Chapter 3 Eight Forms of Corrosion

3.3.4 Velocity
Pitting is usually associated with stagnant conditions such as a liquid in a tank or liquid trapped in a low part of an inactive pipe system. Velocity, or increasing velocity, often decreases pitting attack. For example, a stainless steel pump would give good service handling seawater if it were run continuously, but would pit if it were shut down for extended periods.

3.3.5 Metallurgical Variables

As a class, the stainless steel alloys are more susceptible to damage by pitting corrosion than any other group of metals or alloys. As a result, numerous alloy studies have been devoted to improving the pitting resistance of stainless steels. The results are summarized in Table 3-3. Table 3-3 Effects of alloying on pitting resistance of stainless steel alloys Element Effect on pitting resistance Cr increase Ni increase Mo increase Si Decrease; increases when present with Mo Ti Decrease resistance in FeCl3; other medium no effect S Decrease C Decrease N Increase

Chapter 3 Eight Forms of Corrosion

3.3.5 Metallurgical Variables
Severe cold-working increase the pitting attack of 18-8 stainless steels in ferric chloride. Preferential edge pitting is usually observed on most wrought stainless products. Surface finish often has a marked effect on pitting resistance. Pitting and localized corrosion are less likely to occur on polished than on etched or ground surfaces. Generally, the pits that form on a polished surface are larger and penetrate more rapidly than those on rough surfaces. Ordinary steel is more resistance to pitting than stainless steel alloys. Although the general corrosion of steel is much greater than that of stainless steel, rapid perforation due to pitting does not occur.

3.3.6 Evaluation of Pitting Damage

Measurement of pit depth are complicated by the fact that there is a statistical variation in the depths of pits on an exposed specimen as shown in Figure 3-22. Note that the average pit depth is a poor way to estimate pit damage, since it is the deepest pit which causes failure. Average depth A measurement of maximum pit depth would be a more reliable way of expressing pitting corrosion, but the measurement should not be used to predict equipment life since pit depth is also a function of sample size.
Number of pits 0 Pit depth

Fig. 3.22

Chapter 3 Eight Forms of Corrosion

3.3.7 Prevention
The methods suggested for combating crevice corrosion generally apply also for pitting. Materials that show pitting, or tendencies to pit, during corrosion tests should not be used to build the plant or equipment under consideration. For example, the addition of 2% molybdenum to 18-8S (type 304) to produce 18-8SMo (type 316) results in a more protective or more stable passive surface. As a general guide, the following list of metals and alloys may be used as a qualitative guide to suitable materials. However, tests should be conducted before final selection is made. Type 304 SS type 316 SS Hastelloy F, Nionel, or Durimet 20 Hastelloy C or Chlorimet 3 Titanium increasing pitting resistance. Adding inhibitors is sometimes helpful, but this may be a dangerous procedure unless attack is stop completely. If it is not, the intensity of the pitting may be increased.

Chapter 3 Eight Forms of Corrosion

3.4 Intergranular Corrosion
If a metal corrodes, uniform attack results since grain boundaries are usually only slightly more reactive than the matrix. However, under certain conditions, grain interfaces are very reactive and intergranular corrosion results. Localized attack at and adjacent to grain boundaries, with relatively little corrosion of the grains, is intergranular corrosion. The alloy disintegrates (grains fall out) and/or loses its strength. Integranular corrosion can be caused by impurities at the grain boundaries, enrichment of one of the alloying elements, or depletion of one of these elements in grain-boundary areas. Small amounts of iron in aluminum, wherein the solubility of iron is low, have been shown to segregate in the grain boundaries and cause intergranular corrosion. Depletion of chromium in the grain-boundary regions results in intergranular corrosion of stainless steels.

3.4.1 Austenitic Stainless Steels

Numerous failures of 18-8 stainless steels have occurred because of intergranular corrosion. These happen in environments where the alloy should exhibit excellent corrosion resistance. Intergranular corrosion is based on the impoverishment or depletion of chromium in the grain-boundary areas. The addition of Cr to ordinary steel imparts resistance to the steel in many environments. Cr23C6 is virtually insoluble and precipitates out of solid solution if carbon content is about 0.02% or higher. The chromium is thereby removed from solid solution, and the result is metal with lowered chromium content in the area adjacent to the grain boundaries. The Cr carbide in the grain boundary is not attacked. The Cr-depleted zone near the grain boundary is corroded because it does not contain sufficient corrosion resistance to resist attack in many corrosive environments (Fig. 3-24)

Chapter 3 Eight Forms of Corrosion

3.4.1 Austenitic Stainless Steels
Fig 3-25 indicated that the carbides themselves are not attacked the adjacent metal depleted in Cr is dissolved. In fact, this acid rapidly corrodes all of the 18-8 type alloys regardless of heat treatment.

Fig. 3.25 Cross section of area shown in Fig. 3.24 Fig. 3.24 Diagrammatic representation of a grain boundary in sensitized type 304 stainless steel

Chapter 3 Eight Forms of Corrosion

3.4.2 Intergranular Corrosion of Other Alloys
High-strength aluminum alloys depend on precipitated phases for strengthening and are susceptible to intergranular corrosion. Die-cast zinc alloys containing Al exhibit intergranular corrosion by steam and marine atmospheres.

3.5 Selective Leaching

Selective leaching is the removal of one element from a solid alloy by corrosion processes. The most common example is the selective removal of zinc in brass alloys. Similar processes occurs on other alloy systems in which Al, Fe, Co, Cr, and other elements are removed. Overall dimension do not change appreciably when dezincification occurs. Selective leaching is the general term to describe these processes. Figure 3-35 is a example of plug-type dezincification of brass pipe. The dark areas are the dezincified plugs. The remainder of the tube is not corroded to any appreciable extent.

Fig. 3.35 Uniform dezincification of brass pipe

Chapter 3 Eight Forms of Corrosion

3.5 Selective Leaching
Graphitization. Grey cast iron sometimes shows the effects of selective leaching particularly in relatively mild environments. The cast iron appears to become graphitized in that the surface layer has the appearance of graphite. What actually happens is selective leaching of the Fe or steel matrix leaving graphite network. The graphite is cathodic to iron, and an excellent galvanic cell exists. Graphitization does not occurs in nodular or malleable cast iron because the graphite network is not present to hold together the residue. White cast iron has essentially no free carbon and is not subject to graphitization. High temperature. When there is competition for oxygen, the element with higher free energies for their oxide formation (higher affinity for oxygen) are oxidized to a greater degree. In the case of stainless steels, this results in a more protective scale. However, the remaining or substrate metal will be deficient in Cr.

Chapter 3 Eight Forms of Corrosion

3.6 Erosion Corrosion
Erosion corrosion is the acceleration or increase in rate of deterioration or attack on a metal because of relative movement between a corrosive fluid and the metal surface. Generally, this movement is quite rapid, and mechanical wear effects or abrasion are involved. Metal is removed from the surface as dissolved ions, or it forms solid corrosion products which are mechanically swept from the metal surface. Erosion corrosion is characterized in appear by grooves, gullies, waves, rounded holes, and valleys and usually exhibits a directional pattern. Figure 3-38 shows a typical wavy appearance of an erosion-corrosion failure.

Fig. 3.38 Erosion corrosion of stainless alloy pump impeller

Chapter 3 Eight Forms of Corrosion

3.6 Erosion Corrosion
Most metals and alloys are susceptible to erosion-corrosion damage. Many depend upon the development of a surface film of some sort (passivity) for resistance to corrosion. Example are aluminum, lead, and stainless steels. Erosion corrosion results when these protective surfaces are damaged or worn and the metal and alloy are attacked at a rapid rate. Many types of corrosive mediums could cause erosion corrosion. These include gases, aqueous solutions, organic systems and liquid metals. For example, hot gases may oxidize a metal and then at high velocity blow off an otherwise protective scale. Solids in suspension in liquid (slurries) are particularly destructive from the standpoint of erosion corrosion. All type of equipment exposed to moving fluids are subject to erosion corrosion. Some of these are piping system, particularly bends, elbows, and tees, valves, pumps, blowers, centrifugals; propellers; agitators; agitated vessels, heating-exchanger, turbine blades, nozzles, and others.

Chapter 3 Eight Forms of Corrosion

3.6 Erosion Corrosion
Nature of Metal and Alloy. The chemical composition, corrosion resistance, hardness, and metallurgical history of metals and alloys can influence the performance of these materials under erosion-corrosion conditions. The composition of the metal largely determine its corrosion resistance. If it is an active metal, or an alloy composed of active elements, its corrosion resistance is due chiefly to its ability to form and maintain a protective film. If it is a more noble metal, it possesses good inherent corrosion resistance. A material with better inherent resistance would be expected to show better performance when all other factors are equal. For example, an 80% nickle-20% Cr alloys is superior to an 80% Fe-20% Cr because nickel has better inherent resistance than iron. For the same reason a nicklecopper alloy is better than one of zinc and copper. The addition of the third element to an alloy often increases its resistance to erosion corrosion. Mo to 18-8 to make type 316 more resistance to corrosion and erosion corrosion. Al brasses show better erosion-corrosion resistance than straight brass. Combating Erosion Corrosion. Five methods of prevention or minimization of damage due to erosion are used. In order of importance, or extent of use, they are (1) materials with better resistance to erosion corrosion, (2) design, (3) alteration of the environment, (4) coatings, and (5) cathodic protection.

Chapter 3 Eight Forms of Corrosion

3.6 Erosion Corrosion
Design. This is an important method in that the life of presently used, or less costly materials, can be extended considerably or the attack practically eliminated. Design here involved change in shape, or geometry, and not selection of material. Erosion-corrosion damage can be reduced through better design as illustrated by the following examples. Increasing pipe diameter helps from the mechanical standpoint by decreasing velocity and also ensure laminar flow. Increasing the diameter and streamlining bends impingement effects. Increasing the thickness of material strengthens vulnerable areas. Inlet pipes should be directed towards the center of a tank instead of near its wall. Tubes should be designed to extend several inches beyond the tube sheet at the inlet end. Alteration of the environment. Deaeration and the addition of inhibitors are effective methods, but in many cases they are not sufficiently economical for minimizing erosioncorrosion damage. Coatings. Applied coatings of various kinds that produce a resilient barrier between the metal and its environment are sometimes utilized but are not always feasible for solving erosion-corrosion problems. Hard facings, or welded overlays, are sometimes helpful, provided the facing has good corrosion resistance. Repair of attacked areas by welding is often practical.

Chapter 3 Eight Forms of Corrosion

3.6 Erosion Corrosion
Cavitation Damage. Cavitation damage is a special form of erosion corrosion which is caused by the formation and collapse of vapor bubbles in a liquid near a metal surface. Cavitation damage occurs in hydraulic turbines, ship propellers, pump impellers, and other surfaces where high-velocity liquid flow and pressure changes are encountered. Calculations have shown that rapidly collapsing vapor bubbles produce shock waves with pressure as high as 60,000 lb/in2. Force this high can produce plastic deformation in many metals. Evidence of this is indicated by the presence of slip lines in pump parts and other equipment subjected to cavitation. The cavitation damage has been attributed to both corrosion and mechanical effects. This mechanism is shown schematically in Fig. 3-49. The steps are as follows: (1) a cavitation bubble forms on the protective film. (2) the bubble collapse and destroyed the film. (3) The newly exposed metal surface corrodes and the film is reformed. (4) A new cavitation bubble forms at the same spot. (5) The bubble collapses and destroyed the film. (6) The exposed area corrodes and the film reforms. The repetition of this process results in deep holes. It is not necessary to have a protective film for cavitation damage to occur. In actual practice, it appears that cavitation damage is the result of both mechanical and Fig. 3.49 chemical action.

Chapter 3 Eight Forms of Corrosion

3.6 Erosion Corrosion
Fretting Corrosion. Fretting describes corrosion occurring at contact areas between materials under load subjected to vibration and slip. Fretting corrosion is very detrimental because of the destruction of metallic components and the production of oxide debris. Seizing and galling often occur, together with loss of tolerance and loosening of mating parts. Further, fretting causes fatigue since the loosening of components permits excessive strain, and the pits formed by fretting act as stress raisers. Two major mechanism proposed for fretting corrosion are the wear-oxidation and oxidation-wear theories, Fig 3-51 and 3-52.

Chapter 3 Eight Forms of Corrosion

3.6 Erosion Corrosion
Fretting Corrosion. Fretting corrosion can be minimized or practically eliminated in many cases by applying one or more of the following preventive measures: 1. Lubricate with low-viscosity, high-tenacity oils and grease. 2. Increase the hardness of one or both of the contacting materials. 3. Increase friction between mating parts by roughening the surface. Often, bearing surfaces which will be subjected to vibration during shipment are coated which lead to prevent fretting corrosion. When the bearing is placed in service, the lead coating is rapidly worn away. 4. Use gaskets to absorb vibration and to exclude oxygen at bearing surfaces. 5. Increase the load to reduce at bearing slip between mating surfaces. 6. Decrease the load at bearing surface. 7. If possible, increase the relative motion between parts to reduce attack.

Chapter 3 Eight Forms of Corrosion

3.7 Stress Corrosion
Stress-corrosion cracking refers to cracking caused by the simultaneously presence of tensile stress and a specific corrosive medium. During the stress-corrosion cracking, the metal or alloy is virtually unattacked over most of it surface, while fine cracks progress through it. This is illustrated in Fig. 3-57. This cracking phenomenon has serious consequences since it can occur at stress within the range of typical design stress.

Fig. 3.57 Stress corrosion cracking of brass

Chapter 3 Eight Forms of Corrosion

3.7 Stress Corrosion
The important variables affecting stress-corrosion cracking are temperature, solution composition, metal composition, stress, and metal structure.

3.7.1 Crack Morphology

Stress-corrosion cracks give the appearance of a brittle mechanical fracture while, in fact, they are the result of local corrosion processes. Both intergranular and transgranular stress-corrosion cracking are observed. Intergranular cracking proceeds along grain boundaries, while transgranular cracking advances without apparent preference for boundaries. Fig. 3-57 shows the intergranular mode of cracking. Intergranular and transgranular cracking often occur in the same alloy, depending on the environment or the metal structure. Such transitions in crack modes are known in the high-nickel alloys, iron-chromium alloys, and brasses. Cracking proceeds generally perpendicular to the applied stress. Cracking in Fig. 3-57 is of this type. In the case where the metal is subjected to uniform biaxial tensile stresses (the hemispherical head of a pressure vessel under internal pressure ), the cracks appear to be randomly oriented. Cracks vary also in degree of branching. In some cases the cracks are virtually without branches, and in other cases they exhibit multibranched river delta patterns. Depending on the metal structure and composition and upon the environment composition, crack morphology can very from a single crack to extreme branching.

Chapter 3 Eight Forms of Corrosion

3.7.2 Stress Effects
Increasing the stress decreases the time before cracking occurs, as shown in Fig. 3-59. There is some conjecture concerning the minimum stress required to prevent cracking. This minimum stress depends on temperature, alloy composition, and environment composition. In some cases it has been observed to be as low as about 10% of the yield stress. In other cases, cracking does not occur below about 70% of the yield stress. The criteria for the stresses are simple that they be tensile and of sufficient magnitude. These stresses may be due to any source: applied, residual, thermal, or welding. As-welded steels contain residual stresses near the yield point.

Fig. 3.59 Composite curves illustrated the relative stress-corrosion-cracking resistance for commercial stainless steels in boiling 42% magnesium chloride.

Chapter 3 Eight Forms of Corrosion

3.7.3 Time to Cracking
The parameter of time in stress-corrosion cracking phenomena is important since the major physical damage during stress-corrosion cracking occurs during the later stages. As stress-corrosion cracks penetrate the material, the cross-sectional area is reduced and the final cracking failure results entirely from mechanical action. As cracking progresses the cross-sectional area of the specimen decreases and the applied tensile stress increases. As a result, the rate of cracking movement increases with crack depth until rupture occurs. Immediately preceding rupture, the cross section of the materials is reduced to the point where the applied stress is equal to or greater than the ultimate strength of the metal, and failure occurs by mechanical rupture. The width of the crack is narrow during the early stages of cracking, and little change in extension is observed. During later stages, the crack widens. Prior to rupture, extensive plastic deformation occurs and large change in extension is observed.

Rate of cracking

Rupture

Time

Chapter 3 Eight Forms of Corrosion

3.7.4 Environmental factors
Stress-corrosion is well known in various aqueous medium, but it also in certain liquid metals, fused salts and nonaqueous inorganic liquids. The presence of oxidizers often has a pronounced influence on cracking tendencies. The physical state of the environment is also important. Alloys exposed to single-phase aqueous environments are sometimes less severely attacked than metals at the same temperature and stress when exposed to alternate wetting and drying conditions. Fig 3-66 is an example. This surface was cooled by a good grade of city water. The cooling-jacket system drained after each operation. The droplets of water clinging to the autoclave surface dried and the chloride concentrated. Fig. 3-66 Stress corrosion of type 304 autoclave

3.7.5 Metallurgical Factors

The susceptibility to stress-corrosion cracking is affected by the average chemical composition, preferential orientation of grains, composition and distribution of precipitates, dislocation interactions, and progress of the phase transformation. These factors further interact with the environmental composition and stress to affect time to cracking, but these are secondary consideration.

Chapter 3 Eight Forms of Corrosion

3.7.6 Mechanism
The mechanism involved is not well understood. This is one of the big unsolved questions in corrosion research. The main reason for this is the complex interplay of metal, interface, and environment properties. Further, it is unlikely that a specific mechanism will be found which applies to all metal-environment system. The most reliable and useful information has been obtained from empirical experiments. Some of the possible operating steps or processes involved are discussed below. Corrosion plays an important part in the initiation of cracks. A pit, trench, or other discontinuity on the surface of the metal acts as a stress raiser. Stress concentration at the tip of the notch increases tremendous as the radius of notch decreases. Stress-corrosion cracks are often observed to start at the base of a pit. Once a crack has started, the tip of the advancing crack has a small radius and the attendant stress concentration is great. The conjoint action of stress and corrosion required for crack propagation was demonstrated. An advancing crack was stopped when cathodic protection was applied. When cathodic protection was removed, the crack started moving again. Plastic deformation of an alloy can occur in the region immediately preceding the crack tip because of high stress. The role of tensile stress has been shown to be important in rupturing protective films during both initiation and propagation of cracks. In the case of intergranular cracking, the grain-boundary regions could be more anodic, or less corrosion resistant. These examples indicate the complex interplay between metal and environment and account of the specificity of environmental cracking of metals and alloys.

Chapter 3 Eight Forms of Corrosion

3.7.7 Methods of Prevention
As mentioned above, the mechanism of stress-corrosion cracking is imperfectly understood. As a consequence, methods of preventing this type of attack are either general or empirical in nature. Stress-corrosion cracking may be reduced or prevented by application of one or more of the following methods. 1. Lowering the stress below the threshold value if one exists. 2. Eliminating the critical environment species by, for example, degasification, demineralization, or distillation. 3. Changing the alloy is one possible recourse if neither the environment nor stress can be changed. 4. Applying cathodic protection to the structure with an external power supply or consumable anodes. 5. Adding inhibitors to the system if feasible. Phosphates and other inorganic and organic corrosion inhibitor have been used successfully to reduce stress-corrosion cracking effects in mildly corrosive mediums.

Chapter 3 Eight Forms of Corrosion

3.7.8 Corrosion Fatigue
Fatigue is defined as the tendency of a metal to fracture under repeated cyclic stressing. Usually, fatigue failure occurs at stress levels below the yield point and after many cyclic applications of this stress (Fig. 3-72). Corrosive fatigue is defined as the reduction of fatigue resistance due to the presence of a corrosive medium. Thus, corrosion fatigue is not defined in terms of the appearance of the failure, but in terms of mechanical properties. Fig 3-72 illustrates a typical corrosion- fatigue failure. There is usually a large area covered with corrosion products and smaller roughened area resulting from the final brittle fracture. Corrosion-fatigue resistance also can be improved by using coatings such as electrodeposited zinc, Cr, Ni, Cu, and nitride coating. When electrodeposited coatings are applied it is important to use plating techniques that do not produce tensile stresses in the coating or charge hydrogen into the metal.
Smooth bright surface Corrosion products

Rough fracture

Fatigue

Corrosion fatigue

Fig. 3-72 schematic illustration of fatigue and corrosion-fatigue failure

Chapter 3 Eight Forms of Corrosion

3.8 Hydrogen Damage
3.8.1 Characteristics Hydrogen damage is general term refers to mechanical damage of metal caused by the presence of, or interaction with, hydrogen. It can be classified into four distinct types: Hydrogen blistering Hydrogen embrittlement Decarburization Hydrogen attack Hydrogen blistering results from the penetration of hydrogen into a metal. An example of blistering is shown in Fig. 3-75. The results is local deformation and, in extreme cases, complete destruction of the vessel wall. Hydrogen embrittlement also is caused by penetration of hydrogen into e metal, which results in a loss of ductility and tensile strength. Decarburization lowers the tensile strength of steel. Hydrogen attack refers to the interaction between hydrogen and component of an alloy at high temperature. Hydrogen blistering and hydrogen embrittlement may occur during exposure to petroleum, in mechanical process streams, during pickling and welding operations, or as a result of corrosion.
Fig 3-75 Cross-section of a carbon steel plate showing a large hydrogen blister.

Chapter 3 Eight Forms of Corrosion

3.8.2 Environmental Factors
Atomic hydrogen is the only species capable to diffusing through steel and other metals. The molecular form of hydrogen (H2) does not diffuse through metals. Thus, hydrogen damage is produced only by the atomic form of hydrogen. There are various sources of nascent or atomic hydrogen high temperature moist atmospheres, corrosion process, and electrolysis. Both corrosion and the application of cathodic protection, electroplating, and other process are major sources of hydrogen in metals.

3.8.3 Hydrogen Blistering

A schematic illustration of the mechanism of hydrogen blistering is shown in Fig. 3-76. If hydrogen atoms diffuse into a void, a common defect in rimmed steels, they combine into molecular hydrogen. Since molecular hydrogen cannot diffuse, the concentration pressure of molecular hydrogen gas within the void increases. The equilibrium pressure of molecular hydrogen in contact with atomic hydrogen is several hundred thousand atmospheres, which is sufficient to rupture any known engineering material. Hydrogen blistering is most prevalent in the petroleum industry. It occurs in storage tanks and in refining processes. One method for control is to add an inhibitor, such as the polysulfide ion.
void

Fig. 3-76 schematic illustration showing the mechanism of hydrogen blistering

Chapter 3 Eight Forms of Corrosion

3.8.4 Hydrogen Embrittlement
The exact mechanism of hydrogen embrittlement is not well known as that of hydrogen blistering. The initial cause is the same: penetration of atomic hydrogen into the metal structure. For Ti and other strong hydride-forming metals, dissolved hydrogen reacts to form brittle hydride compounds. In other materials, such as iron and steel, the interaction between dissolved hydrogen atoms and the metal is not completely known. There are indications that a larges fraction of all the environmentally activated cracking of ferritic and martensitic iron-base alloys and the titanium-base alloys is due in some way to the interaction of the advancing crack with hydrogen. Most of the mechanism that have been proposed for hydrogen embrittlement are based on slip interference by dissolved hydrogen. This slip interference may be due to the accumulation of hydrogen near dislocation sites or microvoids, but the precise mechanism is still in doubt. When hydrogen is initially present (before use) such as in electroplated articles, baking removes the hydrogen. This procedure is also used during shutdown of hydrogenation equipment involving high-strength steel components. Hydrogen cracking tendency decreases with increasing temperature, and significant change occurs above 70C. Except in corrosion reactions involving hydrofluoric acid or hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen stress cracking is usually not a problem with steels having yield strength below 150 lb/in2 (1,000 MPa). For these acids the limit drops to about 80 lb/in2 (550 MPa). Fig. 3-79 Schematic differentiation of anodic stress-corrosion cracking and cathodically sensitive hydrogen embrittlement.

Chapter 3 Eight Forms of Corrosion

3.8.4 Hydrogen Embrittlement

Fig. 3-78 Static fatigue curves for various hydrogen concentrations obtained by baking 4340 steel different times at 300 0F.

Chapter 3 Eight Forms of Corrosion

3.8.4 Hydrogen Embrittlement

Fig. 3-79 Schematic differentiation of anodic stress-corrosion cracking and cathodicaly sensitive hydrogen embrittlement.

Chapter 3 Eight Forms of Corrosion

3.8.5 Prevention
Hydrogen blistering may be prevented by application of one or more of the following preventative measures: Using clean steel. Using coatings. Metallic, inorganic, and organic coatings and liners are often used to prevent the hydrogen blistering of steel containers. To be successful, the coating or liner must be impervious to hydrogen penetration and be resistant to the mediums contained within the tank. Steel clad with austenitic steel or nickel is often used for this purpose. Also, rubber and plastic coatings and brick linings are frequently employed. Using inhibitors. Inhibitors can prevent blistering since they reduce corrosion rate and the rate of hydrogen-iron reduction. Removing poisons. Substituting alloys. Nickel-containing steels and nickel-base alloys have very low hydrogen diffusion rates and are often used to prevent hydrogen blistering. Hydrogen embrittlement may be prevented by application of one or more of the following preventive measures: Reducing corrosion rate. Hydrogen embrittlement occurs frequently during pickling operation where corrosion of the base metal produces vigorous hydrogen evolution. By careful inhibitor additions, base-metal corrosion can largely be eliminated during pickling with a subsequent decrease in hydrogen pickup. Altering plating conditions. Proper choice of plating baths and careful control of plating current. Baking. Baking at relatively low temperature (200 to 300F, see Fig. 3-78).

Chapter 3 Eight Forms of Corrosion

3.8.5 Prevention
Substituting alloys. The materials most susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement are the very-high-strength steels. Alloys with nickel or molybdenum reduces susceptibility. Practicing proper welding. Low hydrogen welding rods should be specified for welding if hydrogen embrittlement is a problem. Also, it is important to maintain dry conditions during welding since water and water vapor are major sources of hydrogen.