GBIPL Pressure Measurement -1-

TABLE OF CONTENTS 1 Pressure Gauge Measurement.........................................................................................2 1.1 Reasons for measuring pressure.................................................................................2 1.2 Application of Pressure Gauges.................................................................................2 1.3 Principles of Pressure.................................................................................................2 1.4 Kinds of Pressure .......................................................................................................2 1.5 Effect of Atmosphere.................................................................................................3 1.5.1 Pressure units .....................................................................................................3 1.5.2 Pressure Gauges classifications .........................................................................3 1.6 Selection.....................................................................................................................4 1.6.1 Selection of mounting arrangement ...................................................................4 1.6.2 Selection of Measuring Element........................................................................4 1.6.3 Selection of Movement Mechanism. .................................................................4 1.6.4 Dial Scale ...........................................................................................................5 1.6.5 Diaphragm materials and wetted parts...............................................................5 1.6.6 Fill fluids in seal units........................................................................................5 1.6.7 Pointers ..............................................................................................................5 1.6.8 Gauge selection..................................................................................................5 1.6.9 Safety .................................................................................................................5 1.6.10 Definations of Comman Terms Used : .............................................................6 1.7 Tests ...........................................................................................................................6 Accessories ................................................................................................................7 2 FUNDAMENTALS OF PRESSURE MEASUREMENT ................................................7 2.1 REASONS FOR MEASURING PRESSURE ...........................................................7 2.1.1 Providing Operating Information.......................................................................7 2.1.2 Providing Test Data ...........................................................................................7 2.1.3 Measuring Quantity ...........................................................................................7 2.1.4 Indicating Operational Readiness ......................................................................8 2.2 KINDS Of PRESSURE .............................................................................................8 2.2.1 Gauge Pressure...................................................................................................8 2.2.2 Absolute Pressure...............................................................................................9 2.2.3 Negative Pressure...............................................................................................9 2.2.4 Differential Pressure ........................................................................................10 2.2.5 Atmospheric Pressure ......................................................................................10 2.3 PRESSURE MEASURING UNITS ........................................................................10 3 FUNDAMENTALS OF PRESSURE SENSING ELEMENTS: .....................................11 3.1 BOURDON TUBE:-................................................................................................11 3.2 BELLOWS...............................................................................................................12 3.3 DIAPHRAGM:-.......................................................................................................13 3.3.1 SELECTION OF DIAPHRAGM ....................................................................14

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Pressure Gauge Measurement Pressure is defined as the force per unit area. Such force always produces a deflection, a distortion, or some change in volume or dimension irrespective of force is small or large. It is this resulting change to a sensing elementthat provides the basic measurment and controlling movement for pressure instruments. Reasons for measuring pressure a) Providing Operating Information to enable adjustments in control loop b) Providing test data c) Measuring Quantity d) Indication of Operational Readiness e) Measuring Force e.g. Hydraulic press Application of Pressure Gauges Compressors, Chemical Processes, pipelines, pumps, refrigeration. Automotive test equipments,Refineries, Oil extraction, Ships, Medical equipments, Vacuum systems, Boilers, Lubrication, Presses, etc Principles of Pressure Pressure is defined as force acting over a given area (p = f / a ) Liquid Columns : Head Pressure Head Pressure depends on height of liquid column (H) & (D) density of liquid ( p = H*D ) Force & Pressure F=P*A All three factors must be expressed in compatable units Manometers Manometwrs are used for pressure measurement in terms of Head of liquid column

1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4

Kinds of Pressure 1) Gauge pressure :Most common method Pressure is applied inside measuring element and atmospheric pressure surrounds outer side of element Indicated pressure is in excess of atmospheric pressure. This type is also known as gauge pressure.(By custom, this is assumed as gauge pressure and " g " is omitted.) 2) Atmospheric pressure is also reffered as Barometric pressure 3) Absolute pressure : Atmospheric pressure is result of the weight of earth's atmosphere and varies with altitude and prevailing weather conditions. Fixed reference point is established, at an atmospheric pressure equal to zero (full vacuum) called Zero absolute pressure. Gauges may be constructed to use zero absolute pressure and indicated by letter " a" 4) Negative pressure :Pressure bellow the atmospheric pressure is termed as Negative pressure OR vacuum (It should be noted that there is No such thing as negative absolute pressure.) 5) Differential pressure : It is difference between two pressure measured at two points at same time.
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6) Conversion of gauge pressure to absolute pressure may be carried out by adding atmospheric pressure to gauge pressure 1.5 Effect of Atmosphere Gauge indicating in terms of absolute pressure is not affected by changes in atmospheric pressure But gauges measuring in terms of gauge pressure ( or vacuum ) are affected by change in atmospheric pressure. because indicated value is difference of internal pressure and external atmospheric pressure. Standard Atmospheric pressure : Atmospheric pressure at sea level =759.93 mm Hg ( termed as 760 mm )

1.5.1 Pressure units a) Pascal : It is 1 Newton per square meter. It is not gravimetric unit, since force of gravity does enter into its defination. Pascal is actually very small ,hence kilopascal is commonly used. Bar is another unit = 100 kpa b) Liquid heads are measured in mm of water column OR mm of Mercury Other units may be used by using suitable conversion factors. 1.5.2 Pressure Gauges classifications 1. By Function / Application Pressure Gauges used for measurement of 1 to 1000 bar pressure for high repeatability Vacuum Gauges used for measurement of 1 bar or 760 mm HG vacuum pressure for high repeatability Compound Pressure Gauges used for measurement of 1 to 40 bar pressure of pumps on discharge lines. Duplex Gauges used as test gauges specially boiler tests Differential Pressure Gauges :used for measurement of flow Hygine Gauges used in food industry / pharma industry Dairy gauges used in milk processing industry Receiver Gauges used for receiving signals Test Gauges used for calibration standards Refrigerent Gauges they have equivalent temperature scale Hydraulic Gauges used on presses Liquid level Gauges used for receiving signals Absolute Gauges Oxygen Gauges used for oxygen gas applications need proper cleaning of oils and greases. Acetylene Gauges used for acetylene applications, need proper cleaning of oils. Ammonia Gauges : they have equivalent temperature scale Chemical Seal Gauges used for protecting device used to isolate pressure sensing element from corrosive, viscous,slurry applications . Diaphragm Gauges : used for very low pressure measurement with good accuracy Capsule Gauges : used for very low pressure measurement with high accuracy Draft Gauges
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Load Gauges Inline Gauges Pressure switch used for controlling automatic machine operations Glycerine filled Gauges used in high vibratins/ pulsations External Zero adjustment gauge 2. By Case size By size of Dial like :Dia. 50, Dia 100, Dia 150 ,Dia 250 etc 3. By Measuring Element Bourdon C type Bourdon Coil type Bourdon Helical type Spiral Bourdon Sensor Fused Quartz Helix Pressure Sensors Bellows Capsules Diaphragms Pistons Manometers 4. By Material of Measuring Element Stainless steel SS 316 Ti Phosphor bronze Monel Beryllium copper Brass 5. By Accuracy Accuracy is conformity of gauge indication to accepted standard or true value. It is difference between indicated value and true value expressed as % of gauge span. 1.6 Selection

1.6.1 Selection of mounting arrangement 1. Bottom entry local mounting 2. Bottom entry surface mounting 3. Back entry local mounting 4. Back entry flush panel mounting 1.6.2 Selection of Measuring Element Chice depends on required performance and cost 1.6.3 Selection of Movement Mechanism. Movement greatly magnifies the small linear motion of tip and converts it in to rotary motion so as to produce full travel of indicating pointer. For this movement should be very precision type and as free as possible of friction.e.

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1.6.4 Dial Scale Frequency of graduation should bear a relationship to the grade of accuracy. Generally the value of the smallest graduation interval should be one to two times the numerical accuracy of the gauge. 1.6.5 Diaphragm materials and wetted parts Depending on Corrosive nature of process, sediments, viscosity and hazardousness of process fluid 1.6.6 Fill fluids in seal units Silicon oil DC 200 upto 200oC Silicon oil DC 704 upto 340oC Flurolube / Halocarbon oil for oxidizing media Edible oil for food applcation Tolune -40 up to 90oC 1.6.7 Pointers Pointer length should be selected such that the tip of the pointer does not extend beyond the outer end of any graduation and should not be less than the inner edge of graduations. Should be bold enough to permit easy reading from distance. Knife edge pointers are used on high accuracy gauges. Micro pointers are used for precise positioning of pointer is desired. 1.6.8 Gauge selection Following factors are normally to be considered: Nature of pressurized medium, including its pressure range: Medium may be corrosive, may solidify at atmospheric conditions Chemical compatibility, temperature compatibility, magnitude of pressure Environmental conditions: Effect of temperature --- range shift, zero shift, max. Temperature limit Mechanical shocks and vibrations, Humidity , corrosive atmosphere Method of connecting gauge to pressurized medium : strength considerations, Correction for liquid head, installation, effect of leakage Safety considerations Size of gauge Required accuracy of gauge Required type of case: dry, filled, solid front 1.6.9 Safety Adequate safety results from intelligent planning & careful selection and installation of gauges into pressure system. User should inform all conditions pertinent to application &environment. Fire and explosions within pressure system can cause pressure element failure with very violent effects. a) Hydrogen embrittlement b) Contamination of a compressed gas, c) Formation of acetylenes, d) Weakenening of joints
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e) f) g) h)

Corrosion Fatigue Mechanical shocks Excessive vibrations Safety recommendations a) Operating pressure: use between middle half of scale (25% to 75%) b) Avoid use near zero pressure (less than 10% of span) c) Ensure compatibility with pressure medium d) Ensure cleanliness e) Use with liquefied gas systems use safety pattern (solid front)

1.6.10 Definations of Comman Terms Used : Accuracy is conformity of gauge indication to accepted standard or true value. Accuracy rating :expressed in percent of actual output reading. Adujustment span : Means provided in an instrument to change slope of an input-output curve. Adjustment Zero : Means provided in an instrument to produce parallel shift of the input-output curve. Calibration report : A table or graph of the measured relationship of an instrument as compared over its range against a standard. Calibration traceability : The relationship of the calibration of an instrument through a step by step process to an instrument or group of instruments calibrated and certified by a national standardizing laboratory. Dampening : The progressive reduction or suppression of oscillation in a device or system. Hysteresis :That property of an element evidenced by the dependence of the value of the output ,for a given excursion of the input ,upon the history of prior excursions and directions of the current traverse. Tests All tests are carried as per latest European Standard EN 837 Visual checks for dimension, unit,range,process connection,dial markings,wetted parts of material. 1.7 Calibration for Accuracy Repeatability Hysteresis Pointer adjustment Over range protection Vacuum protection Effect of mounting position Effect of high temperature Effect of low temperature Effect of storage temperature Cyclic test Vibration test Endurance test Shock test Proof pressure test
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Fatigue test Energy release test (For Solid Front gauges only) Disc blow out test Helium leak test Weather proof test Leak test for accessories Accessories Gauge protector (Gauge saver) Snubber Built in snubber Isolation valves Two valve manifolds Syphons Valve with drain plug

FUNDAMENTALS OF PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

2.1 REASONS FOR MEASURING PRESSURE There are many reasons why it may be necessary to measure the pressure of a gas such as air or carbon dioxide or a liquid such as water or oil. In some applications, only a rough indication of the pressure is needed, while in others the pressure may be critical, requiring an accurate measurement in order to avoid endangering personnel and equipment. The following paragraphs list several reasons for measuring pressure. 2.1.1 Providing Operating Information Many products from the petrochemical industries require careful control of pressure during the manufacturing process. While the actual control will probably be automatic, a pressure gauge will give the operator a constant indication of the pressure so that adjustments can be made to the control loop. In some applications the normal pressure of the process may not be highly critical, but it is necessary to know when the pressure exceeds some set limit. If the pressure becomes too high due to an abnormal condition in the process, it may cause damage to instrumentation, pumps, or other equipment or even burst the pressure vessel. A continuous indication of the pressure will allow the operator to shut down the process or vent the system before any damage is done. 2.1.2 Providing Test Data In the shop or laboratory, pressure measurements are often required as part of the evaluation and testing of materials or equipment. Generally such measurements must be made with a high degree of accuracy, requiring the use of a special class of gauges called test gauges. 2.1.3 Measuring Quantity The quantity of a gas stored in a tank is proportional to the pressure of the gas. Therefore, a pressure gauge when installed on a tank of known volume can be

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calibrated in terms of quantity, enabling the user to determine how much gas is consumed by a particular process. The quantity of liquid in a tank of known volume can be calculated by measuring the pressure of the liquid at the bottom of the tank. Gauges are furnished calibrated in terms of gallons of a specified liquid. 2.1.4 Indicating Operational Readiness Sprinkler systems for fire protection and fire extinguishers are maintained under pressure, and a pressure gauge is installed in the sprinkler system or on the fire extinguisher to indicate the amount of the pressure. Gauges for this purpose could be either analog or digital for displaying an operating zone so that the user can easily determine if the equipment is in fact operational. 2.2 KINDS Of PRESSURE

Pressure is measured using various reference points as zero, which results in what may be called different kinds of pressure. The various terms used to describe these are gauge pressure, absolute pressure, negative pressure, differential pressure, and vacuum. 2.2.1 Gauge Pressure The most common type of pressure is constructed so that the measured pressure is applied to the inside of the measuring element (i.e., the bourdon) and atmospheric pressure surrounds the outside of the measuring element. Therefore, the pressure indicated by the gauge will be the amount that the measured pressure is in excess of the surrounding atmospheric pressure. This kind of pressure is called gauge pressure, and its reference (ambient) atmospheric pressure. Atmospheric pressure is often referred to as barometric pressure. The left-hand side of the chart illustrates a gauge pressure of 50 psi. To be strictly correct, this should be written as 50 psig to indicate it is gauge pressure.

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2.2.2 Absolute Pressure Atmospheric pressure is the result of the weight of the earths atmospheric and varies depending on the altitude and the prevailing weather. A fixed (unchanging) reference point is called zero absolute pressure. Gauges may be constructed to use zero absolute pressure as a reference point, in which case the indication would be in terms of a unit such as psi absolute, which is abbreviated as psia. Fig introduces the term Standard Atmospheric Pressure and equates it to 14.696 psia. This pressure represents the weight of a column of air 1 sq. inch in cross section having a height that extends from sea level to the outer limits of the earths atmosphere.
GAUGE PRESSURE
3.0 bar

ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
4.013 bara

2.5 bar

2.0 bar

GAUGE PRESSURE

DIIFERENTIA L PRESSURE 2bar

1.5 bar

1.0 bar

ABSOLUTE PRESSURE

0.5 bar

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE AT SEA LEVEL VACUUM NEGATIVE PRESSURE

0mm Hg

0 bar

760mm Hg abs (1.013bara)

400mm Hg (- 0.53 bar) 760mm Hg (- 1.013 bar)

VAC

VAC

0 bar

ZERO ABSOLUTE PRESSURE

Based on standard atmospheric pressure 760mm Hg = 1.013bara

2.2.3 Negative Pressure Negative pressure is a term intended to replace vacuum. Negative pressure, or vacuum, is a pressure below atmospheric pressure and therefore, like gauge pressure, uses the surrounding atmosphere as the reference point. Because of this, the maximum negative pressure or vacuum that can be obtained is value numerically equal to the existing ambient atmospheric pressure at which point absolute pressure will be zero. It is customary to express vacuum in terms of a liquid head (in Hg, cm H2O, etc.), whereas negative pressure is usually expressed in force/area units, except that a minus sign is
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placed in front of the numerical value to indicate that the pressure is negative (-10 psi, 70 kPa, etc.). In both the cases the gauge indicates atmospheric pressure as zero, and the numerical value of the indications increases as the negative pressure or vacuum approaches zero absolute pressure. This is, of course, no such thing as negative absolute pressure, since the reference point for absolute pressure is zero atmospheric pressure. A vacuum would be indicated if the absolute pressure was less than the barometric pressure.

2.2.4 Differential Pressure One other term is illustrated in fig. namely differential pressure. Gauges are available to measure and indicate the differences between two pressures, such as B (10 psi) and C (40 psi) in fig. the differential pressure gauge indicates the difference on a scale that would read zero when the two pressures are equal regardless of their individual values. The letter d indicates difference, so that in this example the differential pressure between points B and C would be expressed as 30 psid. The zero point may be in the center of the scale to permit readings in one direction or the other, depending on which pressure is greater. If one of the two pressures is always the greater of the two, the zero point may be at the beginning of the scale. Because such gauges read the difference between the two pressures, the distinction between the gauge and absolute pressure is irrelevant ; variations in atmospheric pressure will not alter the readings because both inputs are identically affected by barometric changes. 2.2.5 Atmospheric Pressure The pressure indicated by a gauge that measures in terms of absolute pressure is not affected by changes in atmospheric pressure; such gases measure the pressure with respect to an unchanging absolute zero reference. Gauges that measure in terms of gauge pressure are affected by the change in atmospheric pressure because the pressure element of these gauges senses the difference in pressure between that applied to the exterior, which is usually atmospheric pressure. Therefore a decrease in atmospheric pressure surrounding the element has the same effect as an increase in pressure applied to the interior of the element. The importance of changes in atmospheric pressure depends on the required accuracy of indication and the magnitude of the pressure being measured. 2.3 PRESSURE MEASURING UNITS

Pressure and temperature are the most important physical variables in our world. Pressure is defined as a force (Fn) uniformly distributed over a given area (A) and acting upon it. p = Fn/A This force can be caused by liquids, gases or vapours or by solid bodies. The force unit Newton is defined as 1N = 1 kg m/sq. sec From this pressure unit Pascal (Pa) named after the French physicist Blaise Pascal is directly derived
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1 Pa = 1 N/ sq.m These units are standardized by International standards ISO 1000-1973, the German standard is DIN 1301. 1 Pascal corresponds to the pressure uniformly exerted upon an area in which the force of 1 Newton is vertically applied to the area of 1 sq. m The special name for the tenth of a mega pascal (MPa) is the Bar. 1 bar = 1,00,000 Pa = 0.1 MPa The unit Bar named after the French Physicist Bar proved to be very practical since it corresponds to order of magnitude at atmospheric pressure. For this reason, the German DIN standards use the bar almost exclusively. Internationally this unit is becoming increasingly used. Previous units in use were Technical atmosphere 1 kg/sq.cm = 0.981 bar. Physical atmosphere 1 atm = 1.013 bar. Column of water 1 mm WG = 0.0981 mbar. 3 FUNDAMENTALS OF PRESSURE SENSING ELEMENTS:

Mechanical methods of measuring pressure have been known for centuries. U-tube manometers were among the first pressure indicators. Originally, these tubes were made of glass, and scales were added to them as needed. But manometers are large, cumbersome, and not well suited for integration into automatic control loops. Therefore, manometers are usually found in the laboratory or used as local indicators. Depending on the reference pressure used, they could indicate absolute, gauge, and differential pressure. The different pressure measuring elements used are: 1. 2. 3. 3.1 Bourdon Tube Bellows Diaphgram BOURDON TUBE:-

A Bourdon tube is C-shaped and has an oval cross-section with one end of the tube connected to the process pressure (Figure 3-1A). The other end is sealed and connected to the pointer or transmitter mechanism. To increase their sensitivity, Bourdon tube elements can be extended into spirals or helical coils (Figures 3-1B and 31C). This increases their effective angular length and therefore increases the movement at their tip, which in turn increases the resolution of the transducer

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3.2

BELLOWS

A bellows is a cylindrical device that is usually ribbed and very flexible. Bellows are usually made of phosphor, bronze, or brass. A pair of matched bellows can be used to measure absolute pressure or differential pressure. Usually one end of the bellows is attached to the transducer case and the other end if free to move. When pressure is applied to the inside of the bellows, it will expand, causing the free end to move. The movement of the movable end is measured in order to identify the amount of pressure.

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3.3

DIAPHRAGM:-

A diaphragm is a mechanical pressure transducer that is used to detect slight changes in pressure. A diaphragm is a single disk that is exposed to a process. Since process pressure is exerted over a relatively large area, this instrument is more sensitive to small changes in pressure. This principle is based on the basic pressure equation, P = F/A. If a small pressure is exerted over a large area, the force will be relatively large, and will cause the diaphragm to flex. A mechanical device, such as a pin, rod, or bar, is usually connected to the diaphragm so that the amount of flex can be measured in order to determine the amount of pressure exerted.

Diaphragm capsules are frequently used as isolation devices.

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3.3.1 SELECTION OF DIAPHRAGM There are various types of diaphragm available like corrugated, flat and capsules. The available diaphragm materials are stainless steel and spring steel. Depending upon the type of application the appropriate diaphragm should be used.In the case of the diaphragm, the reference magnitude is the elastic deformation S of the diaphragm, which is fixed around its periphery and loaded on the side. This deformation is converted by known methods into a rotary travel. Due to their shape and position diaphragms have a high mechanical resistance and are less shock-sensitive. In most cases, they are made of steel or of stainless steel. The diaphragm calculation is more difficult than that for the bourdon tube. HARINGX developed a method, which can be reduced to a simple formula, using nomograms. The starting point is the deflection of theflat,peripherallyclampedplate S = 3/16 * (R)/(E*d) * p With E` = E/(1- ) Which clearly shows diaphragm thickness d. the importance of the parameters radius r and

For small deflections, flat diaphragms show linear characteristic for pressure p and travel s. For this reason they are mostly used for electrical and generally capacitive sensing methods. For a pressure measuring instrument with mechanical indication measuring travels between 1 and 3 mm are needed. In this case, the nonlinearity of a plane diaphragm would be extremely disturbing. Useful deflections with a good linearity can be obtained if the diaphragm has concentric corrugations.

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