics. (Saettler, 1990)

Systems Approach to Instruction The systems approach developed out of the 1950s and 1960s focus on language laboratories, teaching machines, programmed instruction, multimedia presentations and the use of the computer in instruction. Most systems approaches are similar to computer flow charts with steps that the designer moves through during the development of instruction. Rooted in the military and business world, the systems approach involved setting goals and objectives, analyzing resources, devising a plan of action and continuous evaluation/modification of the program. (Saettler, 1990) Cognitivism and Instructional Design Although cognitive psychology emerged in the late 1950s and began to take over as the dominant theory of learning, it wasn't until the late 1970s that cognitive science began to have its influence on instructional design. Cognitive science began a shift from behavioristic practices which emphasised external behavior, to a concern with the internal mental processes of the mind and how they could be utilized in promoting effective learning. The design models that had been developed in the behaviorist tradition were not simply tossed out, but instead the "task analysis" and "learner analysis" parts of the models were embellished. The new models addressed component processes of learning such as knowledge coding and representation, information storage and retrieval as well as the incorporation and integration of new knowledge with previous information (Saettler, 1990). Because Cognitivism and Behaviorism are both governed by an objective view of the nature of knowledge and what it means to know something, the transition from behavioral instructional design
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principles to those of a cognitive style was not entirely difficult. The goal of instruction remained the communication or transfer of knowledge to learners in the most efficient, effective manner possible (Bednar et al., in Anglin, 1995). For example, the breaking down of a task into small steps works for a behaviorist who is trying to find the most efficient and fail proof method of shaping a learner's behavior. The cognitive scientist would analyze a task, break it down into smaller steps or chunks and use that information to develop instruction that moves from simple to complex building on prior schema. The influence of cognitive science in instructional design is evidenced by the use of advance organizers, mnemonic devices, metaphors, chunking into meaningful parts and the careful organization of instructional materials from simple to complex. Cognitivism and Computer-Based Instruction Computers process information in a similar fashion to how cognitive scientists believe humans process information: receive, store and retrieve. This analogy makes the possibility of programming a computer to "think" like a person conceivable, i.e.. artificial intelligence. Artificial intelligence involve the computer working to supply appropriate responses to student input from the computer's data base. A trouble-shooting programs is one example of these programs. Below is a list of some programs and their intended use:

SCHOLAR - teaches facts about South American geography in a Socratic method PUFF - diagnoses medical patients for possible pulmonary disorders MYCIN - diagnoses blood infections and prescribes possible treatment DENDRAL - enables a chemist to make an accurate guess about the molecular structure of an unknown compound META-DENDRAL - makes up its own molecular fragmentation rules in an attempt to explain sets of basic data GUIDION - a derivative of the MYCIN program that gave a student information about a case and compared their diagnosis with what MYCIN would suggest SOPIE - helps engineers troubleshoot electronic equipment problems BUGGY - allows teachers to diagnose causes for student mathematical errors LOGO - designed to help children learn to program a computer Davis' math programs for the PLATO system - to encourage mathematical development through discovery (Saettler, 1990)

Constructivism and Instructional Design

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The shift of instructional design from behaviorism to cognitivism was not as dramatic as the move into constructivism appears to be, since behaviorism and cognitivism are both objective in nature. Behaviorism and cognitivism both support the practice of analyzing a task and breaking it down into manageable chunks, establishing objectives, and measuring performance based on those objectives. Constructivism, on the other hand, promotes a more open-ended learning experience where the methods and results of learning are not easily measured and may not be the same for each learner. While behaviorism and constructivism are very different theoretical perspectives, cognitivism shares some similarities with constructivism. An example of their compatibility is the fact that they share the analogy of comparing the processes of the mind to that of a computer. Consider the following statement by Perkins: "...information processing models have spawned the computer model of the mind as an information processor. Constructivism has added that this information processor must be seen as not just shuffling data, but wielding it flexibly during learning -- making hypotheses, testing tentative interpretations, and so on." (Perkins, 1991, p.21 in Schwier, 1998 ).

Other examples of the link between cognitive theory and constructivism are:

schema theory (Spiro, et al, 1991, in Schwier, 1998) connectionism (Bereiter, 1991, in Schwier, 1998) hypermedia (Tolhurst, 1992, in Schwier, 1998) multimedia (Dede, 1992, in Schwier, 1998)

Despite these similarities between cognitivism and constructivism, the objective side of cognitivism supported the use of models to be used in the systems approach of instructional design. Constructivism is not compatible with the present systems approach to instructional design, as Jonassen points out : "The conundrum that constructivism poses for instructional designers, however, is that if each individual is responsible for knowledge construction, how can we as designers determine and insure a common set of outcomes for leaning, as we have been taught to do?" (Jonasson, [On-line]) In the same article, Jonassen (Jonasson, [On-line]) lists the following implications of constructivism for instructional design: "...purposeful knowledge construction may be facilitated by learning environments which:

Provide multiple representations of reality - avoid oversimplification of instruction by by representing the natural complexity of the world Present authentic tasks - contextualize
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Provide real-world, case-based learning environments, rather than predetermined instructional sequences Foster reflective practice Enable context- and content-dependent knowledge construction Support collaborative construction of knowledge through social negotiation, not competition among learners for recognition "Although we believe that constructivism is not a prescriptive theory of instruction, it should be possible to provide more explicit guidelines on how to design learning environments that foster constructivist learning"

Jonassen points out that the difference between constructivist and objectivist, (behavioral and cognitive), instructional design is that objective design has a predetermined outcome and intervenes in the learning process to map a predetermined concept of reality into the learner's mind, while constructivism maintains that because learning outcomes are not always predictable, instruction should foster, not control, learning. With this in mind, Jonassen looks at the commonalties among constructivist approaches to learning to suggest a "model" for designing constructivist learning environments. "...a constructivist design process should be concerned with designing environments which support the construction of knowledge, which ..."

Is Based on Internal Negotiation o a process of articulating mental models, using those models to explain, predict, and infer, and reflecting on their utility (Piaget's accommodation, Norman and Rumelhart's tuning and restructuring.) Is Based on Social Negotiation
o

a process of sharing a reality with others using the same or similar processes to those used in internal negotiation

Is Facilitated by Exploration of Real World Environments and Intervention of New Environments

o

processes that are regulated by each individual's intentions, needs, and/or expectations

Results in Mental Models and provides Meaningful, Authentic Contexts for Learning and Using the Constructed Knowledge
o

should be supported by case-based problems which have been derived from and situated in the real world with all of its uncertainty and complexity and based on authentic realife practice

Requires an Understanding of its Own Thinking Process and Problem Solving Methods
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problems in one context are different from problems in other contexts

Modeled for Learners by Skilled Performers but Not Necessarily Expert Performers Requires Collaboration Among Learners and With the Teacher
o

the teacher is more of a coach or mentor than a purveyor of knowledge

Provides an Intellectual Toolkit to Facilitate an Internal Negotiation Necessary for Building Mental Models (Jonasson, [On-line])

The technological advances of the 1980s and 1990s have enabled designers to move toward a more constructivist approach to design of instruction. One of the most useful tools for the constructivist designer is hypertext and hypermedia because it allows for a branched design rather than a linear format of instruction. Hyperlinks allow for learner control which is crucial to constructivist learning; however, there is some concerns over the novice learner becoming "lost" in a sea of hypermedia. To address this concern, Jonassen and McAlleese (Jonnassen & McAlleese, [On-line]) note that each phase of knowledge acquisition requires different types of learning and that initial knowledge acquisition is perhaps best served by classical instruction with predetermined learning outcomes, sequenced instructional interaction and criterion-referenced evaluation while the more advanced second phase of knowledge acquisition is more suited to a constructivist environment. If a novice learner is unable to establish an "anchor" in a hypermedia environment they may wander aimlessly through hypermedia becoming completely disoriented. Reigeluth and Chung suggest a prescriptive system which advocates increased learner control. In this method, students have some background knowledge and have been given some instruction in developing their own metacognitive strategies and have some way to return along the path they have taken, should they become "lost". (Davidson, 1998) Most literature on constructivist design suggests that learners should not simply be let loose in a hypermedia or hypertext environment, but that a mix of old and new (objective and constructive) instruction/learning design be implemented. Davidson's (1998) article, suggesting a criteria for hypermedia learning based on an "exploration of relevant learning theories", is an example of this method. Having noted the eclectic nature of instructional design, it is only fair to point out that not all theorists advocate a "mix and match" strategy for instructional design. Bednar, Cunningham, Duffy and Perry wrote an article that challenges the eclectic nature if instructional systems design by pointing out that "...abstracting concepts and strategies from the theoretical position that spawned then strips them of their meaning." They question objectivist epistemology completely and have adopted what they consider a constructivist approach to instructional design. In the article they compare the traditional approaches of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation to that of a constructivist approach. (Bednar, Cunningham, Duffy & Perry, 1995)
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Learning Theories and the Practice of Instructional Design What is the difference between the learning theories in terms of the practice of instructional design? Is one approach more easily achieved than another? To address this, one may consider that cognitive theory is the dominant theory in instructional design and many of the instructional strategies advocated and utilized by behaviorists are also used by cognitivists, but for different reasons. For example, behaviorists assess learners to determine a starting point for instruction, while cognitivists look at the learner to determine their predisposition to learning (Ertmer & Newby, 1993). With this in mind, the practice of instructional design can be viewed from a behaviorist/cognitivist approach as opposed to a constructivist approach. When designing from a behaviorist/cognitivist stance, the designer analyzes the situation and sets a goal. Individual tasks are broken down and learning objectives are developed. Evaluation consists of determining whether the criteria for the objectives has been met. In this approach the designer decides what is important for the learner to know and attempts to transfer that knowledge to the learner. The learning package is somewhat of a closed system, since although it may allow for some branching and remediation, the learner is still confined to the designer's "world". To design from a constructivist approach requires that the designer produces a product that is much more facilitative in nature than prescriptive. The content is not prespecified, direction is determined by the learner and assessment is much more subjective because it does not depend on specific quantitative criteria, but rather the process and self-evaluation of the learner. The standard pencil-and-paper tests of mastery learning are not used in constructive design; instead, evaluation is based on notes, early drafts, final products and journals. (Assessment [On-line]) Because of the divergent, subjective nature of constructive learning, it is easier for a designer to work from the systems, and thus the objective approach to instructional design. That is not to say that classical instructional design techniques are better than constructive design, but it is easier, less time consuming and most likely less expensive to design within a "closed system" rather than an "open" one. Perhaps there is some truth in the statement that "Constructivism is a 'learning theory', more than a 'teaching approach'." (Wilkinson, 1995) Learning Theories - Some Strengths and Weaknesses What are the perceived strengths and weaknesses of using certain theoretical approaches to instructional design? Behaviorism Weakness -the learner may find themselves in a situation where the stimulus for the correct response does not occur, therefore the learner cannot respond. - A worker who has been conditioned to respond to a certain cue at work stops production when an anomaly occurs because they do not understand the system.

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Strength - the learner is focused on a clear goal and can respond automatically to the cues of that goal. - W.W.II pilots were conditioned to react to silhouettes of enemy planes, a response which one would hope became automatic. Cognitivism Weakness - the learner learns a way to accomplish a task, but it may not be the best way, or suited to the learner or the situation. For example, logging onto the internet on one computer may not be the same as logging in on another computer. Strength - the goal is to train learners to do a task the same way to enable consistency. - Logging onto and off of a workplace computer is the same for all employees; it may be important do an exact routine to avoid problems. Constructivism Weakness - in a situation where conformity is essential divergent thinking and action may cause problems. Imagine the fun Revenue Canada would have if every person decided to report their taxes in their own way - although, there probably are some very "constructive" approaches used within the system we have. Strength - because the learner is able to interpret multiple realities, the learner is better able to deal with real life situations. If a learner can problem solve, they may better apply their existing knowledge to a novel situation. (Schuman, 1996)

Is There One Best Learning Theory for Instructional Design? Why bother with Theory at all? A solid foundation in learning theory is an essential element in the preparation of ISD professionals because it permeates all dimensions of ISD (Shiffman, 1995). Depending on the learners and situation, different learning theories may apply. The instructional designer must understand the strengths and weaknesses of each learning theory to optimize their use in appropriate instructional design strategy. Recipes contained in ID theories may have value for novice designers (Wilson, 1997), who lack the experience and expertise of veteran designers. Theories are useful because they open our eyes to other possibilities and ways of seeing the world. Whether we realize it or not, the best design decisions are most certainly based on our knowledge of learning theories. An Eclectic Approach to Theory in Instructional Design The function of ID is more of an application of theory, rather than a theory itself. Trying to tie Instructional Design to one particular theory is like school vs. the real world. What we learn in a school environment does not always match what is out there in the real world, just as the prescriptions of theory do not always apply in
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practice, (the real world). From a pragmatic point of view, instructional designers find what works and use it. What Works and How Can We Use It? Behaviorism, cognitivism and constructivism - what works where and how do we knit everything together to at least give ourselves some focus in our approach to instructional design? First of all we do not need to abandon the systems approach but we must modify it to accommodate constructivist values. We must allow circumstances surrounding the learning situation to help us decide which approach to learning is most appropriate. It is necessary to realize that some learning problems require highly prescriptive solutions, whereas others are more suited to learner control of the environment. (Schwier, 1995) Jonnassen in Manifesto for a Constructive Approach to Technology in Higher Education ([On-line]) identified the following types of learning and matched them with what he believes to be appropriate learning theory approaches. 1. Introductory Learning - learners have very little directly transferable prior knowledge about a skill or content area. They are at the initial stages of schema assembly and integration. At this stage classical instructional design is most suitable because it is predetermined, constrained, sequential and criterion-referenced. The learner can develop some anchors for further exploration. 2. Advanced Knowledge Acquisition - follows introductory knowledge and precedes expert knowledge. At this point constructivist approaches may be introduced. 3. Expertise is the final stage of knowledge acquisition. In this stage the learner is able to make intelligent decisions within the learning environment. A constructivist approach would work well in this case. Having pointed out the different levels of learning, Jonassen stresses that it is still important to consider the context before recommending any specific methodology. Reigeluth's Elaboration Theory which organizes instruction in increasing order of complexity and moves from prerequisite learning to learner control may work in the eclectic approach to instructional design, since the learner can be introduced to the main concepts of a course and then move on to more of a self directed study that is meaningful to them and their particular context. After having compared and contrasted behaviorism, cognitivism and constructivism, Ertmer and Newby (1993) feel that the instructional approach used for novice learners may not be efficiently stimulating for a learner who is familiar with the content. They do not advocate one single learning theory, but stress that instructional strategy and content addressed depend on the level of the learners. Similar to Jonassen, they match learning theories with the content to be learned: ... a behavioral approach can effectively facilitate mastery of the content of a
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profession (knowing what); cognitive strategies are useful in teaching problem -solving tactics where defined facts and rules are applied in unfamiliar situations (knowing how); and constructivist strategies are especially suited to dealing with ill-defined problems through reflection-in-action. (Ertmer P. & Newby, T., 1993) Behavioral ... tasks requiring a low degree of processing (e.g., basic paired associations, discriminations, rote memorization) seem to be facilitated by strategies most frequently associated with a behavioral outlook (e.g., stimulus-response, contiguity of feedback/reinforcement). Cognitive Tasks requiring an increased level of processing (e.g., classifications, rule or procedural executions) are primarily associated with strategies having a stronger cognitive emphasis (e.g., schematic organization, analogical reasoning, algorithmic problem solving). Constructive Tasks demanding high levels of processing (e.g., heuristic problem solving, personal selection and monitoring of cognitive strategies) are frequently est learned with strategies advanced by the constructivist perspective (e.g., situated learning, cognitive apprenticeships, social negotiation. (Ertmer P. & Newby, T., 1993)

Ertmer and Newby (1993) believe that the strategies promoted by different learning theories overlap (the same strategy for a different reason) and that learning theory strategies are concentrated along different points of a continuum depending of the focus of the learning theory - the level of cognitive processing required. Ertmer and Newby's suggestion that theoretical strategies can complement the learner's level of task knowledge, allows the designer to make the best use of all available practical applications of the different learning theories. With this approach the designer is able to draw from a large number of strategies to meet a variety of learning situations. Conclusion

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Upon completion of this site on learning theories and instructional design, I have not only accomplished my objective, but gained insight and appreciation for the different learning theories and their possible application to instructional design. It was interesting for me to find that I am not alone in my perspective regarding learning theories and instructional design. There is a place for each theory within the practice of instructional design, depending upon the situation and environment. I especially favor the idea of using an objective approach to provide the learner with an "anchor" before they set sail on the open seas of knowledge. A basic understanding of the material in question provides the learner with a guiding compass for further travel. Another consideration is the distinction between "training" and "education". In today's competitive business world, the instructional designer may be required to establish and meet the objectives of that business. On the other hand, in a school setting, the designer may be challenged to provide material that fosters an individual to find divergent approaches to problem solving. Whichever situation the instructional designer finds themselves in, they will require a thorough understanding of learning theories to enable them to provide the appropriate learning environment. Finally, though Instructional Design may have a behaviorist tradition, new insights to the learning process continue to replace, change and alter the process. Advancements in technology make branched constructivist approaches to learning possible. Whether designing for training or education, the instructional designer's toolbox contains an ever changing and increasing number of theoretical applications and physical possibilities. With intelligent application of learning theory strategies and technology, the modern designer will find solutions to the learning requirements of the 21st century. Documentarul Nr. 8 Mastery Learning Mastery Learning is an instructional method that presumes all children can learn if they are provided with the appropriate learning conditions. Specifically, mastery learning is a method whereby students are not advanced to a subsequent learning objective until they demonstrate proficiency with the current one. Mastery learning curricula generally consist of discrete topics which all students begin together. Students who do not satisfactorily complete a topic are given additional instruction until they succeed. Students who master the topic early engage in enrichment activities until the entire class can progress together. Mastery learning includes many elements of successful tutoring and the independent functionality seen in high-end students. In a mastery learning environment, the teacher directs a variety of group-based instructional techniques, with frequent and specific feedback by using diagnostic, formative tests, as well as regularly correcting mistakes students make along their learning path. Teachers evaluate students with criterion-referenced tests rather than normreferenced tests.
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Mastery learning has nothing to do with content, merely on the process of mastering it, and is based on Benjamin Bloom's Mastery for Learning model, with refinements made by Block. Mastery learning may be implemented as teacher-paced group instruction, one-to-one tutoring, or self-paced learning with programmed materials. It may involve direct teacher instruction, cooperation with classmates, or independent learning. It requires well-defined learning objectives organized into smaller, sequentially organized units. Individualized instruction has some elements in common with mastery learning, although it dispenses with group activities in favor of allowing more able or more motivated students to progress ahead of others and maximizing teacher interaction with those students who need the most assistance.

Most experiments that compared mastery learning to conventional instruction have shown that mastery learning is more effective. In one meta-analysis (Kulik, Kulik & Bangert-Drowns, 1990), the mean effect size (Cohen's d) of 103 studies was 0.52 standard deviation units, which is considered a moderately large effect size. The concept of mastery learning can be attributed to the behaviorism principles of operant conditioning. According to operant conditioning theory, learning occurs when an association is formed between a stimulus and response (Skinner, 1984). In line with the behavior theory, mastery learning focuses on overt behaviors that can be observed and measured (Baum, 2005). The material that will be taught to mastery is broken down into small discrete lessons that follow a logical progression. In order to demonstrate mastery over each lesson, students must be able to overtly show evidence of understanding of the material before moving to the next lesson (Anderson, 2000).In general, mastery learning programs have been shown to lead to higher achievement in all students as compared to more traditional forms of teaching (Anderson, 2000; Gusky & Gates, 1986). Despite the empirical evidence, many mastery programs in schools have been replaced by more traditional forms of instruction due to the level of commitment required by the teacher and the difficulty in managing the classroom when each student is following an individual course of learning (Anderson, 2000; Grittner, 1975). References Anderson, J. R. (2000). Learning and memory: An integrated approach (2nd ed.). New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Baum, W. M. (2005). Understanding Behaviorism: Behavior, Culture and Evolution. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. Block, Schools, Society and Mastery Learning. ISBN 978-0030884078 Kulik, C., Kulik, J., & Bangert-Drowns, R. (1990). Effectiveness of mastery learning programs: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 60(2), 265-306. Grittner, F. M. (1975). Individualized instruction: An historical perspective. The Modern Language Journal, 323 333.
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Gusky, T. R., & Gates, S. (1986). Synthesis of research on the effects of mastery learning in elementary and secondary classrooms. Educational Leadership, 43, 7380.

Documentarul nr. 9 Cele 8 competene-cheie recomandate de Parlamentul European ( Key competences for lifelong learning ) Key competences in the shape of knowledge, skills and attitudes appropriate to each context are fundamental for each individual in a knowledge-based society. They provide added value for the labour market, social cohesion and active citizenship by offering flexibility and adaptability, satisfaction and motivation. Because they should be acquired by everyone, this recommendation proposes a reference tool for European Union (EU) countries to ensure that these key competences are fully integrated into their strategies and infrastructures, particularly in the context of lifelong learning. ACT Recommendation 2006/962/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 December 2006 on key competences for lifelong learning [Official Journal L 394 of 30.12.2006]. SUMMARY Key competences for lifelong learning are a combination of knowledge, skills and attitudes appropriate to the context. They are particularly necessary for personal fulfilment and development, social inclusion, active citizenship and employment. Key competences are essential in a knowledge society and guarantee more flexibility in the labour force, allowing it to adapt more quickly to constant changes in an increasingly interconnected world. They are also a major factor in innovation, productivity and competitiveness, and they contribute to the motivation and satisfaction of workers and the quality of work. Key competences should be acquired by:

young people at the end of their compulsory education and training, equipping them for adult life, particularly for working life, whilst forming a basis for further learning; adults throughout their lives, through a process of developing and updating skills.
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The acquisition of key competences fits in with the principles of equality and access for all. This reference framework also applies in particular to disadvantaged groups whose educational potential requires support. Examples of such groups include people with low basic skills, early school leavers, the long-term unemployed, people with disabilities, migrants, etc. Eight key competences This framework defines eight key competences and describes the essential knowledge, skills and attitudes related to each of these. These key competences are: III. communication in the mother tongue, which is the ability to express and interpret concepts, thoughts, feelings, facts and opinions in both oral and written form (listening, speaking, reading and writing) and to interact linguistically in an appropriate and creative way in a full range of societal and cultural contexts; communication in foreign languages, which involves, in addition to the main skill dimensions of communication in the mother tongue, mediation and intercultural understanding. The level of proficiency depends on several factors and the capacity for listening, speaking, reading and writing; mathematical competence and basic competences in science and technology. Mathematical competence is the ability to develop and apply mathematical thinking in order to solve a range of problems in everyday situations, with the emphasis being placed on process, activity and knowledge. Basic competences in science and technology refer to the mastery, use and application of knowledge and methodologies that explain the natural world. These involve an understanding of the changes caused by human activity and the responsibility of each individual as a citizen; digital competence involves the confident and critical use of information society technology (IST) and thus basic skills in information and communication technology (ICT); learning to learn is related to learning, the ability to pursue and organise one's own learning, either individually or in groups, in accordance with one's own needs, and awareness of methods and opportunities; social and civic competences. Social competence refers to personal, interpersonal and intercultural competence and all forms of behaviour that equip individuals to participate in an effective and constructive way in social and working life. It is linked to personal and social well-being. An understanding of codes of conduct and customs in the different environments in which individuals operate is essential. Civic competence, and particularly knowledge of social and political concepts and structures (democracy, justice, equality, citizenship and civil rights), equips individuals to engage in active and democratic participation; sense of initiative and entrepreneurship is the ability to turn ideas into action. It involves creativity, innovation and risk-taking, as well as the ability to plan and manage projects in order to achieve objectives. The individual is
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IV.

V.

VI.

VII.

VIII.

IX.

aware of the context of his/her work and is able to seize opportunities that arise. It is the foundation for acquiring more specific skills and knowledge needed by those establishing or contributing to social or commercial activity. This should include awareness of ethical values and promote good governance; X. cultural awareness and expression, which involves appreciation of the importance of the creative expression of ideas, experiences and emotions in a range of media (music, performing arts, literature and the visual arts).

These key competences are all interdependent, and the emphasis in each case is on critical thinking, creativity, initiative, problem solving, risk assessment, decision taking and constructive management of feelings. A European reference framework for European Union (EU) countries and the Commission These key competences provide a reference framework to support national and European efforts to achieve the objectives they define. This framework is mainly intended for policy makers, education and training providers, employers and learners. It is a reference tool for EU countries and their education and training policies. EU countries should try to ensure:

that initial education and training offer all young people the means to develop the key competences to a level that equips them for adult and working life, thus also providing a basis for future learning; that appropriate provision is made for young people who are disadvantaged in their training so that they can fulfil their educational potential; that adults can develop and update key competences throughout their lives, particularly priority target groups such as persons who need to update their competences; that appropriate infrastructure is in place for continuing education and training of adults, that there are measures to ensure access to education and training and the labour market and that there is support for learners depending on their specific needs and competences; the coherence of adult education and training provision through close links between the policies concerned.

It forms the basis for action at Community level, particularly within the Education and Training 2010 work programme and, more generally, within the Community education and training programmes. In this respect, the Commission should make a special effort to:

help EU countries to develop their education and training systems, apply the reference framework so as to facilitate peer learning and the exchange of good practices and follow up developments and report on progress through the progress reports on the Education and Training 2010 work programme;
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use the reference framework for the implementation of the Community education and training programmes whilst ensuring that these programmes promote the acquisition of key competences; use the reference framework to implement related Community policies (employment, youth, cultural and social policies) and to strengthen links with social partners and other organisations active in those fields; assess, by December 2010, the impact of the reference framework within the context of the Education and Training 2010 work programme as well as the experience gained and the implications for the future.

Background The transversal nature of key competences makes them essential. They provide added value for employment, social cohesion or young people ( European Youth Pact), which explains the importance of lifelong learning in terms of adapting to change and integration. The reference criteria, which make it possible to judge improvements in European performances, featured in a 2005 report with contrasting results. In response to the concerns expressed at the Lisbon European Council on 23 and 24 March 2000, which were repeated in the revised Lisbon strategy in 2005, the key competences form part of the objectives of the Education and Training 2010 work programme, the Commission communication of 2001 on making a European area of lifelong learning a reality and the subsequent Council resolution adopted in 2002. These last two put forward specific proposals on making key competences a priority for all age groups. For its part, the 2004 joint interim report on the progress of the Education and Training 2010 work programme made the case for drawing up common European references and principles.

Documentarul Nr. 10

Diferenierea instruirii n clasa de elevi Differentiated instruction

Differentiated instruction (sometimes referred to as differentiated learning) involves providing students with different avenues to acquiring content; to processing, constructing, or making sense of ideas; and to developing teaching materials so that all students within a classroom can learn effectively, regardless of differences in ability.[1]
Differentiated instruction, according to Carol Ann Tomlinson (as cited by Ellis, Gable, Greg, & Rock, 2008, p. 32), is the process of ensuring that what a student learns, how he/she learns it, and 59

how the student demonstrates what he/she has learned is a match for that students readiness level, interests, and preferred mode of learning. Differentiation stems from beliefs about differences among learners, how they learn, learning preferences and individual interests (Anderson, 2007). "Research indicates that many of the emotional or social difficulties gifted students experience disappear when their educational climates are adapted to their level and pace of learning." [2] Differentiation in education can also include how a student shows that they have mastery of a concept. This could be through a research paper, role play, podcast, diagram, poster, etc. The key is finding how your students learn and displays their learning that meets their specific needs.

About In differentiated instruction students are placed at the center of teaching and learning[1]. Kathy Bigo defines differentiation as "the right of each pupil to be taught in a way specifically tailored to their individual learning needs." [3] Because each learner comes to school with a different set of learning needs, examples of which include differing educational, personal, and communal contexts [4] and varying degrees of academic skill development,[5] differentiated instruction advocates that the educator proactively plans a variety of instruction methods so as to best facilitate effective learning experiences which are suited to the various learning needs within the classroom.[1] In its pursuit of this foundational goal, differentiated instructional methods attempt to qualitatively, as opposed to quantitatively, match learners' abilities with appropriate material; include a blend of whole-class, group, and individual instruction; use numerous approaches to facilitating input, processing, and output; and constantly adapt to learners' needs based upon the teacher's constant assessment of all students.[1] Often referred to as an educational philosophy, differentiated instruction is viewed as a proactive approach to instruction and an idea that has as many faces as practitioners. The model of differentiated instruction requires teachers to tailor their instruction and adjust the curriculum to students needs rather than expecting students to modify themselves to fit the curriculum. Teachers who are committed to this approach believe that who they teach shapes how they teach because who the students are shapes how they learn. Differentiated instruction requires the teacher to have "sufficient appropriate knowledge of the pupils, PLUS the ability to plan and deliver suitable lessons effectively, so as to help all pupils individually to maximise their learning, whatever their individual situation". [6] Differentiation is not teaching at a slow pace so that everyone can keep up, allowing pupils and groups work through tasks at their own pace, or expecting some students to do better than others and calling it 'differentiation by outcome'.[7] Bigio also cautions that differentiation is not 'Humiliating the slow learners by drawing attention to their limitations". [8] The perfect model of differentiated instruction rests upon an active, student centered, meaning-making approach to teaching and learning. The theoretical and philosophical influences embedded in differentiated instruction support the three key elements of differentiated instruction itself: readiness, interest, and learning profile (Allan & Tomlinson, 2000). Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist, proved that individuals learn best in accordance with their readiness to do so (Allan & Tomlinson, 2008). This theoretical
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influence provides a concrete foundation for differentiated instruction. The readiness of the individual should match what a student learns, how they learn it and how the student demonstrates what they learned when using differentiated instruction. The philosophical idea that interest based options seize on intrinsic motivation, supports the second key element of differentiated instruction, student interest. According to Jerome Bruner (as cited by Allan & Tomlinson, 2000), when interest is tapped, learning is more likely to be rewarding and the student becomes a more autonomous learner. An American psychologist, Howard Gardner, developed the theory of multiple intelligences. His theory states that people have different intelligences and learn in many different ways. Gardners theory suggests that schools should offer individualcentered education, having curriculum tailored to a childs intelligence preference (Allan & Tomlinson, 2000). Essentially, Gardner supports the third key element of differentiated instruction, which accounts for different student learning profiles. Differentiated instruction integrates constructivist learning theories, learning styles, and brain development with research on influencing factors of learner readiness, interest and intelligence preferences toward students motivation, engagement, and academic growth within schools (Anderson, 2007). According to educational psychologist Kathie Nunley, differentiated instruction became an essential part of US educator's repertoire as the make-up of the general classroom moved from homogeneous groupings of students prior to the 1970s to the ever increasing variety of learners seen in the heterogeneous classroom make-up in the last 40 years[9] (Nunley, 2006). By using differentiated instruction, educators can meet all individual student needs and help every student meet and exceed established standards (Levy, 2008). According to Tomlinson (as cited by Rebora, 2008), the perceived need for differentiated instruction lies in the fact that students vary in so many ways and student populations are becoming more academically diverse. Chances are pretty good that the trend of diverse student populations will continue throughout our lifetimes. Pre-assessment For some teachers, the first and most important step in differentiated instruction is determining what students already know so as not to cover material students have mastered, or use methods that would be ineffective for students. A preassessment can be a quiz, game, discussion, or other activity that asks students to answer some of the questions that would be used to evaluate their performance at the end of an upcoming unit or lesson. It may also be in the form of a learning inventory, such as a Multiple Intelligences inventory (still regarded with skepticism by many researchers),[10] so the teacher will be able to determine how students within the class prefer to learn. Some models of differentiation do not require a pre-assessment, but rather have students self-assess daily through oral defense, such as in Layered Curriculum. ( [11] Nunley, 2004, 2006)
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The goals of differentiated instruction are to develop challenging and engaging tasks for each learner (from low-end learner to high-end learner). Instructional activities are flexible and based and evaluated on content, process and product. This instructional approach and choice of content are driven by the data from students assessment results and from the outcomes of other screening tools. Meaningful preand post-assessment leads to successful differentiation by producing the results that communicate the students needs. Content The content of lessons may be differentiated based on what students already know. The most basic content of a lesson should cover the standards of learning set by the district or state. Some students in a class may be completely unfamiliar with the concepts in a lesson, some students may have partial mastery of the content - or display mistaken ideas about the content, and some students may show mastery of the content before the lesson begins. The teacher may differentiate the content by designing activities for groups of students that cover different areas of Bloom's Taxonomy. For example, students who are unfamiliar with the concepts may be required to complete tasks on the lower levels of Bloom's Taxonomy: knowledge, comprehension, and application. Students with partial mastery may be asked to complete tasks in the application, analysis and evaluation areas, and students who have high levels of mastery may be asked to complete tasks in evaluation and synthesis. When a teacher differentiates content they may adapt what they want the students to learn or how the students will gain access to the knowledge, understanding and skills (Anderson, 2007). Educators are not varying student objectives or lowering performance standards for students. They use different texts, novels or short stories at a reading level appropriate for each individual student. Teachers can use flexible groups and have students assigned to alike groups listening to books on tape or specific internet sources. Students could have a choice to work in pairs, groups or individually, but all students are working towards the same standards and objectives. Process The process of how the material in a lesson is learned may be differentiated for students based on their learning styles, taking into account what standards of performance are required for the age level. This stage of differentiation allows students to learn based either on what method is easiest for them to acquire knowledge, or what may challenge them most: some students may prefer to read about a topic (or may require practice in reading), and others may prefer to listen (or require practice in listening), or acquire knowledge by manipulating objects associated with the content. Information may be presented in multiple ways by the teacher, and may be based on any available methods or materials. Many teachers use areas of Multiple Intelligences to provide learning opportunities. Commonalities in the assessment results lead to grouping practices that are planned designed to meet the students needs. "How" a teacher plans to deliver the instruction is based on assessment results that show the needs, learning styles,
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interests, and levels of prior knowledge. The grouping practices must be flexible, as groups will change with regard to the need that will be addressed. Regardless of whether the differentiation of instruction is based upon student readiness, interests, or needs, the dynamic flow of grouping and regrouping is one of the foundations of differentiated instruction. It is important for a differentiated classroom to allow some students to work alone, if this is their best modality for a particular task. (Nunley, 2004) Differentiating by process refers to how a student comes to understand and assimilate facts, concepts and skills (Anderson, 2007). After teaching a lesson, a teacher might break students into small ability groups based on their readiness. The teacher would then give each group a series of questions, based on each group's appropriate level of readiness-skills, related to the objectives of the lesson. Another way to group the students could be based on the students learning styles. The main idea behind this is that students are at different levels and learn in different ways, so a teacher cant teach them all the same way. Another model of differentiation, Layered Curriculum, simply offers student a choice of assignments but requires demonstration of learning in order to pass of the assignment. This eliminates the need for pre-assessment and is useful for teachers with large class loads, such as in high school. (Nunley, 2004). Product The product is essentially what the student produces at the end of the lesson to demonstrate the mastery of the content: tests, evaluations, projects, reports, or other activities. Based on students' skill levels and educational standards, teachers may assign students to complete activities that demonstrate mastery of an educational concept (writing a report), or in a method the student prefers (composing an original song about the content, or building a 3-dimensional object that explains mastery of concepts in the lesson or unit). The product is an integral component of the differentiated model, as the preparation of the assessments will primarily determine both the what and how instruction will be delivered. When an educator differentiates by product or performance, they are affording students various ways of demonstrating what they have learned from the lesson or unit (Anderson, 2007; Nunley, 2006). It is done by using menu unit sheets, choice boards or open-ended lists of final product options. It is meant to allow students to show what they learned based on their learning preferences, interests and strengths. Examples of differentiated structures include Layered Curriculum, tiered instruction, tic-tac-toe extension menus, Curry/Samara models, RAFT writing activities, and similar designs. (see external links below) In differentiated instruction, teachers respond to students readiness, instructional needs, interests and learning preferences and provide opportunities for students to work in varied instructional formats. A classroom that utilizes differentiated instruction is a learner-responsive, teacher-facilitated classroom where all students have the opportunity to meet curriculum foundation objectives. Lessons may be on inquiry based, problem based and project based instruction.
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References 1. ^ a b c d Tomlinson, Carol (2001). How to Differentiate Instruction in Mixed-Ability Differentiated Instructions provides access for all students to the general education curriculum. The method of assessment may look different for each child, however the skill / concepts taught will be the same. Classrooms (2 ed.). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. ISBN 0871205122. 2. ^ Neihart, Maureen ed., with Reis, Sally; Robinson, Nancy; and Moon, Sidney, (2002). The Social and Emotional Development of Gifted Children: What Do We Know? National Association of Gifted Children (Prufrock Press, Inc.). p. 286
3. ^ Kathy Bigio 'Differentiation 3-7', 2010 4. ^ Taylor, Lorraine; Catharine Whittaker (2003). Bridging Multiple

Worlds: Case Studies of Diverse Educational Communities . Boston: Allyn & Bacon. ISBN 0321086694.
5. ^ Levine, Mel (2002). A Mind at a Time. New York: Simon & Schuster.

ISBN 0743202228.
6. ^ Kathy Bigio 'Differentiation 3-7' 2010 7. ^ Kathy Bigio, 'Differentiation 3-7' 2010 8. ^ Kathy Bigio, 'Differentiation 3-7', 2010 9. ^ Nunley, K. 2006. Differentiating the High School Classroom, Corwin

Press. pg 8
10. ^ Morgan, H. (1996). An analysis of Gardner's theory of multiple

intelligence. Roeper Review 18, 263-270.

11. ^ Nunley, K. (2006). Differentiating the High School Classroom. Corwin

Press Further reading

Allan, S. D., & Tomlinson, C. A. (2000). Leadership for differentiating schools and classrooms. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Anderson, K. M. (2007). Tips for teaching: Differentiating instruction to include all students. Preventing School Failure, 51(3), 49-54. Ellis, E., Gable, R. A., Gregg, M., Rock, M. L. (2008). REACH: A framework for differentiating classroom instruction. Preventing School Failure, 52(2), 31-47 Levy, H. M. (2008). Meeting the needs of all students through differentiated instruction: Helping every child reach and exceed standards. The Clearing House, 81(4), 161-164.
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Rebora, A. (2008). Making a difference. Teacher Magazine, 2(1), 26, 28-31. Nunley, K. (2004). Layered Curriculum. 2nd ed. Brains.org: Amherst, NH Nunley, K. (2006). Differentiating the High School Classroom: Solution Strategies for 18 Common Obstacles. Corwin Press: Thousand Oaks, CA.

Studiile Reading Rockets cu privire la diferenierea instruirii (Reading Rockets is a national multimedia project offering information and resources on how young kids learn to read, why so many struggle, and how caring adults can help. The Reading Rockets project is comprised of PBS television programs, available on videotape and DVD; online services, including the websites ReadingRockets.org and ColorinColorado.org; and professional development opportunities. Reading Rockets is an educational initiative of WETA, the flagship public television and radio station in the nation's capital, and is funded by a major grant from the U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs.)

Differentiated Instruction and Implications for UDL Implementation By Tracey Hall, Nicole Strangman, and Anne Meyer Note: Updated on 11/2/2009; 1/14/2011 Introduction Not all students are alike. Based on this knowledge, differentiated instruction applies an approach to teaching and learning that gives students multiple options for taking in information and making sense of ideas. Differentiated instruction is a teaching theory based on the premise that instructional approaches should vary and be adapted in relation to individual and diverse students in classrooms (Tomlinson, 2001). The model of differentiated instruction requires teachers to be flexible in their approach to teaching and adjust the curriculum and presentation of information to learners rather than expecting students to modify themselves for the curriculum. Many teachers and teacher educators have recently identified differentiated instruction as a method of helping more students in diverse classroom settings experience success. This report examines information on the theory and research behind differentiated instruction and the intersection with Universal Design for Learning (UDL), a curriculum designed approach to increase flexibility in teaching and decrease the barriers that frequently limit student access to materials and learning in classrooms (Rose & Meyer, 2002). We begin with an introduction to
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differentiated instruction by defining the construct, then identifying components and features; additionally, we provide a sampling of applications. Next, we introduce UDL and the linkages with differentiated instruction both in theory and with specific lesson examples. The report concludes with a listing of web resources for further information and explicit examples. This report on differentiated instruction and UDL begins with an introduction to differentiated instruction in which we provide the definition, a sampling of considerations and curriculum applications, and research evidence for effectiveness. The second part of the paper, the discussion moves to UDL applications of differentiated instruction. UDL is a theoretical approach that is based on research from the neurosciences and effective teaching practices. This portion develops an understanding of UDL and proceeds to identify the theoretical and teacher practice levels. Our document concludes with general guidelines for the implementation of UDL and a list of web resources that provide further information about differentiated instruction. The literature review in this paper is also available as a stand alone document, with annotated references. Look for it on the Effective Classrooms Practices page of the National Center for Accessing the General Curriculum's web site http://www.cast.org/publications/ncac/ncac_diffinstruc.html . Definition To differentiate instruction is to recognize students' varying background knowledge, readiness, language, preferences in learning and interests; and to react responsively. Differentiated instruction is a process to teaching and learning for students of differing abilities in the same class. The intent of differentiating instruction is to maximize each student's growth and individual success by meeting each student where he or she is and assisting in the learning process. Figure 1. Learning Cycle and Decision Factors Used in Planning and Implementing Differentiated Instruction Image description: This graphic organizer is entitled "Learning Cycle and Decision Factors Used in Planning and Implementing Differentiated Instruction" and is made up of a series of seven labeled boxes connected by arrows. Two boxes, one on top of the other, are joined together at the center of the graphic organizer within a blue background. The box at the top is labeled "Content: what teacher plans to teach." The box at the bottom is labeled "Process: How teacher: Plans instruction; Whole class; Groups/Pairs; Individually." To the left of these two boxes are two smaller boxes, also one on top of the other. The box at the top is labeled "Curriculum: State and Local Standards and Benchmarks." The box at the bottom is labeled "Student: Readiness/Ability; Interests/Talents; Learning profile; Prior knowledge." A black line connects these two boxes to each other and a black arrow points from the center of this line to the two boxes in the center of the graphic organizer. A small box at the bottom left is labeled "Pre-Assessment" and a black arrow points from it to the box labeled "Student."
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To the right of the two center boxes with the blue background is a box labeled "Assessment of content: Product." A black, double-sided arrow points to it and to the two center boxes. On the far right, a box labeled "Summative evaluation" is connected to the box labeled "Product" with a black line. Black arrows point from the bottom of the boxes labeled "Product" and "Summative evaluation" to the bottom of the graphic organizer. A horizontal black line goes across the bottom of the graphic organizer. Two arrows point from it to the two center boxes and to the two boxes on the left.

Identifying Components/Features According to the authors of differentiated instruction, several key elements guide differentiation in the education environment. Tomlinson (2001) identifies three elements of the curriculum that can be differentiated: Content, Process, and Products (Figure 1). These are described in the following three sections, which are followed by several additional guidelines for forming an understanding of and developing ideas around differentiated instruction. Content

Several elements and materials are used to support instructional content. These include acts, concepts, generalizations or principles, attitudes, and skills. The variation seen in a differentiated classroom is most frequently in the manner in which students gain access to important learning. Access to the content is seen as key. Align tasks and objectives to learning goals. Designers of differentiated instruction view the alignment of tasks with instructional goals and objectives as essential. Goals are most frequently assessed by many state-level, highstakes tests and frequently administered standardized measures. Objectives are frequently written in incremental steps resulting in a continuum of skillsbuilding tasks. An objectives-driven menu makes it easier to find the next instructional step for learners entering at varying levels. Instruction is concept-focused and principle-driven. The instructional concepts should be broad-based, not focused on minute details or unlimited facts. Teachers must focus on the concepts, principles and skills that students should learn. The content of instruction should address the same concepts with all students, but the degree of complexity should be adjusted to suit diverse learners. Process

Flexible grouping is consistently used. Strategies for flexible grouping are essential. Learners are expected to interact and work together as they develop knowledge of new content. Teachers may conduct whole-class introductory discussions of content big ideas followed by small group or paired work. Student groups may be coached from within or by the teacher to complete assigned tasks. Grouping of students is not fixed. As one of the foundations of
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differentiated instruction, grouping and regrouping must be a dynamic process, changing with the content, project, and on-going evaluations. Classroom management benefits students and teachers. To effectively operate a classroom using differentiated instruction, teachers must carefully select organization and instructional delivery strategies. In her text, How to Differentiate Instruction in Mixed-Ability Classrooms (Chapter 7), Carol Tomlinson (2001), identifies 17 key strategies for teachers to successfully meet the challenge of designing and managing differentiated instruction. Products

5. Initial and on-going assessment of student readiness and growth are essential. Meaningful pre-assessment naturally leads to functional and successful differentiation. Incorporating pre and on-going assessment informs teachers so that they can better provide a menu of approaches, choices, and scaffolds for the varying needs, interests and abilities that exist in classrooms of diverse students. Assessments may be formal or informal, including interviews, surveys, performance assessments, and more formal evaluation procedures. 6. Students are active and responsible explorers. Teachers respect that each task put before the learner will be interesting, engaging, and accessible to essential understanding and skills. Each child should feel challenged most of the time. 7. Vary expectations and requirements for student responses. Items to which students respond may be differentiated so that different students can demonstrate or express their knowledge and understanding in different ways. A well-designed student product allows varied means of expression and alternative procedures and offers varying degrees of difficulty, types of evaluation, and scoring. Additional Guidelines That Make Differentiation Possible for Teachers to Attain

Clarify key concepts and generalizations. Ensure that all learners gain powerful understandings that can serve as the foundation for future learning. Teachers are encouraged to identify essential concepts and instructional foci to ensure that all learners comprehend. Use assessment as a teaching tool to extend rather than merely measure instruction. Assessment should occur before, during, and following the instructional episode, and it should be used to help pose questions regarding student needs and optimal learning. Emphasize critical and creative thinking as a goal in lesson design. The tasks, activities, and procedures for students should require that they understand and apply meaning. Instruction may require supports, additional motivation, varied tasks, materials, or equipment for different students in the classroom. Engaging all learners is essential. Teachers are encouraged to strive for the development of lessons that are engaging and motivating for a diverse class of students. Vary tasks within instruction as well as across students. In other
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words, an entire session for students should not consist of all drill and practice, or any single structure or activity.

Provide a balance between teacher-assigned and student-selected tasks. A balanced working structure is optimal in a differentiated classroom. Based on pre-assessment information, the balance will vary from class-to-class as well as lesson-to-lesson. Teachers should ensure that students have choices in their learning. Evidence of Effectiveness as a Classroom Practice

Differentiation is recognized to be a compilation of many theories and practices. Based on this review of the literature of differentiated instruction, the "package" itself is lacking empirical validation. There is an acknowledged and decided gap in the literature in this area and future research is warranted. According to the proponents of differentiation, the principles and guidelines are rooted in years of educational theory and research. For example, differentiated instruction adopts the concept of "readiness." That is, the difficulty of skills taught should be slightly in advance of the child's current level of mastery. This is grounded in the work of Lev Vygotsky (1978), and the zone of proximal development (ZPD), the range at which learning takes place. The classroom research by Fisher et al., (1980), strongly supports the ZPD concept. The researchers found that in classrooms where individuals were performing at a level of about 80% accuracy, students learned more and felt better about themselves and the subject area under study (Fisher, 1980 in Tomlinson, 2000). Other practices noted as central to differentiation have been validated in the effective teaching research conduced from the mid 1980's to the present. These practices include effective management procedures, grouping students for instruction, and engaging learners (Ellis and Worthington, 1994). While no empirical validation of differentiated instruction as a package was found for this review, there are a generous number of testimonials and classroom examples that authors of several publications and web sites provide. Tomlinson reports individual cases of settings in which the full model of differentiation was very promising and teachers using differentiation have written about improvements in their classrooms. (See the links to learn more about differentiated instruction). Applications to General Education Classroom Settings The design and development of differentiated instruction as a model began in the general education classroom. The initial application came to practice for students considered gifted but whom perhaps were not sufficiently challenged by the content provided in the general classroom setting. As classrooms have become more diverse, differentiated instruction has been applied at all levels for students of all abilities. Many authors of publications about differentiated instruction, strongly recommend that teachers adapt the practices slowly, perhaps one content area at a
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time. Additionally, these experts agree that teachers should share the creative load by working together to develop ideas and menus of options for students. A number of web sites have been created in that include lessons to illustrate what teachers have created for instruction using the model of differentiated instruction. Several web sites are listed in a later section of this report. Differentiated instruction is an instructional process that has excellent potential to positively impact learning by offering teachers a means to provide instruction to a range of students in today's classroom situations. The next section of this report introduces the reader to the theory and research behind Universal Design for Learning (UDL). We then investigate the links and connections between UDL and differentiated instruction. Additionally, we identify methods and materials that may be implemented to support the implementation of differentiated instruction in concert with the principles of UDL. Finally, a set of guidelines for UDL implementation are provided including a listing of web resources to provide further information on the concepts presented in this report. An Introduction to Universal Design for Learning Applications Universal Design for Learning is a theoretical framework developed by CAST to guide the development of curricula that are flexible and supportive of all students (Dolan & Hall, 2001; Meyer & Rose, 1998; Pisha & Coyne, 2001; Rose, 2001; Rose & Dolan, 2000; Rose & Meyer, 2000a, 2000b, 2002; Rose, Sethuraman, & Meo, 2000). The concept of UDL was inspired by the universal design movement in architecture. This movement calls for the design of structures that anticipate the needs of individuals with disabilities and accommodate these needs from the outset. Universally designed structures are indeed more usable by individuals with disabilities, but in addition they offer unforeseen benefits for all users. Curb cuts, for example, serve their intended use of facilitating the travel of those in wheelchairs, but they are also beneficial to people pushing strollers, young children, and even the average walker. And so, the process of designing for individuals with disabilities has led to improved usability for everyone. Similarly, but uniquely, UDL calls for the design of curricula with the needs of all students in mind, so that methods, materials, and assessment are usable by all. Traditional curricula present a host of barriers that limit students' access to information and learning. Of these, printed text is particularly notorious. In a traditional curriculum, a student without a well-developed ability to see, decode, attend to, or comprehend printed text is compelled to adapt to its ubiquity as best as he or she can. In contrast, a UDL curriculum is designed to be innately flexible, enriched with multiple media so that alternatives can be accessed whenever appropriate. A UDL curriculum takes on the burden of adaptation so that the student doesn't have to, minimizing barriers and maximizing access to both information and learning. The UDL framework guides the development of adaptable curricula by means of 3 principles (Figure 2). These 3 principles parallel 3 fundamentally important learning components and 3 distinct learning networks in the brain: recognition, strategy, and affect (Rose & Meyer, 2002). The common recommendation of these 3 principles is to select goals, methods, assessment and materials in a way that will minimize
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barriers and maximize flexibility. In this manner, the UDL framework structures the development of curricula that fully support every student's access, participation, and progress in all 3 essential facets of learning. Principles of the Universal Design for Learning Framework Principle 1: To support recognition learning, provide multiple, flexible methods of presentation Principle 2: To support strategic learning, provide multiple, flexible methods of expression and apprenticeship. Principle 3: To support affective learning, provide multiple, flexible options for engagement. Figure 2. The three UDL principles call for flexibility in relation to three essential facets of learning, each one orchestrated by a distinct set of networks in the brain. Critical to successfully implementing UDL theory is the use of digital materials. Digital materials, unlike the conventional pedagogical mainstays, speech, printed text, and printed images, have an inherent flexibility. They can be modified in a host of ways, depending on the needs of the student. This flexibility makes it feasible to customize learning materials and methods to each individual. For teachers wondering how to customize the curriculum, CAST has devised three sets of broad teaching methods that support each of the 3 UDL principles (Figure 3, Rose & Meyer, 2002). These teaching methods draw on knowledge of the qualities of digital media and how recognition, strategic, and affective networks operate. For example, the first Teaching Method to support recognition learning is to provide multiple examples. This teaching method takes advantage of the fact that recognition networks can extract the defining features of a pattern and differentiate it from similar patterns simply by viewing multiple examples. Although presentation of multiple examples might be challenging in a classroom limited to printed text and hard copy images, digital materials enable the assembly, storage, and maintenance of a large collection of examples in the form of digital text, images, sound, or video all in the modest space of a classroom. This is one example of how digital materials and UDL Teaching Methods can facilitate the successful implementation of UDL. The UDL Teaching Methods will anchor the upcoming discussion where we will highlight the ways in which computer simulations align with each of the 3 UDL principles. Within the context of these teaching methods, we'll show how computer simulations can support individualized instruction of recognition, strategic, and affective learning. Network-Appropriate Teaching Methods To support diverse recognition networks:
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Provide multiple examples Highlight critical features Provide multiple media and formats Support background context

To support diverse strategic networks:

Provide flexible models of skilled performance Provide opportunities to practice with supports Provide ongoing, relevant feedback Offer flexible opportunities for demonstrating skill

To support diverse affective networks:

Offer choices of context and tools Offer adjustable levels of challenge Offer choices of learning context Offer choices of rewards

Figure 3. To help teachers support learners' diverse recognition, strategic, and affective networks, CAST has developed three sets of UDL teaching methods. These teaching methods can be used to make the curriculum more flexible and broadly supportive. Top Differentiated Instruction and the Three Universal Design for Learning Principles Differentiated instruction is well received as a classroom practice that may be well suited to the three principles of UDL. The following section looks at the three network appropriate teaching methods, recognition, strategic and affective, in order to address the ways in which differentiated instruction coordinates with UDL theory. Certain instructional techniques have been found to be very effective in supporting different skills as students learn. Differentiated instruction is designed to keep the learner in mind when specifying the instructional episode. Recognition learning. The first UDL principle focuses on pattern recognition and the importance of providing multiple, flexible methods of presentation when teaching patternsno single teaching methodology for pattern recognition will be satisfactory for every learner. The theory of differentiated instruction incorporates some guidelines that can help teachers to support critical elements of recognition learning in a flexible way and promote every student's success. Each of the three key elements of differentiated
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instruction, content, process, and product, supports an important UDL Teaching Method for individualized instruction of pattern recognition. The content guidelines for differentiated instruction support the first UDL Teaching Method for recognition networks, provide multiple examples, in that they encourage the use of several elements and materials to support instructional content. A teacher following this guideline might help students in a social studies class to understand the location of a state in the union by showing them a wall map or a globe, projecting a state map, or describing the location in words. Also, while preserving the essential content, a teacher could vary the difficulty of the material by presenting smaller or larger, simpler or more complex maps. For students with physical or cognitive disabilities, such a diversity of examples may be vital in order for them to access the pattern being taught. Other students may benefit from the same multiple examples by obtaining a perspective that they otherwise might not. In this way, a range of examples can help to ensure that each student's recognition networks are able to identify the fundamental elements identifying a pattern. This same use of varied content examples supports a second recommended practice in UDL methodology, provide multiple media and formats. A wide range of tools for presenting instructional content are available digitally, thus teachers may manipulate size, color contrasts, and other features to develop examples in multiple media and formats. These can be saved for future use and flexibly accessed by different students, depending on their needs and preferences. The content guidelines of differentiated instruction also recommend that content elements of instruction be kept concept-focused and principle-driven. This practice is consistent with a third UDL Teaching Method for recognition, highlight critical features. By avoiding any focus on extensive facts or seductive details and reiterating the broad concepts, a goal of differentiated instruction, teachers are highlighting essential components, better supporting recognition. The fourth UDL Teaching Method for recognition is to support background knowledge, and in this respect, the assessment step of the differentiated instruction learning cycle is instrumental. By evaluating student knowledge about a construct before designing instruction teachers can better support students' knowledge base, scaffolding instruction in a very important way. Strategic learning. People find for themselves the most desirable method of learning strategies; therefore, teaching methodologies need to be varied. This kind of flexibility is key for teachers to help meet the needs of their diverse students, and this is reflected in the 4 UDL Teaching Methods. Differentiated instruction can support these teaching methods in valuable ways. Differentiated instruction recognizes the need for students to receive flexible models of skilled performance, one of the four UDL Teaching Methods for strategic learning. As noted above, teachers implementing differentiated instruction are encouraged to demonstrate information and skills multiple times and at varying
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levels. As a result, learners enter the instructional episode with different approaches, knowledge, and strategies for learning. When students are engaged in initial learning on novel tasks or skills, supported practice should be used to ensure success and eventual independence. Supported practice enables students to split up a complex skill into manageable components and fully master these components. Differentiated instruction promotes thi teaching method by encouraging students to be active and responsible learners, and by asking teachers to respect individual differences and scaffold students as they move from initial learning to practiced, less supported skills mastery. In order to successfully demonstrate the skills that they have learned, students need flexible opportunities for demonstrating skill. Differentiated instruction directly supports this UDL Teaching Method by reminding teachers to vary requirements and expectations for learning and expressing knowledge, including the degree of difficulty and the means of evaluation or scoring. Affective learning. Differentiated instruction and UDL Teaching Methods bear another important point of convergence: recognition of the importance of engaging learners in instructional tasks. Supporting affective learning through flexible instruction is the third principle of UDL and an objective that differentiated instruction supports very effectively. Differentiated instruction theory reinforces the importance of effective classroom management and reminds teachers of meeting the challenges of effective organizational and instructional practices. Engagement is a vital component of effective classroom management, organization, and instruction. Therefore teachers are encouraged to offer choices of tools, adjust the level of difficulty of the material, and provide varying levels of scaffolding to gain and maintain learner attention during the instructional episode. These practices bear much in common with UDL Teaching Methods for affective learning: offer choices of content and tools, provide adjustable levels of challenge, and offer a choice of learning context. By providing varying levels of scaffolding when differentiating instruction, students have access to varied learning contexts as well as choices about their learning environment. Examples of UDL and Differentiated Instruction The focus of the previous sections was to describe ways in which differentiated instruction supports the three principles of UDL and aligns with UDL teaching practices. Here, we present actual lesson plans employing differentiated instruction. The first is a product of a school that is working with CAST, and the second is from work outside of CAST. Each exemplifies applications of UDL in differentiated instruction. In the example from CAST, we highlight the ways that differentiated instruction is used to implement UDL teaching methods. In the second, we identified UDL features implemented in a well designed differentiated instruction lesson in mathematics and recommend ways in which UDL could be applied to make an even more accessible, more flexible lesson.
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CAST gathering evidence: The Life Cycle of Plants from the Planning for All Learners (PAL) toolkit. This lesson is a two-day instructional plan that is a part of a larger unit designed by a first grade teacher for a diverse class of students. Before teaching the lessons presented on this web site, the teacher introduced students to science concepts around the growth of seeds through oral presentation and in-class experiments. This lesson enabled the teacher to discuss, display and increase student understanding of the science content and concepts. The lesson plan addresses McRel, Massachusetts State and local District standards in Science and English Language Arts, by teaching students the necessary environmental variables about growth in plants, and the tools, skills and strategies required to do so. Student choice and access flexibility in the lesson exemplify applications of UDL. Table 1 contains a listing of UDL features made possible by elements of differentiated instruction employed in this lesson. TABLE 1 UDL Features of the CAST PAL Toolkit Model Gathering Evidence: Life Cycle of Plants UDL Teaching Supportive Differentiated Instruction Feature(s) Method In preparation for this lesson, the teacher created multiple examples of finding and identifying seeds. Additionally, the teacher provided several examples of finding appropriate texts to complete the assignment. Students have multiple examples of texts from which to find information about the life cycle of seeds. As another example, fast growing seeds were planted in the classroom, giving students the opportunity to observe the seed life cycle. Teacher provides critical information for the lesson through oral presentation and highlights critical features in written form, then monitors students to check their focus on important features of the lesson. Additionally, by having texts available in digital format, the teacher or students may literally highlight critical features of the text in preparation of lesson assignments.

Provide multiple examples.

Highlight critical features.

The teacher located several (45) resources, in this case books of Provide different reading difficulty, containing the same science constructs on multiple media seed life cycles. The books were then made available digitally as well and formats. as in audio format for flexible accessibility. Thus, materials were available in a variety of media and formats. Support background Several levels of preparation were designed to support background
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context:

context.

Before this assignment the teacher and students found seeds in a variety of vegetables and fruits. In this way, the concept of seeds was brought out of the abstract; students had experiences seeing and finding seeds from a range of plants. Careful instruction was organized to teach students the concept of finding a book that is "just right," helping students to find a book that is challenging, yet not too difficult. This, helped keep students work and learn in their "zone of proximal development" when obtaining background information for the lesson. Students had the option to work in selected pairs as they search for answers to the science questions. During guided practice and independent practice portions of each lesson, the teacher provides supports by checking and prompting.

Provide opportunities to practice with support.

Offer flexible opportunities for demonstrating skill.

The design of this lesson allows students varied approaches throughout the lesson. Students may select their best or preferred type of working situation and means for responding.

The teacher organized the lesson at multiple points for choice of tools: Offer choices of content and tools.

choice of resource materials, choice of access (text, digital, audio), and choice of response style.

Offer adjustable levels of challenge.

The teacher offers multiple texts, representing a range of difficulty levels, and different means to access these texts. This helps to ensure that researching the answers to science questions is appropriately challenging for each student. For example, if decoding were challenging, the student could use a simpler text and/or access the information via audio or digital read-aloud. Throughout the lesson the teacher has organized several choices that help diversify the available learning contexts:

Offer choices of learning contexts.

students can select from a variety of methods to respond to the science questions (written, scribed, recorded), students can opt to work independently or with a partner during

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the assignment completion portion of the lesson, and

students can select the "right book" based on difficulty and/or interest.

Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development differentiating instruction web site Differentiated Instruction Lesson Example, grade 6 mathematics. This web site hosted by the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD) contains a number of lessons that illustrate different teachers' examples of how to use the principles of differentiated instruction. We have selected a mathematics lesson for 6th grade focusing on the concept of patterns. This instructional approach to teaching mathematics patterns has several exciting UDL features (see Table 2). Through the use of clearly stated goals and the implementation of flexible working groups with varying levels of challenge, this lesson helps to break down instructional barriers. We have identified additional ways to reduce barriers in this lesson even further by employing the principles of UDL teaching methods and differentiated instruction. We provide Table 3 with recommendations of employing teaching methods of UDL to support this lesson. Please note that we are not making generalized recommendations for making this lesson more UDL, but instead are focusing on ways that differentiated instruction, specifically, can help achieve this goal. TABLE 2 UDL Elements in a Differentiated Instruction Mathematics Lesson UDL Teaching Method Provide multiple examples. Differentiated Instruction Features The teacher provides multiple examples through the story of The King's Chessboard and other math problems. The teacher highlights critical features of the mathematics in the story by stopping and calculating the amount of rice accumulating and using a t-table to do so. The teacher reads the story aloud and students have the story to read. The numbers are represented in the story and on the t -table. Teachers analyze or pretest students for key preskills and background knowledge. In cooperative groups, students may receive feedback from
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Highlight critical features.

Provide multiple media and formats. Support background context. Provide ongoing,

relevant feedback. Offer choices of content and tools. Offer adjustable levels of challenge.

the teacher and from peers. Students are assigned to one of three groups tiered by difficulty; all students are working on the same task but with varying supports. Varied supports in the working groups alter the level of independence and difficulty in solving the task.

TABLE 3 UDL Strategies to Further Minimize Lesson Barriers in a Differentiated Instruction Lesson Plan for Mathematics Barrier Deducting/constructing numeric functions. UDL Strategy Provide different demonstrations or models of how to use the tools employed in the lesson. Scaffold how to use the t-table and visualize the chessboard. Provide alternative formats for students to express their interpretation of the story and the mathematical implications. For example, speaking, creating a diagram, numerical representations. Consider background knowledge for students entering this mathematical problem. What range of supports could be made available to provide the informational knowledge so that students can focus on the problem solving component?

Students write an exit card to explain the mathematical story.

The Locker Problem.

Recommendations for Implementation at the Classroom Level Although UDL applications of differentiated instruction already exist, they are admittedly hard to come by. Even with such models available, teachers face challenges in implementing them: the challenges of shifting away from traditional views of intelligence and traditional reliance on print media, the challenge of acquiring and mastering new technology, and the challenge of garnering support from the school system. The following sections offer recommendations that can help teachers overcome each one of these challenges. Learn about Universal Design for Learning.
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The first and most basic step toward successfully implementing UDL is selfeducation. Although UDL has been more than a decade in the making, it is an approach that challenges many traditional educational perspectives and practices. Before teachers can implement UDL effectively, they may need to learn a different way of looking at their students and the materials that they use in the classroom. CAST has been working to disseminate UDL widely, and, consistent with the framework itself, have developed multiple avenues (direct and indirect, self-driven and trainer-taught, through text, speech, and interactive activities) through which individuals can learn about UDL and develop the skills necessary to put it into practice.

Visit the CAST web site. The CAST web site devotes a large section to Universal Design for Learning. Here visitors will find an articulation of UDL, discussions of its core concepts, descriptions of UDL research projects, a listing of tools and resources that support UDL, and ideas and examples for implementing UDL. Read CAST publications. CAST has a range of publications highlighting UDL and UDL practice, including Teaching Every Student in the Digital Age (Rose & Meyer, 2002). The companion web site to the book provides an evolving set of resources and classroom examples, including interactive activities and an online community where visitors can ask questions and engage in discussion about UDL. Enroll in an institute. Professional development institutes by CAST teach professionals about the challenges of improving access to and progress participation in the general education curriculum and how to make the curriculum accessible for all learners. Talk to others. The Teaching Every Student section of the CAST web site includes an online community where teachers can communicate, collaborate and obtain support from other educators who are exploring and teaching with UDL. Find more information and to engage in discussion about universal design and increasing access for students with disabilities at the web site for the Access Center (www.k8accesscenter.org) a national technical assistance center that is funded by the U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs to make elementary and middle school curriculum more accessible to students with disabilities.

Inventory and build technology support. Technology, in particular digital media, makes UDL implementation practical and achievable in a diverse classroom. Digital materials make it possible for the same material to be flexibly presented and accessedeven adapted on a student-tostudent basis. Although we recommend that teachers try to build a library of digital materials, it is important to point out that UDL implementation can proceed successfully across a range of technology availability. The amount of technology available to teachers varies extensivelylimited by district and school resources, both monetary and
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otherwise. Fortunately, a fairly simple step such as digitizing print materials can greatly ease UDL implementation. The 1996 United States copyright additions (Chapter 1 of Title 17 Section 121 of the United States Code), the Chafee Amendment, gives authorized entities the freedom to digitize otherwise proprietary materials for individuals that have disabilities that impede access to the printed version. An authorized entity is a nonprofit organization or governmental agency that has a primary mission to provide specialized services relating to training, education, or adaptive reading or information access needs of blind or other persons with disabilities. This provision makes special education teachers eligible to digitize printed text materials, a step that can help to diversify the presentation of materials for students with disabilities. Another inexpensive but instrumental option for supplying a classroom with digital materials is the World Wide Weba tremendous source of free digital material and much of this material is in a multimedia format, which can greatly improve access to students. Having more digital media unquestionably enables teachers to implement UDL in a more extensive way. Teachers who have greater financial resources and district support can supplement their materials with innovative products such as multimedia composition tools (e.g., HyperStudio5, Kid Pix Deluxe 3X, PowerPoint), graphic organizer software (e.g., Inspiration, Kidspiration), text-to-speech and text-to-image programs (e.g., Universal Reader, Read&Write GOLD, Kurzweil 3000, JAWS, Intellitalk II), CD-ROM storybooks (e.g., Reader Rabbit's Reading Development Library), and learning software (e.g., funbrain.com, Edmark's various learning games). Whether teachers are able to invest in the purchase of a lot of technology or not, UDL can proceed effectively. But taking inventory is an important step toward setting a realistic course of action. By inventorying the resources they have available to them, teachers can determine the level of UDL implementation appropriate to their classroom. For example, survey your classroom and your school media center for a clear idea of computer and projection systems and other technology hardware available to teachers and students. Check into scheduling issues around shared equipment. Additionally, test out web accessibility your school computer lab(s) and media center(s) as appropriate. If the web is a tool you may use and ask students to access, how available is it? Ask for or take an inventory of your school or district software, find out what's available and if there are available licenses for computers in your classroom. Effectively working with and managing technology can be a challenging process, so it is important as well to assess the available technology support. This may come in the form of a school or district help desk, computer teacher, computer resource specialist, technology integration teacher, etc., or one's own technology training. Find out what policies your school or district may have regarding the tools you may adopt for use in your planning and teaching. Installation of software and hardware on computers may be time consuming, plan for issues of timing in your implementation and installation of software and hardware. When you are ready to teach a lesson using some technologies new to you or your students, consider
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notifying your technology support person, to be at hand to help problem solve any unforeseen challenges with implementation. Image description: This graphic organizer is made up of two circles with two arrows each placed at different points and an outer circular line of arrows with text placed at different points along the line of arrows. In the center are two circles with two arrows each, one inside the other. The smaller, inner circle touches the right side of the larger, outer circle. On the right, a curved line of arrows goes around the outside of the circles from the top of the graphic around to the left side. Text at the top of the graphic reads "Set goals: Establish context. Align to standards." From there, the line goes around to the right side of the graphic. An arrow in the middle of the line points to text on the right that reads "Analyze Status: Identify methods, materials, and assessment. Identify barriers." From there, the line goes around toward the bottom of the graphic. An arrow in the middle of the line points to text on the bottom right that reads "Apply UDL: Identify UDL materials and methods. Write UDL plan. Collect and organize materials." From there, the line goes around to the bottom left of the graphic. An arrow in the middle of the line points to text on the bottom left that reads "Teach UDL Lesson: Teach lesson. Evaluate success. Revise lesson/unit." The line continues around to the left side of the graphic, ending in an arrow pointing up. Curriculum planning and delivery. Another important step in implementation of UDL in instruction is curriculum planning and delivery. To begin, we recommend that teachers have a basic understanding of UDL and a commitment to make the curriculum and learning accessible for all learners. While keeping in mind the three principles of UDL, based on the three networks recognition, strategic and affective, we have found the following process useful in designing lessons. The process includes four steps, based upon the principles and concepts of UDL, proven professional development strategies, and effective teaching practices; (a) Set Goals, (b) Analyze Status, (c) Apply UDL, and (d) Teach the UDL Lesson. In the Set Goals stage of curriculum planning, we recommend that teachers establish the context for instruction. Context is usually driven or based on state standards, followed by the design of goals for the instructional episode. We recommend that all teachers closely evaluate these to assure alignment and assure that the means for attaining the goals are separated from the goals and standards. Next, when designing a UDL lesson, teachers should Analyze the Current Status of the instructional episode. What are the current methodologies, assessments, and materials used to teach the lesson? Analyze these teaching procedures in relation to potential barriers of learners in the classroom. Do all students have access to the materials? Are students able to express themselves with the current methods and materials? There are a number of resources and tools available from CAST to analyze lessons in the Planning for All Learners Toolkit located on the TES web site.
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The third recommended step of the planning process is to Apply UDL to the Lesson/Unit. This includes the goals, methods, assessments and materials used to implement the lesson. Create the UDL lesson plan, grounded in the learning goals, classroom profile, methods and assessment, and materials and tools. Then, collect and organize materials that support the UDL lesson. In the final step, Teach the UDL Lesson/Unit, minimize barriers and realize the strengths and challenges each student brings to learning, rely on effective teaching practices, and apply challenges appropriate for each learner. In this way, instructors can engage more students and help all students progress. When teaching and evaluating students work, also evaluate and revise the lesson/unit to assure student access and success. You may obtain additional information about designing UDL methods, assessments, and materials, in Teaching Every Student in the Digital Age, Chapter 4. Secure administrative support. School districts and administrations can be powerful sources of support financial and otherwise. Administrative commitment to UDL can strengthen a teacher's sense of mission and self-satisfaction and lead to important funding. A case in point is the town of Gloucester, Massachusetts. The principal for the school system is so convinced of the importance of digitized materials that he has set a mandate that teachers use only those textbooks that have a digitized version. Teachers will use a text-to-speech reader to further improve the accessibility of the text. Clearly, this kind of change would have happened much more slowly in the absence of such tremendous administrator-level support. Administrator support can also help to facilitate funding, which although not a prerequisite for UDL, can create important opportunities. Funding might enable the purchase of equipment, professional development, and the launching of new UDL teaching projects. Districts vary widely concerning the types and level of funding that they offer teachers, but teachers who can convince their administrators of the value of UDL may be able to secure district-level grants, professional development awards, and sabbaticals. For example, in a North Shore Massachusetts school district, the Technology Program Manager and Special Education Director teamed with two teachers using UDL were awarded a state-level technology grant to implement UDL. This is just one example of how support at the administrative level can facilitate the acquisition of materials that support UDL efforts in the classroom. Parent education and involvement. Parents are another valuable resource for teachers building a UDL curriculum. There are at least two important ways that parents can be a resource: as advocates and as volunteers. By educating parents about the UDL activities going on in the classroom, teachers can develop a support system of informed individuals who can assist with and advocate for UDL instruction. Teachers should think about ways to inform parents about classroom activities. Notes sent home, parent night presentations, and IEP meetings are all excellent opportunities to engage in this kind of communication.
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Once parents are educated about UDL they may wish to become involved themselves. There are many ways that parents can do this, including volunteering in the classroom and lending support at home. A few possibilities are helping to prepare materials, monitoring kids during UDL lessons, helping with technology, donating equipment, and supporting homework assignments. Conclusion Differentiated instruction, although somewhat still developing in educational settings, has received significant recognition. When combined with the practices and principles of UDL, differentiated instruction can provide teachers with both theory and practice to appropriately challenge the broad scope of students in classrooms today. Although educators are continually challenged by the ever-changing classroom profile of students, resources, and reforms, practices continue to evolve and the relevant research base should grow. And along with them grows the promise of differentiated instruction and UDL in educational practices. Links to Learn More About Differentiated Instruction Guild, P. B., and Garger, S. (1998). What Is Differentiated Instruction? Marching to Different Drummers, 2nd Ed. (ASCD, p.2) http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/198186.aspx Initially published in 1985, Marching to Different Drummers was one of the first sources to pull together information on what was a newly-flourishing topic in education. Part I defines style and looks at the history of style research; Part II describes applications of style in seven areas; Part III identifies common questions and discusses implementation and staff development. The Access Center http://www.k8accesscenter.org/ This web site belongs to the Access Center, a national technical assistance center, funded by the U.S. Department of Education's Office of Special Education Programs. The purpose of the K12 Access Center is to make elementary and middle school curricula more accessible to students with disabilities. The web site hosts chats and discussions and offers publications and presentations on topics related to accessing the general education curriculum, including Universal Design for Learning. Tomlinson, C. A., (1995). Differentiating instruction for advanced learners in the mixed-ability middle school classroom. ERIC Digest ED443572. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/contentdelivery/servlet/ERICServlet? accno=ED443572 To meet the needs of diverse student populations, many teachers differentiate instruction. This digest describes differentiated instruction, discusses the reasons for differentiated instruction, what makes it successful, and suggests how teachers may begin implementation.
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Tomlinson, C. A., (1995). Differentiating instruction for advanced learners in the mixed-ability middle school classroom. ERIC Digest E536. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/contentdelivery/servlet/ERICServlet? accno=ED443572 The ability to differentiate instruction for middle school aged learners is a challenge. Responding to the diverse students needs found in inclusive, mixed-ability classrooms is particularly difficult. This digest provides an overview of some key principles for differentiating instruction, with an emphasis on the learning needs of academically advanced students. Tomlinson, C. A., & Allan, S. D., (2000). Leadership for differentiating schools and classrooms. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/100216.aspx This web site contains two chapters from Tomlinson's recent publication: Leadership for differentiating schools and classrooms, Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. This book is designed for those in leadership positions to learn about differentiated instruction. Web Article: Mapping a route toward differentiated instruction. http://www.ascd.org/publications/educationalleadership/sept99/vol57/num01/Mapping-a-Route-Toward-DifferentiatedInstruction.aspx Carol Ann Tomlinson, an Associate Professor of Educational Leadership, Foundations and Policy at the Curry School of Education, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA provides an article entitled: Mapping a route toward differentiated instruction. Educational Leadership, 57(1). Willis, S. & Mann, L., (2000). Differentiating instruction: Finding manageable ways to meet individual needs (Excerpt). Curriculum Update. http://www.ascd.org/publications/curriculum-update/winter2000/DifferentiatingInstruction.aspx Based on the concept that "one size does not fit all" the authors describe the teaching philosophy of differentiated instruction. More teachers are determined to reach all learners, to challenge students who may be identified as gifted as well as students who lag behind grade level. This article excerpt describes the essential components of differentiated instruction beginning with three aspects of curriculum: content, process, and products. The Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD) Web Site http://www.ascd.org/research-a-topic/differentiated-instruction-resources.aspx A site by ASCD (2000) which discusses differentiated instruction. Page links to other pages with examples from a high school and elementary school, key characteristics of a differentiated classroom, benefits, related readings, discussion, and related links to explore.
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Preparing Teachers for Differentiated Instruction http://www.ascd.org/publications/educational-leadership/sept00/vol58/num01/Preparing-Teachers-for-Differentiated-Instruction.aspx This web site, provided by Educational Leadership, links the reader to a brief summary of an article by Holloway. The author has provided a bulleted summary regarding the principles and theories that drive differentiated instruction. Holloway, J. H., (2000). Preparing Teachers for Differentiated Instruction. Educational Leadership, 58(1). http://web.uvic.ca/~jdurkin/edd401/Differentiated.html This site is from an education course by Dr. John Durkin. It includes a diagram with suggestions for approaches to differentiated instruction. It also includes a listing of what differentiated instruction is and is not, rules of thumb on how to instruct, and management strategies. Web Site: for Teachers, Administrators, and Higher Education www.teach-nology.com/litined/dif_instruction/ This web site is designed for educators and uses technology to inform teachers about current practices, literature, the law in education, as well as professional development. Additionally, links to articles including research on educational practices including links to information on differentiated instruction are included. CAST. Teaching Every Student.(n.d). Retrieved September 15, 2003, from http://www.cast.org/teachingeverystudent/

References CAST. UDL Toolkits: Planning for All Learners (PAL). (n.d.). Retrieved August 19, 2003, from http://www.cast.org/teachingeverystudent/toolkits/tk_introduction.cfm? tk_id=21 Dolan, R. P., & Hall, T. E., (2001). Universal Design for Learning: Implications for large-scale assessment. IDA Perspectives, 27(4), 22-25. Ellis, E. S. and Worthington, L. A., (1994). Research synthesis on effective teaching principles and the design of quality tools for educators. University of Oregon: Technical Report No. 5 National Center to Improve the Tools of Educators. Meyer, A., & Rose, D. H., (1998). Learning to read in the computer age. Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books. Oaksford, L. & Jones, L., (2001). Differentiated instruction abstract. Tallahassee, FL: Leon County Schools. Pettig, K. L., (2000). On the road to differentiated. Education Leadership, 8, 1, 14-18.
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Pisha, B., & Coyne, P., (2001). Smart from the start: the promise of Universal Design for Learning. Remedial and Special Education, 22(4), 197-203. Reis. S. M., Kaplan, S. N, Tomlinson, C. A., Westbert, K. L, Callahan, C. M., & Cooper, C. R., (1998). How the brain learns, A response: Equal does not mean identical. Educational Leadership, 56, 3. Rose, D. (2001). Universal Design for Learning: Deriving guiding principles from networks that learn. Journal of Special Education Technology, 16 (2), 66-67. Rose, D., & Dolan, R. P., (2000). Universal Design for Learning: Associate Editor's Column. Journal of Special Education Technology, 15 (4), 47-51. Rose, D., & Meyer, A., (2000a). Universal design for individual differences. Educational Leadership, 58(3), 39-43. Rose, D., & Meyer, A., (2000b). Universal Design for Learning: Associate Editor Column. Journal of Special Education Technology, 15 (1), 67-70. Rose, D., & Meyer, A., (2002). Teaching Every Student in the Digital Age: Universal Design for Learning. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. Rose, D., Sethuraman, S., & Meo, G., (2000). Universal Design for Learning. Journal of Special Education Technology, 15(2), 26-60. Sizer, T. R., (2001). No two are quite alike: Personalized learning. Educational Leadership 57(1). Tomlinson, C. A., (2001). How to differentiate instruction in mixed-ability classrooms. (2nd Ed.) Alexandria, VA: ASCD. Tomlinson, C. A., & Allan, S. D., (2000). Leadership for differentiating schools and classrooms. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. This content was developed pursuant to cooperative agreement #H324H990004 under CFDA 84.324H between CAST and the Office of Special Education Programs, U.S. Department of Education. However, the opinions expressed herein do not necessarily reflect the position or policy of the U.S. Department of Education or the Office of Special Education Programs and no endorsement by that office should be inferred. Citation Cite this paper as follows: Hall, T., Strangman, N., & Meyer, A. (2003). Differentiated instruction and implications for UDL implementation. Wakefield, MA: National Center on Accessing the General Curriculum. Retrieved [insert date] from http://aim.cast.org/learn/historyarchive/backgroundpapers/differentiated...
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Documentarul Nr. 11

Arhitectonica stadial piagetian a dezvoltrii psihice Jean William Fritz Piaget, (9 aot 1896 Neuchtel - mort le 16 septembre 1980 Genve), est un psychologue, biologiste, logicien et pistmologue suisse connu pour ses travaux en psychologie du dveloppement et en pistmologie travers ce qu'il a appel l'pistmologie gntique. *

Thorie gnrale Piaget reprend dans ses explications thoriques des concepts baldwiniens tels que l'adaptation par assimilation/accommodation et la raction circulaire. Il s'appuie sur les travaux de Binet et les enrichit la demande de Thodore Simon. Sa thorie est inspire par la philosophie volutionniste de Spencer et la philosophie de Kant. Elle est aussi une thorie constructiviste originale de la gense de l'intelligence et des connaissances humaines qui permet Piaget d'tablir des liens troits entre la problmatique biologique de l'volution et de l'adaptation des espces et la problmatique psychologique du dveloppement de l'intelligence. Selon Piaget, l'origine de la pense humaine ne nat pas de la simple sensation, elle n'est pas non plus un lment inn. Elle se construit progressivement lorsque l'individu, et en particulier l'enfant, entre en contact avec le monde. Grce ces contacts rpts l'enfant dveloppe des units lmentaires de l'activit intellectuelle, appels schmes. Un schme est une entit abstraite qui est l'organisation d'une action (ex. la succion). Les schmes se transforment en devenant plus gnraux (succion d'autres objets), plus nombreux et donc deviennent plus mobiles . Ils se combinent dans une organisation de type moyen-but (ex. le rteau pour prendre un objet). Selon Piaget, les schmes sont un ensemble organis de mouvements (sucer, tirer, pousser...) ou d'oprations (srier, classer, mesurer...) dont l'enfant dispose (dans le premier cas), ou qu'il acquiert et dveloppe par son interaction avec le monde environnant.
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Ces schmes s'ancrent dans l'esprit, lorsque l'exprience les conforte, ou se modifient lorsqu'ils sont contredits par les faits (il nomme abstraction rflchissante, cette abstraction, si celle-ci s'appuie sur des schmes acquis prcdemment dans un contexte diffrent[4]). A chaque fois que l'individu peroit un objet (qui peut tre physique ou une ide), il essaie de l'assimiler. Si cette assimilation, c'est--dire l'intgration de l'objet un schme psychologique prexistant choue, alors commence un processus d'accommodation. En d'autres termes l'assimilation est un mcanisme consistant intgrer un nouvel objet ou une nouvelle situation un ensemble d'objets ou une situation pour lesquels il existe dj un schme, alors que l'accommodation est un mcanisme consistant modifier un schme existant afin de pouvoir intgrer un nouvel objet ou une nouvelle situation. Principaux concepts Il est contre les concepts de l'innisme. Piaget tente de modliser le dveloppement de l'intelligence sur la base de principes logiques. L'enfant est un logicien en herbe, qui donne un sens aux objets en faisant merger leurs proprits et fonctions. Il rinvente le monde physique (constructivisme). Piaget parle d'actions extriorises et intriorises. Tout cela sont des conceptions physiques. La logique et les mathmatiques sont le raisonnement. Le raisonnement est la forme optimale de l'adaptation biologique, donc du cerveau. Les diffrents stades de l'volution individuelle Piaget divise le dveloppement psychologique de l'enfant en plusieurs stades, chacun lui-mme divis en sous-stades, conditionnant le suivant. Les diffrents moments du dveloppement sont :

Le stade de l'intelligence sensori-motrice (de la naissance 2 ans) Le stade de l'intelligence pr opratoire (de 2 6 ans) Le stade des oprations concrtes ou de l'intelligence opratoire (de 6 10 ans) Le stade des oprations formelles (de 10 16 ans)

Les ges qui voient le passage d'un stade l'autre sont indicatifs et bass sur une moyenne. Certains enfants peuvent commencer le passage du troisime au quatrime stade ds 10 ans alors que d'autres y parviendront vers 12 ans. Le stade de l'intelligence sensori-motrice Au dbut l'intelligence est essentiellement pratique. Elle se construit en fonction des sens et de la motricit de l'enfant. Elle lui permet d'organiser le rel selon un ensemble de structures spatio-temporelles et causales. A ce stade, l'enfant ne possdant ni langage ni fonction symbolique, ces constructions s'effectuent en s'appuyant exclusivement sur des perceptions et des
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mouvements, autrement dit, par une coordination sensori-motrice des actions sans intervention de la reprsentation ou de la pense. L'un des apprentissages essentiels au cours de cette priode concerne la comprhension de la permanence de l'objet. Ce que Piaget entend par permanence cest le fait quune personne accorde une existence aux choses extrieures au moi, persvrant dans ltre lorsquelles naffectent pas directement la perception (cf Piaget, 1937). Comment le bb se reprsente-t-il les objets quil ne voit plus ? Pour Jean Piaget lenfant se rend compte de la permanence des objets par stades successifs :

1er stade (de 0 1 mois) : l'enfant dveloppe l'exercise des rflexes. Lenfant na aucune raction suite la disparition dun objet. 2e stade (de 1 4 mois) : les premires adaptations acquises et les ractions circulaires primaires, l'enfant est centr sur son corps. Lenfant a une raction motionnelle (pleurs, cris, etc.) la disparition de lobjet mais nentreprend aucune recherche. 3e stade (de 4 8 mois) : les ractions circulaires secondaires et les procds destins faire durer les spectacles intressants. Il acquiert la permanence pratique, il revient au jouet quil a laiss. Par contre si on pose un linge dessus il ne le cherche pas sauf si cest lui qui la mis dessous (ou sil voit une partie de lobjet, qui fait sens pour lui, dpasser) 4e stade (de 8 12 mois) : coordination intentionnelle des ractions circulaires secondaires et leur application aux situations nouvelles. Lenfant recherche systmatiquement lobjet. Cependant sa reprsentation de lobjet nest pas encore parfaite, il commet lerreur dite du stade IV (ou erreur A non B) : lors du dplacement visible de l'objet il le recherche l o il la prcdemment trouv et non pas ncessairement l o il a disparu. 5e stade (de 12 18 mois) : ractions circulaires tertiaires et la dcouverte des moyens nouveaux par exprimentation active. Lenfant rsout le problme du stade prcdent tant que les dplacements de lobjet sont visibles. Sils sont invisibles (par exemple on met lobjet dans une main et on le met, sans que lenfant ne le voie, sous un coussin), lenfant recherche lobjet dans la main et ne cherche pas ailleurs. 6e stade (de 18 mois 24 mois) : l'invention des moyens nouveaux par combinaison mentale des schmes. Lenfant est capable de retrouver lobjet mme si les dplacements sont invisibles.

L'enfant peroit alors la conservation de l'objet, cette conservation tant solidaire de toute l'organisation spatio-temporelle de l'univers pratique, ainsi, naturellement, que sa structuration causale . La fin de cette premire priode est marque par l'accs la fonction symbolique. Lorsqu'il acquiert la fonction symbolique, le bb est capable de se reprsenter des objets et situations non directement perceptibles l'aide de signes (mots) ou de symboles (dessins). La fonction symbolique est tenue pour acquise lorsqu'on
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observe chez le bb cinq types de conduites : l'imitation diffre, le jeu symbolique, le dessin, l'image mentale et le langage. Le stade de l'intelligence propratoire 2-6 ans Au dbut de cette priode, l'enfant assure sa matrise des notions de l'espace et du temps, puis de la fonction symbolique. Ces objets, gnralement acquis lors du stade prcdent, sont alors plus assurs. La permanence de l'objet est acquise car l'enfant peut se reprsenter l'existence d'un objet sans que celui-ci soit prsent. Cette priode est surtout marque par diverses acquisitions. En premier lieu, l'enfant dveloppe fortement ses capacits langagires. Il est capable peu peu de dialoguer. Par ailleurs, c'est aussi durant cette priode que se forme la notion de quantit. Au niveau psychologique ce stade est marqu par l'gocentrisme qui se marque par l'artificialisme, la causalit morale, le finalisme. L'artificialisme est le fait de penser que tout est cr par l'homme, la causalit morale revient considrer que les lois physiques sont semblables aux lois morales, le finalisme tend expliquer le monde en donnant une raison toute chose (ex. les arbres secouent leurs branches pour produire du vent). L'gocentrisme enfantin traduit l'indiffrenciation du sujet et de l'objet, ainsi que la confusion du point de vue propre avec celui d'autrui. L'gocentrisme est l'incapacit qu'a l'enfant de se dcentrer et de coordonner son point de vue avec celui d'autrui. L'gocentrisme constitue donc en quelque sorte l'quivalent, au niveau de la reprsentation, de ce qui est "l' adualisme" du premier stade sensori-moteur ; cest--dire, l'indissociation entre le corps propre et le milieu extrieur. Cette notion est lie galement un dsquilibre de l'assimilation et de l'accommodation. Il est aussi noter que l'enfant ce stade vit dans la contradiction, au sens o il peut affirmer une chose et son contraire immdiatement aprs sans que cela le gne. Dans le cadre des oprations logiques, l'enfant commence tre capable de classer ou de srier des objets mais sans notion de rversibilit ; il est encore incapable de faire une opration et son inverse. Le stade des oprations concrtes ou de l'intelligence opratoire Pendant cette priode, cette intelligence, dite opratoire, reste dpendante de la prsence dans le champ de la perception des lments sur lesquels porte la rflexion, marque par la rversibilit de toute opration. Ce stade est marqu par l'acquisition de certaines notions (les ges sont donns titre indicatifs) :

Les conservations physiques : o Conservation de la quantit de la matire (7-8 ans) : un morceau de pte modeler contient la mme quantit de pte qu'il soit prsent en boule ou en galette.
o

Conservation de la quantit de poids (8-9 ans) : un kilo de plume est aussi lourd qu'il soit prsent dans un sac ou dans plusieurs.
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Conservation de la quantit de volume (11-12 ans) : le volume d'un litre d'eau reste inchang, qu'on le prsente dans une bouteille, ou dans un rcipient plus vas.

Les conservations spatiales :

o

Conservation des quantits numriques (7 ans) : quand on place une range de jetons peu espacs et qu'on demande l'enfant de prendre autant de jetons que l'exemple, il ralisera correctement l'exercice. Classification (8 ans) Sriation (8 ans) Groupements multiplicatifs : c'est la capacit combiner la classification et la sriation.

o o o

Le stade des oprations formelles Cette priode est celle de l'adolescence. partir de 11 ans et jusqu' 16 ans l'individu va mettre en place les schmes dfinitifs qu'il utilisera tout au long de sa vie. Alors que lenfant, jusqualors, ne pouvait raisonner que sur du concret, l'adolescent peut maintenant tablir des hypothses dtaches du monde sensible. Dans la thorie piagtienne, laccs la logique formelle est la dernire tape dun processus qui dbute ds la naissance. Comme toute tape elle est le fruit dune succession dadaptations au rel. Vers lge de 11 ans lenfant ne peut plus se contenter dune logique concrte, il commence ressentir le besoin dtablir des hypothses, des raisonnements hypothtico-dductifs (du type si...alors) pour mieux apprhender le monde. Durant les cinq ans que dure ce stade les schmes logiques vont se mettre en place et saffirmer jusqu ce quils soient totalement oprationnels vers lge de 16 ans. Jusqu' l'adolescence, le possible est une forme du rel. Au stade de l'intelligence formelle, c'est le rel qui est une forme du possible. Cela signifie que pour l'enfant la base est le rel et qu'il chafaude des hypothses partir de celui-ci, mais par la suite il est capable d'imaginer des thories dcontextualises pour ensuite les appliquer au monde sensible. Adaptation[modifier] Pour Piaget, l'intelligence n'est qu'une forme plus labore de l' adaptation biologique. L'adaptation d'un individu son environnement est le rsultat d'un processus de transformation tendant vers l'quilibre. L'tat d'quilibre permanent est impossible, l'environnement et l'individu n'tant pas statiques. L'adaptation est donc continue au cours de l'ontogense notamment par (r)quilibrations successives des structures de l'intelligence (schmes et oprations). pistmologie gntique[modifier] Article dtaill : pistmologie gntique.

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L'pistmologie gntique est un courant de l' pistmologie qui se fonde sur l'analyse du dveloppement de la connaissance chez l'tre humain. Rendre compte de l'volution de la connaissance travers l'tude du dveloppement de l'intelligence chez l'enfant implique une approche particulire de cet enfant : d'une part Piaget ne voit pas l'enfant comme objet d'tude mais comme un moyen rapide d'apprhender le dveloppement et le fonctionnement de l'intelligence, d'autre part, le sujet individuel ne l'intresse pas mais c'est le sujet pistmique conu comme l'ensemble des mcanismes communs tous les sujets du mme niveau (Piaget, 1968) qui est l'objet de son travail. Imitation L'imitation en psychologie du dveloppement est une notion trs importante. D'abord, elle permet aux nouveau-ns d'tablir une similitude et donc un code social commun avec l'adulte. Elle constitue ensuite une prmisse de la comprhension des tats mentaux (perceptibles) d'autrui. En effet, si son interaction avec le monde adulte est rgulier et adquat, le bb pourra attribuer tel facis tel tat mental, lui permettant ensuite de les utiliser bon escient. De plus, elle correspond un des moyens qu'a le jeune enfant pour apprendre et communiquer. > Apprendre, parce que c'est en imitant les plus grands que l'enfant gravera les diffrentes conduites dans un contexte appropri. Cette fonction est valable jusqu' 18 mois environ. > Communiquer, parce que jusqu' un certain ge (en moyenne jusqu' 2 ans) l'enfant ne parle pas et ne peut donc avoir recours qu' l'imitation, et plus particulirement l'imitation simultane, pour interagir avec ses pairs. Estimations: 1/ de 0 1 mois : pas dimitation 2/ de 1 4;6 mois : dbut dune imitation sporadique et partielle (qui apparat de temps autre et ne reproduit pas forcment tout le modle). 3/ de 4;6 mois 8-9 mois : imitation systmatique, limite aux mouvements que lenfant est capable de percevoir (par ex., un mouvement des bras). 4/ de 8-9 mois 11-12 mois : imitation de mouvements invisibles pour lenfant, nanmoins dj raliss (par ex., tirer la langue ou ouvrir et fermer la bouche). 5/ de 11-12 mois 18 mois : dbut de limitation de nouveaux modles par exprimentation active. 6/ de 18 mois 2 ans : imitation de modles plus complexes et surtout apparition de limitation diffre (en labsence du modle) Intelligence L'intelligence dsigne une disposition la reconstruction interne des acquisitions instables provoques par lenvironnement. Selon Piaget, l'intelligence est la capacit
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de plus en plus diversifie et complexe mettre en uvre des moyens et procdures pour atteindre des buts.. Mthode clinico-exprimentale La mthode clinique correspond une interrogation guide, mais souple, pour mettre en vidence le niveau de raisonnement de l'enfant. Elle est fonde sur des "situationpreuves". Ds 1947, Piaget a appel sa mthode "mthode critique" car l'entretien inter subjectif avec l'enfant a des vises exprimentales, ce qui n'a rien voir avec la mthode clinique proprement parler. Raction circulaire Emprunt James Mark Baldwin, ce concept dsigne, chez le nourrisson, la rptition d'un cycle moteur visant :

maintenir une sensation agrable : raction circulaire primaire, maintenir un spectacle intressant impliquant des objets : raction circulaire secondaire, explorer les consquences, sur les objets, des variations dans l'action : raction circulaire tertiaire.

Ce phnomne apparait entre l'ge de 1 et 4 mois. A ce moment, la raction circulaire correspond l'acquisition des premires habitudes. Ensuite, entre 4 et 9 mois, l'enfant commence acqurir la coordination entre la vision et la prhension d'un objet, puis entre douze et dix-huit mois, la raction circulaire devient de plus en plus complexe.

Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

Citation: Huitt, W., & Hummel, J. (2003). Piaget's theory of cognitive development. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved [date] from http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/cogsys/piaget.html Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was one of the most influential researchers in the area of developmental psychology during the 20th century. Piaget originally trained in the areas of biology and philosophy and considered himself a " genetic epistemologist." He was mainly interested in the biological influences on "how we come to know." He believed that what distinguishes human beings from other animals is our ability to do "abstract symbolic reasoning." Piaget's views are often compared with those of Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934), who looked more to social interaction as the primary source of cognition and behavior. This is somewhat similar to the distinctions made
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between Freud and Erikson in terms of the development of personality. The writings of Piaget (e.g., 1972, 1990; see Piaget, Gruber, & Voneche) and Vygotsky (e.g. Vygotsky, 1986; Vygotsky & Vygotsky, 1980), along with the work of John Dewey (e.g., Dewey, 1997a, 1997b), Jerome Bruner (e.g., 1966, 1974) and Ulrick Neisser (1967) form the basis of the constructivist theory of learning and instruction. While working in Binet's IQ test lab in Paris, Piaget became interested in how children think. He noticed that young children's answers were qualitatively different than older children which suggested to him that the younger ones were not dumber (a quantitative position since as they got older and had more experiences they would get smarter) but, instead, answered the questions differently than their older peers because they thought differently. There are two major aspects to his theory: the process of coming to know and the stages we move through as we gradually acquire this ability. Process of Cognitive Development. As a biologist, Piaget was interested in how an organism adapts to its environment (Piaget described as intelligence.) Behavior (adaptation to the environment) is controlled through mental organizations called schemes that the individual uses to represent the world and designate action. This adaptation is driven by a biological drive to obtain balance between schemes and the environment (equilibration). Piaget hypothesized that infants are born with schemes operating at birth that he called "reflexes." In other animals, these reflexes control behavior throughout life. However, in human beings as the infant uses these reflexes to adapt to the environment, these reflexes are quickly replaced with constructed schemes. Piaget described two processes used by the individual in its attempt to adapt: assimilation and accomodation. Both of these processes are used thoughout life as the person increasingly adapts to the environment in a more complex manner. Assimilation is the process of using or transforming the environment so that it can be placed in preexisting cognitive structures. Accomodation is the process of changing cognitive structures in order to accept something from the environment. Both processes are used simultaneously and alternately throughout life. An example of assimilation would be when an infant uses a sucking schema that was developed by sucking on a small bottle when attempting to suck on a larger bottle. An example of accomodation would be when the child needs to modify a sucking schema developed by sucking on a pacifier to one that would be successful for sucking on a bottle. As schemes become increasingly more complex (i.e., responsible for more complex behaviors) they are termed structures. As one's structures become more complex, they are organized in a hierarchical manner (i.e., from general to specific). Stages of Cognitive Development. Piaget identified four stages in cognitive development: 1. Sensorimotor stage (Infancy). In this period (which has 6 stages), intelligence is demonstrated through motor activity without the use of symbols.
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Knowledge of the world is limited (but developing) because its based on physical interactions / experiences. Children acquire object permanence at about 7 months of age (memory). Physical development (mobility) allows the child to begin developing new intellectual abilities. Some symbollic (language) abilities are developed at the end of this stage. 2. Pre-operational stage (Toddler and Early Childhood). In this period (which has two substages), intelligence is demonstrated through the use of symbols, language use matures, and memory and imagination are developed, but thinking is done in a nonlogical, nonreversable manner. Egocentric thinking predominates 3. Concrete operational stage (Elementary and early adolescence). In this stage (characterized by 7 types of conservation: number, length, liquid, mass, weight, area, volume), intelligence is demonstarted through logical and systematic manipulation of symbols related to concrete objects. Operational thinking develops (mental actions that are reversible). Egocentric thought diminishes. 4. Formal operational stage (Adolescence and adulthood). In this stage, intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of symbols related to abstract concepts. Early in the period there is a return to egocentric thought. Only 35% of high school graduates in industrialized countries obtain formal operations; many people do not think formally during adulthood. Many pre-school and primary programs are modeled on Piaget's theory, which, as stated previously, provides part of the foundation for constructivist learning. Discovery learning and supporting the developing interests of the child are two primary instructional techniques. It is recommended that parents and teachers challenge the child's abilities, but NOT present material or information that is too far beyond the child's level. It is also recommended that teachers use a wide variety of concrete experiences to help the child learn (e.g., use of manipulatives, working in groups to get experience seeing from another's perspective, field trips, etc). Piaget's research methods were based primarily on case studies [they were descriptive]. While some of his ideas have been supported through more correlational and experimental methodologies, others have not. For example, Piaget believed that biological development drives the movement from one cognitive stage to the next. Data from cross-sectional studies of children in a variety of western cultures seem to support this assertion for the stages of sensorimotor, preoperational, and concrete operations ( Renner, Stafford, Lawson, McKinnon, Friot & Kellogg, 1976). However, data from similar cross-sectional studies of adolescents do not support the assertion that all individuals will automatically move to the next cognitive stage as they biologically mature. Data from adolescent populations indicates only 30 to 35% of high school seniors attain the cognitive development stage of formal operations (Kuhn, Langer, Kohlberg & Haan, 1977). For formal operations, it appears that maturation establishes the basis, but a special environment is required for most adolescents and adults to attain this stage.
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There are a number of specific examples of how to use Piagetian theory in teaching/learning process. References

Bruner, J. (1966). Studies in cognitive growth : A collaboration at the Center for Cognitive Studies. New York: Wiley & Sons. Bruner, J. (1974). Toward a theory of instruction. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Dewey, J. (1997a). Experience and education. New York: MacMillan Publishing Co. Dewey, J. (1997b). How we think. New York: Dover Publications. Kuhn, D., Langer, J., Kohlberg, L., & Haan, N. S. (1977). The development of formal operations. in logical and moral judgment. Genetic Psychology Monographs, 95, 97-188. Neisser, U. (1967) Cognitive psychology. New York: Appleton-Century Crofts. Piaget, J. (1972). The psychology of the child. New York: Basic Books. Piaget, J. (1990). The child's conception of the world. New York: Littlefield Adams. Piaget, J., Gruber, H. (Ed.), & Voneche, J. J. (Ed.). The essential Piaget (100th Anniversary Ed.). New York: Jason Aronson. Vygotsky, L. (1986). Thought and language. Boston: MIT Press. Vygotsky, L., & Vygotsky, S. (1980). Mind in society : The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development SENSORY MOTOR PERIOD (0 - 24 MONTHS) Developmental Stage & Approximate Age Characteristic Behavior Reflexive Stage (0-2 months)
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Simple reflex activity such as grasping, sucking. Primary Circular Reactions(2-4 months) Reflexive behaviors occur in stereotyped repetition such as opening and closing fingers repetitively. Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months) Repetition of change actions to reproduce interesting consequences such as kicking one's feet to more a mobile suspended over the crib. Coordination of Secondary Reactions (8-12 months) Responses become coordinated into more complex sequences. Actions take on an "intentional" character such as the infant reaches behind a screen to obtain a hidden object. Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months) Discovery of new ways to produce the same consequence or obtain the same goal such as the infant may pull a pillow toward him in an attempt to get a toy resting on it. Invention of New Means Through Mental Combination (18-24 months) Evidence of an internal representational system. Symbolizing the problem-solving sequence before actually responding. Deferred imitation. THE PREOPERATIONAL PERIOD (2-7 YEARS) Developmental Stage & Approximate Age Characteristic Behavior Preoperational Phase (2-4 years) Increased use of verbal representation but speech is egocentric. The beginnings of symbolic rather than simple motor play. Transductive reasoning. Can think about something without the object being present by use of language. Intuitive Phase
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(4-7 years) Speech becomes more social, less egocentric. The child has an intuitive grasp of logical concepts in some areas. However, there is still a tendency to focus attention on one aspect of an object while ignoring others. Concepts formed are crude and irreversible. Easy to believe in magical increase, decrease, disappearance. Reality not firm. Perceptions dominate judgment. In moral-ethical realm, the child is not able to show principles underlying best behavior. Rules of a game not develop, only uses simple do's and don'ts imposed by authority. PERIOD OF CONCRETE OPERATIONS (7-12 YEARS) Characteristic Behavior: Evidence for organized, logical thought. There is the ability to perform multiple classification tasks, order objects in a logical sequence, and comprehend the principle of conservation. thinking becomes less transductive and less egocentric. The child is capable of concrete problem-solving. Some reversibility now possible (quantities moved can be restored such as in arithmetic: 3+4 = 7 and 7-4 = 3, etc.) Class logic-finding bases to sort unlike objects into logical groups where previously it was on superficial perceived attribute such as color. Categorical labels such as "number" or animal" now available. PERIOD OF FORMAL OPERATIONS (12 YEARS AND ONWARDS) Characteristic Behavior: Thought becomes more abstract, incorporating the principles of formal logic. The ability to generate abstract propositions, multiple hypotheses and their possible outcomes is evident. Thinking becomes less tied to concrete reality. Formal logical systems can be acquired. Can handle proportions, algebraic manipulation, other purely abstract processes. If a + b = x then a = x - b. If ma/ca = IQ = 1.00 then Ma = CA. Prepositional logic, as-if and if-then steps. Can use aids such as axioms to transcend human

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