BULLETIN OF THE RUSSIAN ACADEMY OF

SCIENCES
Volume 73, № 9, p. 848 (2003)

At a meeting of the Presidium of the Russian Academy of Sciences to discuss difficult from a technical point of view and important from the point of view
of achieving military superiority in the air to reduce the problem of radar signature of aircraft - a powerful striking force of modern armies. The search for
its solutions are working together representatives of fundamental and applied science. The result of their work was the drastic reduction of radar signature
of the fourth generation of production aircraft such as the Su-27. How this has been achieved, says The article below, which are based on scientific report
to the Presidium of Russian Academy of Sciences.

Fundamental and Applied Problems

STEALTH TECHNOLOGY
AN Lagarkov, MA Pogosyan
Lagarkov Andrei - corr. Russian Academy of Sciences, director of the Institute of Theoretical and Applied Electrodynamics, Joint Institute for High
Temperatures.
Mikhail Pogosyan - corr. Russian Academy of Sciences, director of the PMU Aviation Industrial Complex "dry."
Contrary to the latest trends in the Russian language, we still decided to use the English term "stele" - "secret", "secret" in the
title of our report, primarily because he had already taken root in our literature and is widely used in our press and in a foreign,
including in non-English speaking countries. Under the stealth technology now mean a set of technical solutions that result in
reduced levels of the signals coming from the military facility to the receiving system, trying to locate and destroy. These signals
are transferred to the acoustic and electromagnetic waves in a wide frequency spectrum. We shall deal here only one task,
namely to reduce the signal level resulting from the reflection object electromagnetic waves emitted radar. Radar stations - the
most "long-range" means detection and guidance, and the first boom in the press about the stealth technology has been associated
with the emergence of an American F-117 aircraft that was created in the first place to successfully overcome the Soviet air
defense system, equipped with powerful radars.
Ben Rich, former head of the plants of the company "Lockheed", in his memoirs about the creation of the F-117 is the story of
stealth technology in 1975, linking it to start with this plane. In fact, the first steps were made in Germany at the end of the
Second World War. As a result of night attacks British planes, equipped with radar, soared loss of German submarines. It was
then that they began to render radio-cutting and coating technology was developed serial production of fine ferromagnetic fillers
used in coatings. Since then, the problem of reducing the radar cross section of different objects of weapons and military
technology has attracted serious attention in industrialized countries.
The main characteristic that determines the properties of the aircraft as reflecting electromagnetic radiation of the object, is the
radar cross section. It characterizes the ability to convert incident electromagnetic wave into the scattered wave propagating in
the direction of the receiver. In the future, we will consider the single station location where the receiver and transmitter are
located in one place. The effective surface cross section (RCS) is defined as:
σ = π R 4 S s / S i, 0
2

where R - the distance between the transmitter and the object; S s - the energy flux density of the scattered wave near the
0

receiver; S i - the energy flux density of the incident wave near the body.
ESR value depends on the orientation of the object relative to the beam and radar wavelength of electromagnetic radiation. For
physicists, the best analogy EPR - is the differential scattering cross section is back. If we consider the frequency dependence of
the EPR metal sphere (Fig. 1), in the wavelength range of low ESR coincides with the area of its cross-section. At wavelengths
comparable to the size of the ball, having diffraction minima and maxima.

Fig. 1. Frequency dependence of the effective scattering surface of a

metallic sphere
a - radius of the sphere, λ - Wavelength

Figure 2 shows the EPR cylinder depending on the angle of incidence of the electromagnetic waves to the wave vector in the
plane which passes through the axis of the cylinder, Figure 3 - EPR modern aircraft for different directions of incidence of the
electromagnetic waves in the horizontal plane passing through the axis of the aircraft. Because of the complex shape of the
object to its ESR showed significant fluctuations in value at a very small change in the angle of incidence of the electromagnetic
wave. Such a situation arises due to diffraction phenomena and the subsequent interference of electromagnetic waves reflected
from various parts of the aircraft with a corresponding phase delay of each reflecting element.
 Fig. 2. The angular dependence of the effective scattering
surface of the cylinder
D and L - the diameter and length of the cylinder, θ -
the angle of incidence of the electromagnetic wave,
the arrow shows the direction of its fall

Fig. 3. "Facet" model of the Su-27 (top) and a diagram of the effective
surface scattering plane
depending on the viewing angle in the horizontal plane (bottom)
The solid line corresponds to the scatter plot of the real
plane, dotted - aircraft with a reduced radar signature, 1, and
2 - averaged over a range of angles of ± 30 °, the values of
the EPR

Naturally, in practice, the values of interest in EPR averaged over a relatively small range of angles, due to the unavoidable
vibrations because the trajectory is determined average level of the signal processed in the receiver. The task of the stele
technology is the maximum possible reduction of the EPR aircraft. For example, a qualitative leap in the capabilities of combat
aircraft would occur in the case if, instead of EPR shown in Figure 3 by a solid line, it was possible to obtain the ESR as shown
in phantom in the same figure.
Stealth technology includes the following main areas: the theory of diffraction on complex bodies, the development and study of
radar absorbing materials, coating technology and, finally, Radio Physics experiment is used to control each of these areas.
Currently stealth technology begins with the mathematical modeling of electromagnetic wave scattering at the facility, radar
signature which has to be reduced. This step is of fundamental importance for the preliminary assessment of the achievable
results and to optimize the shape and electrical characteristics of the object. Mathematical and computational models are based
on the solution of boundary value problems of electromagnetic waves on bodies of complex shape, having in its composition,
special materials and coatings. Capabilities of modern computers allow you to create software for the simulation of
electromagnetic wave scattering even for complex objects such as aircraft and ships, taking into account the diversity of rigging
hardware, cracks, hatches, and many other seemingly minor details of construction.
On the world market offers several software packages that are suitable for such modeling. All of them are used in the
development of "facet" object model, which will be mentioned below, and the method of the physical theory of diffraction. For
well-known reasons, due to closeness of such works, until recently in the national press (as opposed to the foreign press) were
not published details of a particular application of mathematical modeling of scattering objects of weapons and military
equipment. However, the analysis of scientific literature on the theory of diffraction of specialists in the field of electrodynamics
was not difficult to assess the level of development of the industry.
The contribution of Russian scientists in the theory of diffraction is not only significant, but also in many important areas of
basic. Suffice it to mention the names of Academician VA Fock, professors EN Vasilyev and PY Ufimtseva. VA Fok is not
only the first to formulate the integral equation for the current on the surface of the irradiated metal body, but the proposed
approximate solution for the phone with a large radius of curvature. Pioneering work was E. Vasiliev on the numerical solution
of integral equations in electromagnetic excitation of metal. PY Ufa - the founder of the method of edge waves in the physical
theory of diffraction, which is of paramount importance in the development of stealth action recognized by the international
scientific community. That numerical methods for solving the problems of scattering on the basis of integral equations,
evaluation of the scattering properties of the method of boundary waves, and the combination of these techniques have been used
by us in numerous electrodynamic models of objects with low radar signature.
Employees of the Institute of Theoretical and Applied Electrodynamics, Russian Academy of Sciences for many years
developing numerical methods, building on the achievements of both Russian and foreign schools of diffraction theory.
Application of asymptotic and hybrid algorithms requires a clear understanding of the physical phenomena which lead to the
formation of the scattered field in each case: specular reflection, diffraction at the edges, traveling waves, multiple reflections
within the cavities, etc. Accounting mirror images of real objects is realized through the development of "facet" models, where
the surface of the object is represented as a large number of individual flat areas of simple shape (see Fig. 3).
In the calculation of the EPR large (in wavelengths) of compound bodies is essential that at relatively high frequencies can
distinguish the individual fragments of the structure of objects that at a given angle are the main contributors to the formation of
the scattered field. This makes it possible to perform calculations of scattering centers independently of one another, if
appropriate taking into account their reciprocal influence on the subsequent stages. Accuracy of calculation of the characteristics
of the scattering centers is of particular importance in the analysis of subtle detail, so much attention has been paid to the
development and improvement of relevant electrodynamic models. The classical model of this kind is considered to be a wedge
(edge). In this model, the infinite boundaries are accounted for using the results of the physical theory of diffraction, and the
fields and currents in a finite region of space near the edges are determined by numerically solving the equations of the
electromagnetic field. The allocation of individual scattering centers can also analyze specific diffraction phenomena peculiar to
this structure, and to identify their dependence on a small number of local parameters.
Role of numerical methods is extremely high, when the characteristic dimensions of the object fragments much larger than the
wavelength, but because of high diffraction approximation processes do not provide the desired accuracy. In this fragment,
creating the main contribution to the scattered field in the front hemisphere of the aircraft, powerplant is the air intake system of
the engine inlet vanes. Using a hybrid approach allows independent consider the passage of electromagnetic waves via the air
intake system and diffracted by the blades. However, the calculation of the scattering wave at the inlet of the engine having a
transverse dimension of tens of wavelengths, and consisting of a plurality of elements of complex shape - an independent task
that requires the use of rigorous methods and their efficient numerical implementation. The developed software allows you to
perform the necessary calculations with sufficient accuracy (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. Model inlet plane (a) and the effective surface of the scattering
diagram inlet (b)
Comparison of the calculated and experimental data shows
good accuracy of the software

Creating adequate electrodynamic model of such a complex object, like an airplane, requires a combination of methods physics,
electrodynamics, computational mathematics, signal processing. As a result of extensive experience in programming,
computational tasks and the effective use of the technology of modern computing. In particular, the importance of the
integration of specialized software: the computational core, designed to determine the scattering properties, and engineering
design systems, with which the transfer of the design documentation (in electronic form), the preparation and modification of the
data on the form and structure of the object, the analysis output data. A widespread system of AutoCAD, from which data are
transmitted in electromagnetic simulation models through a special interface.
In the short-term progress in the development of methods for calculating the scattering properties of complex objects is largely
due to the good organization of work, raising the necessary specialists, good information and technical support, as it seems to us,
many of the fundamental issues that existed previously in this area have been resolved.
Applied to the various elements of the aircraft radio-absorbing coatings are different from those used 10-15 years ago. Modern
coating to have a variable thickness profile, a complex structure with varying values of permittivity and permeability as the
thickness of (normal to the surface), and along the skin surface. Solving the fundamental problems associated with the passage
of electromagnetic waves through a heterogeneous environment, studying the behavior of heterogeneous mixtures near the
percolation threshold, the researchers learned how to create a substance with any frequency behavior of the real and imaginary
parts of the dielectric constant, of course, within the framework of the principle of the Kramers-Kronig relations. Creating
materials with an arbitrary behavior of the magnetic permeability is associated with some additional restrictions. Modern
designer to optimize the ESR of a fragment of the plane and picking up for this purpose permittivity and magnetic permeability
of the material, its thickness distribution over the surface of the fragment can be sure that in the future technology will reproduce
the required parameters. Note also that the conduct of the relevant optimization requires considerable prior experience, because
it is necessary continually to find a compromise between the desire for minimum reflection, the thickness of the material, its
strength and, finally, the aerodynamic properties of a movie.
Coating use very different technologies. Most of the aircraft surface is covered by paint technology. Despite the apparent
simplicity of this technique is most responsible, because of its contribution to the quality depends EPR one major plane of the
scattering element - its inlet, moreover, the adhesion to the air inlet cover may cause damage to the aircraft. Multilayer radio
absorbing coatings are deposited using a robotic systems in series production aircraft, or manually when creating experimental
models of equipment.
A daunting task is the production of fine ferromagnetic fillers with the given values of the magnetic permeability. Currently,
using special technology, it is possible within a wide range of ferromagnetic fillers to modify the spectra in the microwave
region. Combining ferromagnetic inclusions with inclusions of other types, create the desired set of broadband radar absorbing
coatings. Their further development is not possible without addressing many fundamental questions.
 First of all it is necessary to study in detail the factors that affect the value of the magnetic permeability of the fine particles and
magnetic thin films, which are the basis for the creation of radar absorbing coatings. These factors include: the effect of
mechanical stress, which form the magnetostriction samples, the impact of small amounts of impurities to a ferromagnetic
substance, leading to a change in its magnetic anisotropy, the flow of high-frequency relaxation processes in the created
structures characterized by the damping parameter in the Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert. In some cases, the coating can improve
radioabsorbing using ferromagnetic conductive particles of very small size. However, in this way, there are two fundamental
barriers: First, the particles are piroformnymi (probably - pyrophoric - VV), and secondly it is impossible to introduce a sufficiently
high density in the liquid polymer matrix due to the increase adsorption ability to decrease particle size. This well-known
chemical problem is still not solved.
To provide a low radar visibility of the aircraft, are widely used plasma technology, especially plasma-vacuum, which is created
by the scattering coating on the lamp cockpit. Average glazed folding lantern is transparent to electromagnetic waves, so if the
electromagnetic wave is incident on the plane of the upper hemisphere, the cavity cabin makes a significant contribution to the
EPR at the respective corners of the monitor. One solution to the problem of low radar cross section aircraft is obvious enough:
metallized cabin windows. The reflected light from the metallic electromagnetic wave will not be returned to the receiver
locator, to be more precise, the value of the ESR cabin, averaged over some small sector of viewing angles, greatly reduced.
However, the plating must not impair the optical properties of the glass cockpit, which are subject to extremely stringent. Thus,
the coefficient of glass canopy reflectance in the microwave range should be close to unity, and in an optical - to zero. But this is
the requirements for coverage, do not end there. There is a problem of overheating the pilot in the cockpit of aircraft operating in
tropical countries. Power conditioners in the cockpits of many foreign aircraft, however, as in a number of our own, is not
enough for a comfortable state of the pilot, so certain steps are necessary for the selection of the infrared spectrum.
Generally speaking, this problem arises when creating a selective energy-saving glass in the construction industry. The Institute
of Theoretical and Applied Electrodynamics proposed and patented the so-called energy-saving glass. They are produced in
large vacuum chambers, where the surface of the glass multi-layer coating is applied by magnetron (probably - magnetron - VV),
spraying material. To achieve the best optical, infrared and microwave characteristics used coating consisting of alternating
films of various metals and their oxides, a thickness of about 100 A. For a powerful abroad such glass manufacturing industry,
the mass production in Russia, usually based on export (probably - Import - VV), equipment.
However, the movable part of aircraft canopy is not of glass, of a polymer, and moreover, its surface has a double curvature.
Polymer base canopy pilot is periodically subjected to deformation. For materials scientists involved in the process of spraying,
the technological problem is essentially reduced to the deposition of thin hard coating thickness of a fraction of micrometers ... a
soccer ball with the requirement of durability of the thin coating. It's clear that the game thin film on the surface of the ball
covered with innumerable cracks. However, this problem was solved by magnetron sputtering of metals in vacuo in order to
obtain islet metal films. These films are interspersed with polymer layers created by plasma-chemical methods. Quality of
multilayer coatings can be considerably improved if will be apparent to the end of multiple predicted plasma chemical reactions
occurring during the deposition of polymer films in a low temperature plasma discharge.
It is well known that by changing the combustion mode, and the discharge structure and fluorinated hydrocarbon gases in which
discharge light can get a wide range of properties of the deposited film - polycrystalline diamond on to polymer. Although we do
not have complete fundamental knowledge in the field, developed a stable plasma-chemical technology, implemented in a large
vacuum chamber with a volume of 22 m with a pressure of 4 x 10 mm Hg The camera is equipped with computer-controlled
3 -5

robot that moves the magnetron, and a computer-controlled system of gas inlet and discharge control. In this chamber, and the
coating is applied to a variety of optically transparent components of the aircraft.
To reduce the ESR plane when viewed from the rear hemisphere to primarily reduce the ESR cavity engine exhaust nozzle. In
special constructive measures that must be provided for creating new engines found effective application of coatings on items
radioabsorbing exhaust nozzle. The only material capable of withstanding the temperature at the same time (up to 1200 ° C) and
mechanical load characteristic of the engine is ceramic. Developed multilayer ceramic coating is sprayed onto the motor output
elements by depositing molten metal microparticles and dielectric or semiconductor in the plasma arc discharge burning at
atmospheric pressure. The main difficulty that had to be overcome - the creation of a high adhesion between the layers of fairly
thick metal-ceramic and metal surface. As you know, ceramics and metal main structure of the aircraft have significantly
different coefficients of thermal expansion. Furthermore, the temperature at which the coating must maintain its radiophysical
properties vary widely - from 600 to 1200 ° C. Thus, it was necessary to develop materials, the dielectric and magnetic
permeability which have not changed over a wide temperature range. This problem is partially solved: engines with ceramic
radio absorbing coatings are on board the aircraft and tested in a variety of modes of flights.
The fundamental problem is to reduce reflections from the aircraft nose cone. Due to the fact that the fairing is a radar system,
and is often followed by equipment units with the system providing antenna operation, the contribution of the antenna unit in
EPR aircraft may greatly exceed the contribution of all other elements of its construction. In case antenna reflector is directed
orthogonally to the line locator, the ESR can reach tens of square meters or more. This means that all the other tricks that were
designed to reduce the radar signature of aircraft, become meaningless. However, if you rotate the antenna reflector, sending it,
for example, up, can significantly change the EPR along the axial direction.
This is - trivial and well-known solution, and it is widely used. But in some cases, this procedure is not effective enough.
Proposed several solutions for this problem. We consider only those associated with guided screens, the more that such screens
can be used in both new aircraft and the modernization of existing ones. Let's start with the option that is the most simple in
terms of technical solutions.
Printed on the radome semiconductor film, arranged in such a way that under the influence of optical or ultraviolet radiation it
can change the conductivity by several orders of magnitude. Then, putting a fairing sources of optical radiation (Fig. 5a), we
might, depending on our desire to translate the surface of the fairing from a state that is completely transparent to microwave,
fully reflects the state if the result of exposure to sources of radiation, which are above the radome, the conductivity reaches a
high value. Metallized fairing will reflect the incident electromagnetic wave at him, and his ESR for observation angles other
than orthogonal to the axis of the aircraft, will be low. Naturally, in this time of personal locator aircraft can not work.
 Fig. 5. Scheme reflection of electromagnetic waves from the cowl to the
semiconductor controlled screen (a), the change in resistance of semiconductor
films, depending on the light conditions (b) and the scheme of the reflection of
electromagnetic waves from the fairing with a controlled display (c)
On the chart: dark rectangle corresponds to the conductivity of the
films, providing transparency screen, gray rectangle - the level of
conductivity, providing metallization surface fairing, 1 - the
resistance of existing semiconductor films, 2 - resistance hypothetical
films that will realize the idea of a semiconductor managed Screen

Generally speaking, the resistance of semiconductor doped CdS films CdSn or change by many orders of magnitude at quite
reasonable levels of illumination (curve 1 in Fig. 5b). However, they are not suitable for implementing the above-described
technical solutions. Required film to other dynamic properties (curve 2 in Fig. 5b), but how to make it, is not very clear.
Another technical solution - to the locator installation screen on the surface of which has the so-called frequency-selective
structure - the system some form of periodic apertures that are configured so that they freely passed in either direction of the
electromagnetic wave in a narrow band radar eigenfrequencies and fully reflect the electromagnetic wave other frequencies.
Introducing these specially organized aperture, which substantially represent open resonators semiconductor control system can,
if desired, to "close" the screen, making it opaque to all frequencies.
The problem of frequency-selective surfaces is an extensive literature from which to draw conclusions about the features of their
application. We have developed numerical methods for calculation of frequency-selective screens possess appropriate
technology and built working models of managed screens. Depending on the antenna design can be used as a frequency-
selective screen, and plasma. It is mounted inside the shroud in same manner as the frequency-selective screen, but its operation
principle somewhat different. In the absence of a control signal, which can be supplied to the aircraft or the pilot station to detect
the external irradiation, the screen is turned off and is transparent at all frequencies. When a signal voltage is applied to the
screen, it collisional low temperature plasma is ignited as a result of radiation is partially reflected from the screen in the
directions shown in Figure 5 in, and partially absorbed in the screen. Effective screen to electromagnetic radiation of frequency
lower than the plasma. Meaning plasma frequency in such systems can be very large. Long-term studies of processes in low-
temperature plasma, allowed to find the optimal parameters for the composition of gases produced by the plasma, and optimize
high-speed plasma generation system needed to respond to the rapidly changing external environment. Flight tests demonstrate
the high efficiency of the proposed solutions to reduce the radar cross antenna cover.
Control of many radio physical and electrical parameters of the individual layers that make up the coat, and the results of
optimization of individual fragments of the aircraft is carried out in the course of radio-physical experiments. To study the
macroscopic properties of substances of the behavior of the frequency dispersion of dielectrics, ferromagnetic materials, fine
particles made from ferromagnetic alloys, semi-transparent thin island films used laboratory equipment that must satisfy all the
requirements of modern physics laboratories involved in the electrodynamics of continuous media. In addition, you need special
Materials Research and chemical equipment for the study of the properties of composites developed.
Fragments of the aircraft covered by radar absorbing and dissipating coatings investigated in the so-called anechoic chambers.
They simulate the conditions realized in the real space in the situation in which the object falls flat and there is electromagnetic
wave reflections from the underlying surface. Create anechoic chambers with low noise requires skillful work, skills which
Russian scientists hold to the extent that these cameras are exported to industrialized countries. Once the main pieces of the
aircraft will be tested in an anechoic chamber, made technological amendments, if necessary, and implemented a full
technological cycle of work on the plane. In the process it is a continuous monitoring of Radio.
All of the above technological development is carried out in our country and in leading foreign countries. We demonstrate the
global trend of the radar signature of supersonic maneuverable aircraft (Fig. 6). If in the 1980s, aircraft such as the F-15 had an
ESR of more than 10 m then upgraded aviation complex EPR is 1-1.5 m while the prospective fifth-generation aircraft systems
2 2,

such as the F-22, JSF, - 0.3 m . An even smaller value of the EPR in the modernized Russian MiG-21.
2
 Fig. 6. Trends in the radar signature of supersonic aircraft

Measures to reduce the visibility of the aircraft should be coordinated with the capabilities and requirements of electronic
countermeasures. Reduction of visibility, of course, reduces the power consumption of electronic countermeasures, but more
importantly, the use of electronic counter-stealth aircraft provides a significant advantage in the air.
In the foreign literature it is possible to find estimates of the probability of loss of aircraft depending on the EPR (Fig. 7).
Reducing the EPR 10-15 m - values typical for heavy fourth-generation fighter, to 0.3 m enables fundamentally reduce the loss
2 2

of aircraft in combat. This effect is enhanced by simultaneously using aircraft having a low ESR, use modern means of
electronic countermeasures (Fig. 8).

Fig. 7. Losses in overcoming aircraft defense according to their

effective surface scattering

Fig. 8. Effect of combined application of anti-radar equipment and to

reduce the radar signature of loss of aircraft

It should be remembered that at the first stage of the construction of the new aircraft must be addressed if we are ready to put in
as a task number 1 may receive a small value of the EPR to the detriment of many other properties of the aircraft or will strive to
maintain a good aerodynamics of the aircraft when it reaches the level of its small radar signature. Examples of the first
approach - this aircraft F-117 and B-2, the shape of which is optimized to achieve low ESR to the detriment of their aerodynamic
properties, examples of the second approach - this aircraft F-22, JSF, and others.
Obviously, when you create a new aircraft with low ESR values required design and technology activities to optimize the shape
of an airplane: to ensure a smooth transition between the elements of the airframe, the exclusion of the outer suspension arms -
carry weapons inside the fuselage. In turn, this requires the fuselage longitudinal stiffness, entering into the construction of
additional hydromechanical units start and reset safety arms and even changes targeting algorithms.
One of the technological methods that reduce the visibility of the aircraft - the use of large-size panels of complex shape as
elements of the fuselage structure (Fig. 9). Installing a panel can be reduced significantly by joints on the surface skins of
aircraft riveting and bolting elements that are reflected in the forward hemisphere at different angles.
 Technological processes of manufacture and assembly of aircraft must meet the minimum clearances between the elements and
the units located on the outer surface: doors, hatch covers, etc. Complex technological problem is the creation of besperepletny
cockpit canopy to avoid the connecting arcs, degrade visibility of the aircraft.
When all the measures aimed at reducing the radar signature is required optimization of complex avionics. Telltale signs caused
by his work, becomes important against the background of reduced radar signature aircraft. It is envisaged to minimize the time
of the onboard equipment in raioelektronnogo radar radiation, the use of bistatic radar mode. Wanted secretive methods of
liaison aircraft in the group. Two planes are paired, and one of them emits a signal and the second operates in passive mode and
is not detected by the locator opponent. Using computational power of the onboard equipment, maps and a variety of other
techniques can determine the mode-locked position of the aircraft and combat missions.
You need to ensure the effectiveness of all the activities. Naturally, the most objective criterion of effectiveness would be
involved in a real conflict, which, fortunately, has recently been trying to avoid most of the countries. However, the process of
testing aircraft from the point of view of studying their radar signature is required and has a number of specific features. The
probability of detection is proportional to the EPR, is a statistical value and depends on many factors, including the weather and,
of course, of course the aircraft with respect to the radar.
Flight tests precede the ground when the aircraft shall be observed from different angles. Land measuring system (Figure 10)
allows you to get a pie chart of the EPR in a wide range of wavelengths. Measurements can be made with the engine running, it
is important to determine the EPR in the rear hemisphere. It is also possible to estimate the contribution of individual elements
in the plane of the EPR. Then the ESR is measured in terms of aircraft flying with simultaneous evaluation of detection range.
For a set of statistics to a large number of experiments on the ground and in flight. In particular, during the works to reduce the
radar signature of the fourth-generation aircraft such as the Su-27 for a set of statistics required more than 100 hours of
continuous operation of radar stations on the ground and stand more than 30 hours - in flight. In some cases, comparative
evaluations were paired flights, which involved nearly invisible and conventional aircraft.

Fig. 10. Aircraft on a turntable ground measuring complex

To summarize, we can say that as a result of research and development addressed a number of fundamental and applied
problems of the stele technology: developed computational and experimental methods, and complex technology to reduce the
visibility, refined and tested a fourth-generation aircraft such as the Su-27, proposed radio-absorbing materials not is inferior to
the best foreign models. We believe that this area needs further development in order to strengthen the country's defense. Stealth
technology can be used in the modernization of aircraft were in service, and development of advanced aircraft systems.