ID106 - PRODUCT DESIGN LECTURE SERIES Reading material -compiled by Alamelu Pasupathy - visiting faculty MEASI

Syllabus
Chapter 1 Orientation Communication model making, free hand drawing, technical drawing a engineering convention for products, product photography basics of photographic equipments and rendering representation of concepts and detailed designs Chapter 2 Materials and Technology Experience of physically working with various materials and comprehending their physical characteristics. General forms of materials available commercially. Material working technologies and processes. Ferrous and non ferrous metals, plastics, wood, board, composites, alloys, paints and coating , finishes, treatments, hardening, stone and glass | An over view of relationship between technological progress and design issues, through an analysis of current technological trends and their effects on culture, society and industrial production Chapter 3 - Design studies and criticism The objective is to look at the myriad forms of the past and contemporary artistic expression. Through the examination of film, music, photography, painting sculpture and dance | The student is required to do directed research the student would be required to select a particular subject or product. He/she then defines a specific narrow topic and objective of the paper. He/she would pursue readings and discussions till he/she develops a personal perspective to inform or comment upon the topic would then write a paper. Chapter 4 Workshop Scale project abridge course that enables student architects interior designers of buildings to shift their perspective from large sized artefacts to small atrefacts using their existing methodologies of design and process of decision making | Concept of human interface, object man interaction | Ergonomics basic principles, anthropometry, scale models and testing | Techniques of exploring unfamiliar perspectives, brain storming and other established strategies of idea generation. Chapter 5 project Design of an object from the perspective of individual expression and design intervention. Total design, information collection, existing product analysis, market research, development of brief, concept generation as an audit of possibilities, ergonomic studies, cost analysis, value engineering, product improvement.

Chapter 2 Materials and technology

Materials Selection Process

The material selection process consists of the following steps: A. B. C. D. E. F. Identify product design requirements Identify product element design requirements Identify potential materials Evaluate materials Determine whether any of the materials meet the selection criteria Select materials

Choosing the right material

Materials contribute to the soul of a design and their physical and mental beauty should be appreciated, respected and enjoyed. The amount of materials that are available to the designer is fantastic, with global libraries promoting a vast range of exciting possibilities. Only through asking questions and exploring fundamental requirements that inspiration and direction to chose right material can be found. The basic materials such as wood, metal and plastic cover a huge array of possibilities and when unfamiliar or non-traditional methods are applied to work some of these materials, exciting results can emerge. Influences for working with materials can be sourced from different disciplines and cultures, which provide stimulating possibilities and sources of inspiration. Materials can and should be challenged and pushed to their limitations; limits that would not normally be considered possible. Investigating a material through simple workshop processes can reveal much about its ability and possible application. Designing with materials can take different routes. It is possible to conceive an idea and then find an appropriate material to function in a specific role, and it is also feasible to explore a material and then adopt a use for it. It is, of course, also possible to just play with a material and then go and do something completely different.

The materials engineering perspective is concerned with the following issues: The performance, reliability, and cost of a product are strongly dependent on the properties of the materials that make up the product | Selection of materials with properties that enable a products design requirements to be satisfied | Controlling the variation of the materials properties

During the process of identifying and evaluating materials, a design team may determine that there are no materials that can be considered for use for a product element. In this situation, the design team has the following options: 1. Modify the design of the product element. 2. Modify the design of the product or subassembly that directly uses the product element. 3. Modify the design requirements of the product. 4. Invent a new material. 5. Cancel the product. A. Identify product design requirements Product design requirements directly evolve from the understanding the context and need of the customer. But there are other factors that will influence the design requirements in addition to those that will be purchasing the product. These other factors are organizations that impose requirements, and although they will not be purchasing the product, it is necessary to satisfy their requirements. Such of them are, Manufacturing organizations that will be participating in the production of the Product; Industry organizations that set standards covering areas such as product performance, reliability, and safety; Government organizations that regulate in a variety of areas such as product safety, manner in which products can operate, and the substances that can be used in products; Legal organizations inside and outside of companies that oversee and control the use of intellectual property It is important to be aware of all of the relevant nonpaying customers. Not doing so can lead to serious consequences, like a product being banned from sale or being recalled. The general categories of product design requirements are as follows: 1. Performance requirements 2. Reliability requirements 3. Size, shape, mass, and style requirements 4. Cost requirements 5. Manufacturing requirements 6. Industry standards 7. Government regulations 8. Intellectual property requirements 9. Sustainability requirements

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Performance requirements - The performance requirements describe the functions and features of a product. This involves assigning measurable target values for each performance attribute associated with a particular function or feature. It is important to identify attributes that are measurable; otherwise, it will be very difficult to objectively verify that the requirement is being met. For example the performance requirements for a product like an Automobile are; Acceleration: Time from 0 to XX kilometers/hour (seconds) Handling: Minimum turn radius at a specified speed (meters) Fuel economy: Driving distance per unit volume of gasoline (km/liter) Safety features: Air bag deployment time (seconds), braking distance at a specified speed (meters); visibility (glass light transmission, index of refraction) Comfort: Road and engine noise in passenger compartment (decibels)

2. Reliability requirements - Reliability refers to a products ability to perform as specified over a specific use period and under a given set of use conditions. The use period may be measured in different ways such as total ownership time, total on time, or total miles used. The use conditions consist of the mechanical and electromagnetic forces and the thermal, chemical, biological, electrochemical, and radiation environments to which a product is exposed during handling, shipping, and customer use. When defining the use conditions, design teams may have to consider minor abuse and misuse. For example the reliability requirements for a product like an Automobile are; 1. Vibration: Up to XX mm displacement, XX m/s velocity, XX m/s2 acceleration 2. Minimum and maximum temperatures: XX to YYC 3. Humidity: Up to XX% relative humidity 4. Ultraviolet sunlight: XX mJ/cm2 5. Saltwater: Splashing from saltwater on road 3. Size, shape, mass, and style requirements - The size, shape, mass, and style requirements for a product are dictated by its functionality, ease of use, ability to fit into a particular space, and intended aesthetic appeal to customers. Style also includes shape, as well as color and surface texture. For example the size, shape, mass and style requirements for a product like Automobile are; 1. Size: XX cm XX cm XX cm (length width height)

2. 3. 4.

M ass: XX grams Shape: Sedan-like Color: Metallic silver, black, or maroon

4. Cost requirements - The price at which a company thinks it can sell its product and the desired profit from each sale will set the requirements on the maximum allowed costs to design and manufacture the product. The cost to design a product includes the costs associated with the following: Engineering personnel Design tools such as computer-aided design and finite element analysis Making product prototypes for testing and evaluation Product testing Materials characterization and materials reliability testing The cost to manufacture a product includes the costs for the following: Purchasing materials, components, and subassemblies used to build the product Manufacturing components and subassemblies used within the product Assembling the product from the components or subassemblies Testing to verify that a product meets the design requirements Packaging and shipping the product to customers and stores Providing warranty and other product support to customers The total allowable costs to manufacture a product will constrain the allowable costs for the materials, components, subassemblies, and manufacturing processes used to make the product 5.Manufacturing requirements -Companies that have internal manufacturing capabilities may require that specific manufacturing processes and materials be used to produce the product. For example, these constraints can restrict the products shape and dimensions so that the existing manufacturing equipment can handle the product as it is being built. Perhaps the manufacturing capabilities may restrict the types of joints that can be used to join components and subassemblies, which will have an impact on the materials that can be used to form the joints. For a product that is similar to past products, manufacturing constraints such as these are acceptable. In fact, they may be desirable because they provide a certain level of confidence in the design of products that can be produced using familiar processes and materials.

In cases where a new product differs significantly from past products, the constraints of using specific materials and processes may provide a competitive advantage or be a burden. It can be a competitive advantage if the design team is creative enough to develop a product around the manufacturing requirements. However, the requirements are a burden if the existing processes are inherently incompatible with the new product or if the design team does not have the required creativity. 6. Industry standards- Industry standards are documents that contain requirements that have been agreed on by groups of companies and people working in specific industries or on specific types of products. The standards address product performance, safety, reliability, and the methods for evaluating product performance, reliability, and safety. 7. Government regulations - Government regulations place requirements on things such as the manner in which a product operates, product safety, and substances that can and cannot be used in the product. 8.Intellectual property requirements - Intellectual property is a product of an individuals intellect and includes patents, trade secrets, copyrights, and trademarks. A patent is a right given by a government to an inventor (or inventors). The government gives the inventor the sole right to make, use, or sell a product covered by the claims of an issued patent to the inventor(s). The invention must be a process, machine, manufacture, or composition of matter. For a patent to be issued, the invention must meet the governments definition of novel, useful, and non obvious. The aesthetic design of a product can also be protected by a design patent, preventing others from using a similar products nonfunctional styling. If the inventor works for a company, the inventor has usually assigned the rights to the patent to his or her employer as a condition of employment. The different types of intellectual property are as follows. A patent right is a negative right in that the patent holder can prevent others from practicing any of the claims in the invention; however, it does not give the patent holder the right to practice the invention described in the claims because doing so could infringe on someone elses patent rights or be against government policy. An inventor can license or sell the right to use the patent to others.

A trade secret is information that (1) derives independent economic value from not being generally known or readily ascertainable to other persons who can obtain economic value from its disclosure or use and (2) is the subject of efforts that are reasonable under the circumstances to maintain its secrecy. Examples of trade secrets can be formulas for products, methods used in manufacturing, and compilations of information. A copyright protects the embodiment of a work (e.g., a work of art, software, or a performance), not the inventive ideas behind the work. A trademark or service mark is a word, phrase, symbol, design, or combination of these that identifies and distinguishes the source of the goods or services of one party from those of others. One effect of patents owned by other companies is to restrict the implementation of certain functions within a product or restrict the means for achieving the functions and features. By the way, it is possible for a patent for an unrelated type of product to apply to the functions or features that are intended within the product being designed. For the case of a patent covering the implementation of certain functions, the design team must decide to either purchase the right to use the invention covered by the patent or exclude the functionality from the product For the case of a patent covering the means for achieving certain functions or features, the design team must come up with a new invention for achieving the functions or features, purchase the rights to use the invention covered by the patent, or exclude the functions and features from the product. It is best to gain the knowledge about patent coverage at the beginning of a design effort. Design teams can conduct patent searches before starting the design of a new product. Resources for researching patents are available on the Internet. Some of the various worldwide patent offices and their websites for researching patents are the following: U.S. Patent and Trade Office, www.uspto.gov European Patent Office, www.european-patent-office.org Japan Patent Office, www.jpo.go.jp 9. Sustainability requirements - Sustainability means meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It requires that human activity only utilizes natures resources at a rate at which they can be replenished naturally. The needed aim of sustainable design is to manufacture products in a way that reduces use of nonrenewable resources, minimizes environmental impact, and relates people with the natural environments.

Sustainable design (also referred to as green design, eco-design, or design for environment) is the art of designing physical objects to comply with the principles of ecological sustainability. Sustainable technologies are those that use less energy, use fewer limited resources, do not deplete natural resources, do not directly or indirectly pollute the environment, and can be reused or recycled at the end of their useful life. Sustainable design is a general reaction to the rapid growth of economic activity and human population, depletion of natural resources, damage to ecosystems, and loss of biodiversity. It is considered a means of reducing the use of nonrenewable resources and our impact on the environment, while maintaining quality of life, by using clever designs to substitute less harmful products and processes for conventional ones. The following are some common principles of sustainable design: 1. Use low-impact materials. Choose nontoxic, sustainably produced, or recycled materials that require little energy to process. 2. Use manufacturing processes that require less energy. 3. Make longer-lasting and better-functioning products that will have to be replaced less frequently, reducing the impact of producing replacements. 4. Design products for reuse and recycling. 5. Use materials that come from nearby (local or bioregional), sustainably managed renewable sources that can be composted when their usefulness has been exhausted. For example, automobiles and appliances can be designed for repair and disassembly (for recycling) and constructed from recyclable materials such as steel, aluminum, and glass, and from renewable materials (e.g., wood and plastics from natural feedstock). From the standpoint of product design requirements, sustainability requirements are currently based on whether or not it is important to customers that their purchase of the product is environmentally responsible. Thus, it is actually an aspect of the customers wants and needs that influences the materials and processes that can be used. This in turn will affect the design of the product and its subassemblies.

B. Identify product element design requirements The process of identifying the product element design requirements is similar to that of identifying the product design requirements. It is just that each of the criteria discussed in the above section is applied to each product element in the similar way applied to the whole product For example the product element design requirements for an automobile wind shield wiper blade will be as follows: Subassembly- Performance Requirements Push water off windshield: XX% visibility Support loads from wiper arm: XX kg force Subassembly -Use Conditions Maximum temperature: +YYC Up to XX% relative humidity Ultraviolet sunlight Splashing from saltwater Product Element -Performance Requirements Conform to the surface of the windshield: Elastic modulus < XX MPa Not deform too much: Elastic modulus > YY MPa Slide easily across the surface of the Product Element- Use Conditions Pressure against windshield: XX newtons Cyclic motion: Back and forth Temperature extremes: XXYYC Relative humidity: XX% Ultraviolet radiation, wiper fluid, saltwater Product Element- Size, Shape, and Mass Requirements Length: XX mm Shape: Cross-section shape (e.g., T-shaped) The other requirements like the Manufacturing requirements, Industry standards, Government regulations, Intellectual property requirements and Sustainability requirements should also be evolved in a similar manner

C. Identifying Potential Materials Once the required material properties have been identified for a product element, it is possible to identify potential materials that can be used for the product element. The government codes, restrictions put further constraints on the materials that can be used, often reducing the set of potential materials that can be considered. For example, the European Union Directive 2002/95/EC, Restriction of the Use of Certain Hazardous Substances in Electrical and Electronic Equipment, prohibits the use of lead (Pb) in electronics. Therefore, a company that makes mobile phones for sale in Europe must use lead-free solder paste to form solder joints. The number of potential materials that can be considered for use decreases as the requirements become more, demanding and complex. Identifying potential materials will also include identifying the manufacturing processes used to form a product element. The processes have an effect on the properties of the materials. For example, a component machined out of wrought aluminum will have different properties compared to the same component die cast out of aluminum. Also, there are many manufacturing processes that can be used only with a specific set of materials. In some cases, the design requirements are so restrictive that few or no materials can be identified for use. Too few materials options adds risk to the product development effort if there are concerns that testing and evaluation might reveal that none of the options are viable. The risk is reduced if at least one option is known to have a high probability of meeting all the design requirements. Creative solutions to material selection decisions can provide a competitive advantage if the materials enable a product with better performance, better reliability, or lower cost compared to competitors products. Sometimes the design requirements for a product element are mutually exclusive, requiring the invention of a new material or combination of materials, which can also provide a competitive advantage.

D .Evaluating the Materials Quite often the available published information about a material is incomplete and may be enoug to consider whether a material is a potential candidate for use, but not enough to select it for the final design. Thus, it is necessary to conduct evaluations to determine whether a material does satisfy all the design requirements of the product element under consideration. When there is more than one option of materials, evaluations provide information that will help identify the material with properties that best meet the design requirements, at the lowest cost. The evaluation process consists of obtaining the following information about aspects of the materials: Properties | Features | Variation in properties | Degradation characteristics | Ease of use in manufacturing processes | Total cost to use Design teams should consider comparable materials from two different suppliers as being two different materials. Even if the materials have the same nominal composition, there will probably be differences in their properties because of (1)the methods and care used to prepare the materials and (2) differences in additives used to modify the material properties. Material Properties - Materials have many different properties, including physical, mechanical, thermal, electrical, chemical, electrochemical, and optical properties .There is a range of values for any property for a material. It is important to determine the maximum and minimum values for a specific property to determine whether the material will meet a specific design requirement for all samples of the material Material Features - A material feature refers to a materials composition and the microscopic structures within it. The properties of a material depend directly on its features. Some features depend on the manufacturing processes used to form a product element or produce a material. It is important to evaluate material features because it is possible to form a product element that appears to have the correct properties, but its material features are suboptimum, which can lead to reliability problems. Variation in Material Properties - There will be some variation in the properties of the materials that constitute a product element. It depends on the materials and

manufacturing processes used to make it. Achieving consistent product performance and reliability requires that the variation be within certain limits. Degradation Characteristics - The materials that make up a product element will degrade when they are exposed to the mechanical, electromagnetic, thermal, chemical, biological, electrochemical, and radiation conditions during use of the product. This degradation results in changes in the properties of the material, and sometimes in the failure of the product element and the product. The characterization of the degradation behavior of the materials may be required to determine whether they will be able to meet all the design requirements over the expected life of the product. Ease of Use in Manufacturing Processes - The materials must enable a product element to be easily produced. They should be process friendly. For a particular manufacturing process, some materials allow a product element to be more easily formed with consistent properties and features than other materials. Also less variation in the properties makes it easier to use the manufacturing processes without problems. Total Cost to Use - The actual cost to use a particular material includes the following expenses: The costs to purchase the materials used to create a product element. The costs to ship and store the materials. The properties of some materials degrade during storage before they are used to fabricate a component or build a subassembly or assembly. To prevent degradation, some materials must be packed in special packaging, shipped in a controlled environment, or stored in a controlled environment. The cost of the manufacturing processes required to form a product element from the selected materials. The cost to fix products with defective product elements before they leave a factory. The cost to throw away products that do not satisfy performance and reliability requirements. E. Determine whether any of the materials meet the selection criteria Based on the results of the evaluations, a design team will be able to determine which, if any, of the materials options will satisfy the requirements for a product element. Now the design team can make a list of material options possible for each product element

F. Select materials If there is at least one acceptable material option for each product element, then the design team can continue on with the design. If there are not any acceptable material options for any of the product elements, then the design team must make one of the following choices: Select a new design concept for the product element. This will involve identifying new design requirements. It may not be possible to change the design concept for one product element without selecting new design concepts for other product elements or selecting a new design concept for the subassembly or product. This depends on the impact of changing one product element on the rest of the design. Changing the design of a critical product element may force a complete redesign of the product. Modify the product requirements. This will allow subassembly and product element requirements to be modified so that at least one material can be found that will satisfy the product element requirements. Cancel the product. It may be determined that there is not enough time, money, or interest to select new design concepts, modify the product requirements, or invent a new material. Invent a new material. The first three options may not seem attractive. However, any one of them is better than spending the time and money on a development effort that results in a product that does not meet expectations. The fourth option requires an additional investment of time and money with no guarantee of success. However, if the design team is successful in inventing a solution, then the invention may give the company a competitive advantage over other companies. The possibility of not being able to identify acceptable materials options is another reason why the constraints on the materials should be identified at the beginning of product development in order to plan and budget for any required materials testing and evaluation. By doing this, the development team can start to understand whether any of the product requirements must be modified while it is still early in the development cycle.

Basic material properties

To understand material it is very essentials to understand the basic properties. Here are some of the basic properties and their definition to brush up

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Materials

Metals

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Ores Metals are found in nature, combined with rocks. These are termed as ores from with metals are extracted. For example iron is extracted from iron ore and aluminium from bauxite Metals Metals are categories into two main groups: Ferrous metals: those containing iron and Non ferrous metals: those which contain no iron Alloys Metals can be used in their pure state, like copper and lead to take advantage of their character. Metals are combined with different metals or other materials to form alloys. By making alloys we can modify the properties of the metal to suit a particular need. Eg : stainless steel a iron chromium alloy; Brass a copper zinc alloy

Ferrous metals
Iron Iron metal has been used since ancient times. Lower-melting copper alloys were used first in history. Fresh iron surfaces appear lustrous silvery-gray, but oxidize in normal air to give iron oxides, also known as rust. Iron oxides occupy more volume than iron metal, and thus iron oxides flake off and expose fresh surfaces for corrosion. Pure iron is soft (softer than aluminum) and ductile. When a piece of iron is put under stress, layers of atoms in these areas slip over one another and the metal deforms , explaining the ductility of pure iron. The material is significantly hardenened and strengthened by impurities from the smelting process, such as carbon. A certain proportion of carbon (between 0.2% and 2.1%) produces steel, which may be up to 1000 times harder than pure iron. Alloys of iron Steel Steel is the generic term for a large family of iron-carbon alloys, which are malleable, within some temperature range, immediately after solidification from the molten state. The principal raw materials used in steelmaking are iron ore, coal, and limestone. These materials are converted in a blast furnace into a product known as "pig iron," which contains considerable amounts of carbon, manganese, sulfur, phosphorus, and silicon. Pig iron is hard, brittle, and unsuitable for direct processing into wrought forms. Steelmaking is the process of refining pig iron as well as iron and steel scrap by removing undesirable elements from the melt and then adding desirable elements in predetermined amounts. The carbon content of common steel grades ranges from a few hundredths of a per cent to about 1 per cent. Other elements may be present as alloying elements added to effect changes in the properties of the steel. Steels can be cast to shape, or the cast ingot or strand can be reheated and hot worked by rolling, forging, extrusion, or other processes into a wrought mill shape. Wrought steels are the most widely used of engineering materials, offering a multitude of forms, finishes, strengths, and usable temperature ranges. No other material offers comparable versatility for product design.

Carbon steels
Steel is a metal alloy consisting mostly of iron, in addition to small amounts of carbon, depending on the grade and quality of the steel.The range of alloys

formed by adding carbon to iron is called as carbon steels. When carbon is added to iron in the furnace, the carbon atoms enter, the material changing both its structure and properties. The resulting steel in much less ductile because the carbon helps reduce the slip between layers of atoms, by interfering with slip planes. They wide range of carbon steels are: Mild steel carbon 0.1% to 0.3% Medium carbon steel carbon 0.3% to 0.7% High carbon steel carbon 0.7% to 1.3% Grey cast iron iron (94%) + carbon (3%) + silicon (2%)

Alloy steels Alloy steel is any type of steel to which one or more elements besides carbon have been intentionally added, to produce a desired physical property or characteristic. Common elements that are added to make alloy steel are molybdenum, manganese, nickel, silicon, boron, chromium, and vanadium. The physical properties of these steels are modified by the other elements, to give them greater hardness, durability, corrosion resistance, or toughness as compared to carbon steel. To achieve such properties, these alloys often require heat treatment. Eg Stainless steel iron+ carbon+ chromium (13%-27%) Alloy steel is often subdivided into two groups: High alloy steels- steel that is alloyed with more than eight percent of its weight being other elements beside iron and carbon, is high alloy steel Low alloy steels - steel that is alloyed with less than eight percent of its weight being other elements beside iron and carbon, is high alloy steel Mild steel Characters they have carbon content between 0.1% to 0.3%. It is less ductile, harder and tougher than iron ; It has a density of 7.8g/cm3 and melting point is around 1600c ; It is grey in colour, can be magnetized and corrodes by rusting Available markets forms -They are available as sheet, strip, round bar, square bar and flat bars. They undergo a lot of further processing before emerging as products

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They are also available as angles, pipes, I girders, channels etc, which are directly used for structural applications

Available markets forms They are available as hexagon, round and square rods and bars of various dimensions. They are also available as pipes, strips and coils Workability Carbon steels containing about 0.30% carbon have generally good weldability. For steels with 0.60% carbon extra precautions are to be taken before welding. Steels with a carbon content of 0,3% and above can be further hardened by heat treatment The parts frequently are used in the heat-treated condition to ensure strength or hardness in the required range. Assembly by welding may be performed before or following final heat treatment, depending on the nature of the welding. (Heat treating is a group of industrial and metalworking processes used to alter the physical, and sometimes chemical, properties of a material. Heat treatment involves the use of heating or chilling, normally to extreme temperatures, to achieve a desired result such as hardening or softening of a material. Heat treatment techniques include annealing, case hardening, precipitation strengthening, tempering and quenching) Applications - The medium carbon steels are more specialized in their use. Steels containing 0.30 to 0.60% carbons are extensively used in machinery. Tractors, earth-moving vehicles, mining equipment, power shovels, derricks, and pumps are examples of the many kinds of machinery that have components made of mediumcarbon steels. They are used for the manufacture of products which have to be tough and hard wearing.

Workability -Mild steel can be cut and machined easily. It can be soldered, brazed and welded. Its ductility and tensile strength allows it to be cold pressed into deep complex sections. It can be pressed and bent. Pressing and bending changes the internal structure of steel making is harder and stronger. This is known as work hardening. Work hardened steel is less ductile and more brittle. Work hardened steel can be brought back to its original state by a process called Annealing. In this process the metal is heated to red heat and then allowed to cool down slowly. Applications- it is the most widely used with a varied general purpose application

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Medium carbon steel Characters They have carbon content between 0.3% to 0.7%;They are harder and less ductile than the mild steels. They are very tough and have a high tensile strength. They have high wear resistance. High carbon steel Characters -The high carbon steels have a carbon content ranging from 0.7% to 1.3%. These are very hard and brittle materials. They have high strength, hardness

and moderate ductility. High-carbon steels typically have high wear resistance due to their superior surface hardness. Available market forms They are generally available as strips, coils and wires Workability as they are harder they are less formable and machinable than lowcarbon steel. They offer better responses to heat treatment and longer service life than medium-carbon steels. Practically all parts from these steels are heat treated before use, with some variations in heat-treating methods to obtain optimum properties for the particular use to which the steel is to be put. The maximum hardness produced by heat treatment is achieved with steels containing about 0.7% carbon. It is generally used for product which do not require and any assembly by welding. Welding in case needed especially for maintenance has to be done with enough precautions. A safer approach is to use a post weld heat treatment to reduce the hardness of the heat-affected areas and increase their toughness and ductility. Cold-forming methods are not practical on this group of steels, being limited to flat stampings and springs coiled from small-diameter wire. Applications- High carbon steels are used mainly for cutting edges, compression springs, farming and gardening equipments, crane, railroad car wheels and high wear applications.

compressive strength, but low tensile strength, and will fracture if struck with a heavy blow. It corrodes by rusting .It has very good damping capacity. . Gray cast iron has, at best, modest toughness. Available market forms - Stocks held in continuous cast iron bar, sand cast iron bar. Cast iron round bar in required lengths or as cut pieces. Square and flat bar of required lengths or as cut pieces Workability- Whilst all metals can be cast (melted and poured into a mould). Cast iron is particularly suited to casting - hence its name. It can be poured at a relatively low temperature (between 1400C and 1500C) and will cast into complex shapes. After casting, it can be machined easily (if necessary) into the finished article, as it also posses excellent machinability Applications - Some examples of products made from cast iron are shown here.

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Grey cast iron Characters - Cast iron is an alloy of iron (94%), carbon (3%), silicon (2%) and traces of magnesium, sulphur and phosphorus. It is named so because of the dull grey color on fractured surfaces. It is a very brittle metal with a hard skin. It has a high

Stainless steel Characters Stainless steels are iron/chromium alloys. A wide range of steels are available with chromium content between 13% and 27%. Some contain only iron, Carbon and

chromium, whilst others contain nickel and other alloying elements also. The effect of the chromium is to create an oxide film which prevents rusting. Paints and other surface treatments are not therefore necessary. The degree of protection depends upon the percentage of chromium present. Other properties such as ductility, hardness and tensile strength are dependent upon the percentage of the other alloying elements. Stainless steel is a shiny attractive metal (but should not be confused with chromium-plated steel Available market forms The alloy is available as coils, sheets, plates, bars, wire, and tubing Workability-. One of the major advantages of the stainless steels, and the austenitic grades in particular, is their ability to be fabricated by all the standard fabrication techniques, in some cases more severely than the more well-known carbon steels. The common austenitic grades can be folded, bent, cold and hot forged, deep drawn, spun and roll formed. Because of the materials' high strength and very high work hardening rate all of these operations require more force than for carbon steels, so a heavier machine may be needed, and more allowance may need to be made for spring-back. Austenitic stainless steels also have very high ductilities, so are in fact capable of being very heavily cold formed, despite their high strengths and high work hardening rates, into items such as deep drawn laundry troughs. Few other metals are capable of achieving this degree of deformation without splitting. The weldabilities of the various grades of stainless steels vary considerably. Nearly all can be welded, and the austenitic grades are some of the most readily welded of all metals. In general the stainless steels have weldabilities which depend upon the family to which they belong. All grades of stainless steel can be soldered with leadtin soft solder. Soldered joints are relatively weak compared to the strength of the steel. When welding is impractical and a stronger joint than soft soldering is required, brazing may be employed. This method is particularly useful for joining copper, bronze, nickel and other non-ferrous metals to stainless steel. All stainless steels work harden when cold worked and the extent of work hardening depends upon grades selected Application- It is used for making a wide variety of products like cookware, cutlery, jewellery, watches, hardware, surgical equipments, appliances, industrial equipments and as an automotive and aerospace structural alloy and construction material in large buildings

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Non ferrous metals

Non ferrous Metals - Aluminum Aluminum is a silvery metallic chemical element and is the most abundant metal in the Earths crust, it costs more than some less plentiful metals because of the cost to extract the metal from natural deposits. Its widespread use is due to the unique characteristics of aluminum and its alloys. Aluminum is the most abundant metal in the earth's crust and, after steel, is the most widely used of all the metals today. Pure aluminum is soft and ductile and has a low tensile strength. Even so it has a high strength to weight ratio. Its density is 2.7 glcml, (1/3 of the density of mild steel). Its melting point is 660C (compared to 1600C for steel). It has a shiny silver grey appearance. Due to the natural formation of a surface oxide film; aluminum has good resistance to corrosion. It is a good conductor of both electricity and heat (next

to copper in this respect). It cannot be magnetized. It cuts and machines easily, and can be polished to a bright finish. The most significant of these properties are: High strength-to-weight ratio - Aluminum is the lightest metal other than magnesium, with a density about one-third that of steel. This combination of high strength and light weight makes aluminum especially well suited to transportation vehicles such as ships, rail cars, aircraft, trucks, and, increasingly, automobiles, as well as portable structures such as ladders, scaffolding, and gangways. Ready fabrication - Aluminum is one of the easiest metals to form and fabricate, including operations such as extruding, bending, roll-forming, drawing, forging, casting, spinning, and machining. In fact, all methods used to form other metals can be used to form aluminum. Aluminum is the metal most suited to extruding. This process (by which solid metal is pushed through an opening outlining the shape of the resulting part, like squeezing toothpaste from the tube) is especially useful, since it can produce parts with complex cross sections in one operation. Examples include aluminum fenestration products such as window frames and door thresholds, and mullions and framing members used in curtain walls, the outside envelope of many buildings. Corrosion resistance - The aluminum cap placed at the top of the Washington Monument in 1884 is still there today. Aluminum reacts with oxygen very rapidly, but the formation of this tough oxide skin prevents further oxidation of the metal. This thin, hard, colorless oxide film tightly bonds to the aluminum surface and quickly reforms when damaged. High electrical conductivity - Aluminum conducts twice as much electricity as an equal weight of copper, making it ideal for use in electrical transmission cables. High thermal conductivity - Aluminum conducts heat three times as well as iron, benefitting both heating and cooling applications, including automobile radiators, refrigerator evaporator coils, heat exchangers, cooking utensils, and engine components.

High toughness at cryogenic temperatures - Aluminum is not prone to brittle fracture at low temperatures and has a higher strength and toughness at low temperatures, making it useful for cryogenic vessels. Reflectivity- Aluminum is an excellent reflector of radiant energy; hence its use for heat and lamp reflectors and in insulation. Non-toxicity -Because aluminum is non-toxic, it is widely used in the packaging industry for food and beverages, as well as cooking utensils and piping and vessels used in food processing. Recyclability - Aluminum is readily recycled; about 30% of U.S. aluminum production is from recycled material. Aluminum made from recycled material requires only 5% of the energy needed to produce aluminum from bauxite. Often, a combination of the properties of aluminum plays a role in its selection for a given application. An example is gutters and other rain-carrying goods, made of aluminum because it can easily be roll formed with portable equipment on site, and it is so resistant to corrosion from exposure to the elements. Another is beverage cans, which benefit from aluminums light weight for shipping purposes, and its recyclability. Aluminum alloys Because aluminum is light and resists corrosion. It is an attractive material for engineering purposes. Unfortunately it is soft and has a low tensile strength. To impart hardness and strength and to produce other desirable properties, a wide range of alloys are manufactured. The alloying elements include copper, magnesium, chromium, silicon and tin. Aluminium alloys are alloys in which aluminium (Al) is the predominant metal. The typical alloying elements are copper, magnesium, manganese, silicon, and zinc. There are two principal classifications, namely casting alloys and wrought alloys,. Aluminium alloys are widely used in engineering structures and components where light weight or corrosion resistance is required. Aluminum-magnesium alloys are both lighter than other aluminium alloys and much less flammable than alloys that contain a very high percentage of magnesium. Aluminium alloy surfaces will keep their apparent shine in a dry environment due to the formation of a clear, protective layer of aluminium oxide.

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Applications - The first uses of aluminum were for cooking utensils in the 1890s, followed by electrical cable shortly thereafter It is used in transportation applications (cars, bus body), packaging (foils, beverage cans), the building and construction market (specially using extrusion process), and electrical products. Other markets include consumer durables such as appliances and furniture; machinery and equipment for use in petrochemical, textile, mining, and tool industries; reflectors; and powders and pastes used for paint, explosives, and other products. Alloys composed mostly of the two lightweight metals aluminium and magnesium have been very important in aerospace manufacturing .

melting point is around 1080C. It is quite a heavy metal, having a density of 89 g/cm3. A naturally forming oxide film (having a greenish colour) gives it good anticorrosion properties. Copper is a very good conductor of electricity (second only to silver in this respect) and is a good conductor of heat. It cannot be magnetized. It will cut, saw, file and machine easily. Copper is a reddish-brown metal which will polish to a beautiful deep shine. Some examples of the many products made from copper are shown here.

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Alloys Alloys of copper Brass (copper + zinc) The term 'brass' covers a wide range of copper-zinc alloys. The amounts of copper and zinc present are varied to obtain the desired properties. The melting point of brass is lower than copper, and its density is around 84 glcm3. It has good electrical conductivity (although lower than copper) and good anticorrosive properties. It is gold in colour and, like copper, can be polished to give a deep shine.

Non ferrous Metals Copper Copper is a pure metal. It is the world's third most important metal, in terms of volume of consumption. It is a fairly ductile material and is moderately strong. Its

Some examples of the many products made from brass are shown here.

Characters - This silvery, malleable poor metal is not easily oxidized in air and is used to coat other metals to prevent corrosion. Applications - Pewter, which is an alloy of 85% to 90% tin with the remainder commonly consisting of copper, antimony and lead, was used for flatware from the Bronze Age until the 20th century. In modern times tin is used in many alloys; most notably tin/lead soft solders, typically containing 60% or more of tin. In 2006, about half of tin produced was used in solder. Tin forms a eutectic mixture with lead containing 63% tin and 37% lead. Such solders are primarily used for solders for joining pipes or electric circuits. Another large application for tin is corrosionresistant tin plating of steel. Because of its low toxicity, tin-plated metal is also used for food packaging, giving the name to tin cans, which are made mostly of steel. Non ferrous Metals - Titanium The element occurs within a number of mineral deposits, principally rutile and ilmenite, which are widely distributed in the Earth's crust and lithosphere, and it is found in almost all living things, rocks, water bodies, and soils. Characters - It has a low density and is a strong, lustrous, corrosion resistant (including sea water, aqua regia and chlorine) transitional metal with a silver colour. The two most useful properties of the metal form are corrosion resistance and the highest strength-to-weight ratio of any metal. In its unalloyed condition, titanium is as strong as some steels, but 45% lighter. Applications - Titanium can be alloyed with iron, aluminum, vanadium, molybdenum, other elements, to produce strong lightweight alloys for aerospace (jet engines, missiles, and spacecraft), military, industrial process (chemicals and petro - chemicals, desalination plants, pulp, and paper), automotive, agri-food and other applications. It is also used to make medical prostheses, orthopedic implants, dental and endodontic instruments and files, dental implants, sporting goods, jewelry, mobile phones etc Non ferrous Metals - Zinc The most exploited zinc ore is sphalerite, a zinc sulfide. The largest exploitable deposits are found in Australia, Asia, and the United States. Impure zinc metal was not produced in large scale until the 13th century in India, while the metal was unknown to Europe until the end of the 16th century. Alchemists burned zinc in air to

Bronze (copper + tin + aluminum) Bronze is a metal alloy consisting primarily of copper, usually with tin as the main additive, but sometimes with other elements such as phosphorous, manganese, aluminum, or silicon. It was particularly significant in antiquity, so much so that the Bronze Age was named after the metal. Characters - It is hard and brittle but Bronze is considerably less brittle than iron. Bronze resists corrosion (especially seawater corrosion) and metal fatigue more than steel and is also a better conductor of heat and electricity than most steels. Applications - Bronze was especially suitable for use in boat and ship fittings prior to the wide employment of stainless steel owing to its combination of toughness and resistance to salt water corrosion. Bronze is still commonly used in ship propellers and submerged bearings. It is extensively used to make sculptures, musical instruments, medals etc Non ferrous Metals - Tin Tin is obtained chiefly from the mineral cassiterite, where it occurs as tin dioxide, SnO2. The first alloy, used in large scale since 3000 BC, was bronze, an alloy of tin and copper. After 600 BC pure metallic tin was produced.

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form what they called "philosopher's wool" or "white snow". In olden days Zinc is mainly used in the form of brass for making products of daily use. Brass, which is an alloy of copper and zinc, has been used since at least the 10th century BC.

Non ferrous Metals - Lead Lead is a soft, malleable poor metal. It is also counted as one of the heavy metals. Metallic lead has a bluish-white color after being freshly cut, but it soon tarnishes to a dull grayish color when exposed to air. Lead has a shiny chrome-silver luster when it is melted into a liquid. Lead is used in building construction, lead-acid batteries, bullets and shots, weights, as part of solders, fusible alloys and as a radiation shield.

Metals - Hardening
It is a metallurgical and metalworking process used to increase the hardness of a metal. The hardness of a metal is directly proportional to the uniaxial yield stress at the location of the imposed strain. A harder metal will have a higher resistance to plastic deformation than a less hard metal. Hardening of steels A requirement for hardening is sufficient carbon content. Carbon steels have poor hardenability, and it is difficult to meet quenching requirements. Each steel alloy has certain time requirements on quenching if hardened structure is to be obtained. Hardenability increases with carbon content. Maximum hardenability is achieved at about 0.8% carbon. Hardenability decreases somewhat as carbon content is increased over 1%, since carbon tends to promote the formation of ferrite. Thus, plain carbon steels have low hardenability, and large parts will harden only on the surface, if at all. Rapid heating and quenching techniques, such as flame or induction, work very well on these steels and overcome hardenability limitations. Thin sections, such as flat springs and wire springs, are well suited for manufacture from carbon steels. All the low-carbon (less than 0.3% carbon) grades can be carburized and quench hardened to obtain hardened surfaces.

Processes The five hardening processes are: 1. The Hall-Petch method is used to change the grain size in a material, which can affect the dislocation density. Smaller grain size will make the material harder, but if the grains get too small the hardness can actually decrease. 2. In work hardening (also referred to as strain or cold hardening) the material is strained past its yield point. The work done on the material adds energy and has the ability to move and generate dislocations. This process usually takes place at a temperature below the materials recrystallization temperature. 3. In solid solution strengthening, an alloying element is added to the material desired to be strengthened, and together they form a solid solution. 4.Precipitation hardening is a process where impure particles are distributed throughout the metal. This is achieved by first heating the metal above its phase transition temperature and then rapidly cooling the metal. Particles of the second phase become trapped and form anchor points to impede the movement of dislocations. Precipitation hardening is one of the most commonly used techniques for the hardening of metal alloys. 5. In steels, a similar method is referred to as a martensitic transformation. In this transformation, austenite is rapidly cooled off before the dissolved carbon atoms have a chance to escape, forming martensite, a higher hardness phase of steel. Martensitic transformation is more commonly known as quenching and tempering. All hardening mechanisms, except of the martensitic transformation, introduce dislocations or defects in a crystal lattice that act as barriers to slip. Applications Material hardening is required for many applications: Machine cutting tools (drill bits, taps, lathe tools) need be much harder than the material they are operating on in order to be effective. Knife blades- a high hardness blade keeps a sharp edge. Bearings- necessary to have a very hard surface that will withstand continued stresses

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Metals - Manufacturing process

The manufacture of metal products or components for assembly into products, takes many forms. Some of the more common industrial processes are described below. Blanking - A hardened punch is used to stamp sheet metal through a die. The metal is stamped cold. Blanks of almost any shape can be produced this way. Simple components like washers for example are produced by blanking alone. For many products however, this is just one of a series of production operations. Blanking is often followed by press forming or bending for example.

Forging - Forging is the shaping of metal using compression forces. The force may be applied by hammer, press or rollers. The metal is usually hot, but some operations are carried out cold. (See cold heading for example.) Forging at temperature increases the plasticity of a metal, and reduces the forces needed to work it. Many different forging operations are carried out, but we will only discuss drop forging here. Drop forging - This is the forming of a component from a metal bar or billet between two half dies. The hot metal is placed on the lower die, and is forced into the cavity between the upper and lower die by the blow of a machine hammer. Parts made in this way cannot usually be formed by the single hammer blow in a single die. A drop forged component is usually moved from one die impression to the next until the final shape is produced. Forgings can be made to very close tolerances, hence very little finishing is required. Materials used in drop forging include: mild and medium carbon steel, aluminum and copper alloys. Products made: Motor car crankshafts, some G-cramps, and other tools, door handles, and other hardware items

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Press forming - This is the shaping of components from sheet metal between a punch and a die. The metal blank (or preform) is pressed cold. Components made in this way have consistently accurate dimensions and work hardening imparts strength and rigidity. The process is also very fast and produces very little waste. Most sheet metals are suited to this process, but mild steel is the most widely used. Motor car panels (wings, doors, roofs, etc.) are amongst the numerous components which are press formed.

Cold heading - This is the process of forming cold metal slugs or wire into components by squeezing the metal into a die cavity. This is a quick and cheap method of changing the shape and diameter of a metal bar to produce products. Brass, stainless steel, mild steel and medium carbon steel are the materials commonly used in this process. The largest single use of this process is in the manufacture of bolts, screws, rivets and nails.

Impact extrusion forward extrusion - This process consists of forcing a hot billet of metal through an extrusion die using a hydraulic ram. The product is a continuous length of metal whose shape corresponds to the die orifice. An almost infinite number of solid cross-sections can be produced in this way as well as tubing. Extrusion produces complex sections which could otherwise only be manufactured by expensive machining operations. Products made from extruded sections include: door and window frames, hinges, components for locks, edging strips etc. By far the largest number of sections produced is made from aluminum and brass.

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Thread rolling - This is one method of applying a thread to machine bolts produced by cold heading. Other parallel sided components can be threaded in this way too. Knurled patterns, splines and worm gears are just a few of the many other forms which can be produced by roll forming .

Sand casting - This is the shaping of metal by pouring molten metal into a mould. A mould is a cavity which has the shape of the required object. Sand is a particularly good material for making moulds. It can withstand very high temperatures and can be molded into complex shapes. It is particularly suitable for the high melting point metals. Sand casting is a quick method of producing complex shapes, but a new mould is required for each new casting. The more common casting metals include: cast iron, steel, aluminum alloys, and brass. Motor car engine blocks and cylinder heads, bases for heavy machinery, manhole covers, and the body of a mechanics vice (found in the school workshops) are examples of sand cast products.

include: the cases of some electric hand tools (drills, jig-saws, sanders, etc.), chassis for record players, tape decks and other similar products, component parts for washing machines, food mixers and lawn mowers, and, not least, many motor car components including, fuel pump and carburetor parts, fans and grill s, body trim and door handles. Die casting is limited to non-ferrous metals whose molten temperatures will not damage the dies.

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Lost wax casting - a method of casting in which a wax form is encased in a heatresistant material, as clay, that is hardened and then heated to melt and drain away the wax, producing a mold into which molten material is poured: used in casting dental plates, metal sculpture, etc. Die casting - Where many items of the same form are to be manufactured, die casting is employed. In this process, molten metal is forced into the cavity between dies under high pressure. After the metal has been injected, the pressure is held for a short time whilst the metal solidifies. The die blocks are then opened and the casting is ejected automatically. Die casting is a very fast production method which can produce extremely complex precision parts due to the injection of metal under pressure. The products have a high quality surface requiring very little secondary finishing. Many thousands of different die cast products are manufactured. These

Metals - Machining process

Some components can be shaped into their final form in just one operation, such as in die casting. Many however, have to be machined into their final form. The machining processes which include drilling. cutting and grinding are carried out on machine tools. Some of the more common machining operations are described below.

Lathe work - Turning is the most basic operation to be carried out on a lathe. The metal work piece is shaped as it is rotated in contact with a cutting tool. The tool (which will be shaped according to its purpose), can be moved across, along, and at an angle to the work piece. Other lathe operations include drilling, thread cutting, and boring. (The centre lathe is only suitable for one off or short production runs. By replacing the tailstock with a turret however, and automating the lathe feed mechanisms, mass production can be achieved. The CNC (computer numerically controlled lathe) can be programmed for fully automatic production.

Grinding - This is the process in which metal is removed by the ' rubbing' contact of an abrasive material such as carborundum. Most grinding operations are carried out using grinding wheels but rotating belts and other machines are also used. Unlike 'heavy' cutting with a metal tool grinding applies only a tiny force to the work piece. As a result there is very little deformation of the work piece and an accurate and very smooth finish can be obtained.

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Milling - Milling is the use of a rotating cutter to shape a metal work piece. The work piece is fixed to a table which can be moved in relation to the cutter. There are numerous types of milling cutters for different types of operations.

Drilling - Drilling a circular hole is one of the most common metal cutting operations. The cutting tool is usually a twist drill. In industry, multi head drilling machines are common. The photograph shows part of an adjustable multi head machine.

Shearing - Shears (or tinsnips) can be used for cutting and shaping thin metals. Sheared metals can be very sharp. They usually require finishing by filing. Bending - After marking out, sheet metal can be shaped by folding. This can be done using a special folding bar (or alternatively pieces of strong metal) clamped in a vice. The bending force can be applied using a heavy mallet. To prevent damage to the metal use a piece of scrap wood. Drilling - Drills are used to produce round holes in a material. After marking out the hole's centre, use a centre punch to make a small dent in the metal - this will prevent the drill from slipping. Whether using a drilling machine or hand drill always clamp work securely using a hand vice, machine vice or G cramp.

Metals -Joints Metals - Shaping

Sawing - This is often the first process to be used when shaping metal. A hacksaw with the appropriate number of teeth on its blade should be selected. For very fine work a junior hacksaw can be used. Abrafiles are used for cutting curves. The blade is actually a very fine round file.Always hold the material firmly in a vice (or using a G cramp) and position it so that you cut as close to the vice as possible. This reduces vibration. Sawing produces a rough surface, so cut on the waste side of the line and finally smooth down to the line by filing. Filing - Cross-filing and draw-filing are the two basic operations used to produce a straight edge on a piece of metal .Cross-filing are used to remove waste material. Draw-filing produces a final smooth finish. A range of different files are available. For example when removing a Jot of waste material use a coarse file (a file with large teeth). Use a fine file for smoothing and finishing. When filing a long edge, use a broad file, and so on. Small shapes can be produced using a round, square, or triangular file as required. Soldering -This is the joining of metals with melted solder. A permanent joint is formed on cooling - the strength of the joint being determined by the type of solder used. Soft soldering - Soft solders are tin-lead alloys. A general purpose solder for use in a school metalwork shop would have a melting point around 230C. Being a relatively soft substance. it is used mainly for joining thin metals and only produces a relatively weak joint. Most metals can be soldered - but not aluminum. It is essential that the materials to be joined are thoroughly cleaned . A flux is then applied to keep the materials clean and to help the solder flow into the joint . The complete soldering process (using a gas torch) is illustrated here. For very thin metals a process using a soldering bit would be used. Silver soldering and brazing - Silver solders are alloys of copper. zinc and silver having a melting point between 600 and 800C. They are used for producing strong. ductile joints in copper, brass and in jewellery work. Brazing (or hard soldering) makes use of copper-zinc alloys. They are melted at temperatures between 850 and 900"C and produce very strong joints. The process is usually confined to ferrous metals in school but can be successfully used for copper. Both the above processes follow the stages described opposite. Make sure that the surfaces to be joined are a good lit and are clean.

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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Apply a suitable flux. Where necessary, 'Wire' materials together to prevent movement. Position the job in a brazing health surrounded by bricks Bring the joint quickly up to red heat after twisting warming up the surrounding metal Apply solder or brazing rod until the joint is made Allow the job to cool then dip into cold water

Gluing - Glues are used when other joining methods cannot be used. for example when different kinds of metals are to be joined or when heat would distort the metal, or rivets would spoil the appearance etc. The epoxy resin Araldite can be used successfully for joining metals if the surfaces are first roughened using sandpaper. Rapid Araldite sets in ten minutes, and is quite hard within an hour. 'Standard ' Araldite requires at least 16 hours to harden.

Welding - When metals are welded, the pieces to be joined are raised to a high temperature and are fused together. Oxyacetylene welding uses burning gases to produce the heat needed for welding. A mixture of acetylene and oxygen in equal quantities produces a temperature around 3150C. Welding rod is used to provide the extra metal needed to produce a good joint. In arc welding an electric current is Gas welding made to 'jump' a gap between an electrode and the metal being welded producing a temperature in the region of 3600C. The heat of the arc melts the electrode and droplets of metal are forced across the arc and onto the metal forming a weld. When welding special goggles or masks must be worn to protect the eyes from the glare foam the flame or arc. A leather apron and gloves should also be worn to protect against molten metal and flying sparks. Riveting - Although large scale rive ting has been replaced by welding in industry. riveting is still a useful fabrication technique for some school work. Riveting involves trapping together' the pieces of metal to be joined, using metal rivets of the same material. Countersunk riveting is used when a flush surface is required. The riveting process is illustrated here. Round or 'snap' head riveting produces a stronger join than countersunk, but has the disadvantage of leaving the heads protruding above the work surface. Additional simple tools are also required for this process. Pop riveting is a much quicker and easier process than normal riveting. It uses a special riveting and rivets. The resulting joint however is weaker and less neat. The riveting process is illustrated here. 1. Drill correct size hole 2. Insert rivet 3. Place tool over rivet 4. Squeeze handle 5. Rivet made

Metals - Finishing
Some metals need to be protected against the effects of moisture. Ferrous metals, like the carbon steels for example rust if unprotected. Non-ferrous metals however, including copper, brass, and aluminum do not. Even so, if unprotected these materials eventually lose their shine. Some common finishes Oil is sometimes used to provide a temporary protection against rusting. Paint provides a long term protection providing the surface is well prepared. Cellulose and 'hammer finish' paints are just two types suitable for metals but dont use emulsions paints on ferrous metals - they contain water. Always read the instructions on the tin or can before you begin. Lacquer can be used on copper and brass for example, to prevent tarnishing. Several different types are available. Cellulose lacquer is just one example - it can be applied successfully using a soft brush whilst working in a warm, dust-free atmosphere. A Plastic Coat can be applied to a metal to protect it, change its appearance and change the way it feels to the touch. The metal (which must first be heated) is coated by being dipped into a fluidised plastic powder. Many schools have dip coating equipment.

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Materials - Plastics
'Plastic-like' materials were first used thousands of years ago. These were the plastics which occurred in nature. Amber for example (a resinous substance from trees) was used by the Egyptians and other civilizations to make jewellery. Today of course numerous different plastics are available. Some are still made from natural materials (such as cellulose from plants), but most are made entirely from chemicals obtained from crude oil and, to a much lesser extent, coal. It is the job of the plastics manufacturer to convert these chemicals into plastics. Product manufacturers then use these materials to produce goods. A plastic is an organic polymer, available in some resin form or some form derived from the basic polymerized resin. These forms can be liquid or paste-like resins for embedding, coating, and adhesive bonding; or they can be molded, laminated, or formed shapes, including sheet, film, or larger mass bulk shapes. The primary raw material sources of the major plastics are gas, coal, and crude oil. The number of basic plastic materials is large, and the number of variations and modifications to these basic plastic materials is also quite large. The term plastic is an extremely broad term, covering approximately three dozen basic materials and nearly 38,000 individual compounds. The structure of plastics One of the chemicals obtained from crude oil is the gas ethene, which is used to make the well known plastic polythene. An ethene molecule is made up of two carbon atoms and four hydrogen atoms. In the drawing the lines (-) represent the chemical bonds which hold the atoms of the molecule together. Ethene gas is made up of millions of these molecules which 'move around' quite freely, and with very little attraction for one another. Polythene How polythene is made? - Polythene is made, by 'persuading' the free roaming ethene gas molecules to join together to form long chain polythene molecules. The persuasion is provided by chemicals known as catalysts or initiators. During the process many thousands of ethene molecules join together to form each molecule of polythene. Now, although ethene gas molecules have very little attraction for one another. The newly formed polythene molecules do attract one another and become tangled and twisted together to form the solid - high density polythene. Small molecules such as ethane which can link together in this way are called monomers. The process of joining molecules is called polymerization, and the products of polymerization - such as polythene - are called polymers.

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Types of polymerization - Addition polymerization is the process that involves joining of same monomer molecules to form long chain. Condensation polymerization is a different process which usually involves the joining of two different kinds of monomers. A whole range of polymers (plastics) with different useful can be made using this process.

Classification of plastics The name 'plastic' describes a material which at some point in its manufacture, behaves in a plastic or putty-like way. In other words it will deform under pressure and retain the 'new shape' when the pressure is removed. Although there are many different kinds of plastic there are just two main types: thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics. Thermoplastics - Thermoplastics soften on heating and can be moulded into shape. On cooling they harden again. On heating again they soften and can be moulded. This process of softening and hardening can be repeated over and over again because the molecules in a thermoplastic are always free to behave in this way. Examples: Polythene, PVC and polystyrene Thermosetting Plastics - On first heating thermosetting plastics softens and can be moulded into shape under pressure. However, the heat triggers a chemical reaction in which the molecules become permanently locked together. The reaction is known as cross linking. As a result the polymer becomes permanently set and cannot be softened again by heating. Examples: Phenol formaldehyde (Bakelite) and urea formaldehyde Thermoplastics - Polythene (high density) - High density polythene (HDPE) High density polythene is made in such a way that the chains are straight. This allows the molecules to pack close together to produce a high density material. Because the chains lie close together, they attract one another firmly and have less freedom to move. The result is a fairly stiff strong plastic which is also quite tough. It softens at a fairly high temperature (around 120-130C), and is resistant to chemical attack. Some examples of the many products made from high density polythene are shown here.

Thermoplastics - Polythene (Low Density) - Low density Polythene (LDPE) Low density polythene is made by a process which produces side branches on the chains. These branches prevent the chains from packing close together. As a result, they are less firmly attracted to one another, and the polymer is weaker, softer and more flexible than high density polythene. Less energy is required to separate the chains and therefore the polymer softens at a lower temperature (around 85C). The polymer can be transparent or opaque. It is a very good electrical insulator. We 'consume' more low density polythene than any other polymer. Some of its many uses are shown here.

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Thermoplastics Polypropylene (PP) Polypropylene belongs to the same family of plastics as the polythenes. It is tougher however, and more rigid than high density polythene. It also has a greater resistance to heat - it softens at around 150"C. Polypropylene has the lowest density of the thermoplastics, and yet it has very high impact strength. Its ability to be flexed many thousands of times without breaking is another valuable characteristic.

Some examples of the many products made from polypropylene are shown here.

Thermoplastics - Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) PVC can be produced to give a range of properties. The stiff hard wearing PVC used to make drain pipes and guttering is one example. A more flexible and rubbery material can be produced by adding a plasticiser to the PVC. The plasticiser chemical has molecules which are much smaller than those of the polymer. Their effect is to separate the polymer chains making them attract each other less strongly. As a result they slide more easily over one another and the polymer becomes more soft and pliable. PVC is used in its softer forms as an insulator for electrical cables, and in the manufacture of some rainwear. PVC containing a higher proportion of plasticiser is used to coat cloth in the production of "Ieather cloth'. This tough, flexible material is used to cover some motor car seats, and in the manufacture of furniture and handbags for example.

Thermoplastics - Acrylics Probably the most familiar acrylic plastic is the sheet material known by its trade name Perspex. The polymer is called polymethyl methacrylate. It can have a glasslike transparency or be opaque. Both forms can be colored with pigments. It is fairly hard wearing and will not shatter. However it can crack and is fairly easily scratched. It can be formed bent and twisted when heated to temperatures between 165 and 175C. In its cold slate Perspex is quite brittle and care must be taken to avoid cracking when it is cut or drilled. Acrylic is also produced in granule form for use in injection moulding machines. For this purpose the methyl methacrylate is polymerized in a different way from that used for Perspex. The polymer obtained softens more readily, and in this form is known as acrylic moulding power. Some examples of the uses of acrylic are shown here.

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Thermoplastics - Nylon Many different types of nylon are produced, which are identified with a number: type 6.6 and type 6.10 for example. Nylon is probably best known in the form of a fiber and is widely used in the manufacture of clothing, carpets and brushes for example. It is a fairly hard material with a good resistance to wear and a high degree of resistance to chemical attack. Solid nylon is widely used for engineering purposes. It is particularly useful for making fast moving parts such as gears and bearings. It wears well, has low frictional properties, and has a fairly high melting point. In this form it is usually a creamy white colour. Some examples of the many products made from nylon are shown here.

Expanded polystyrene is soft and spongy. During manufacture a gas is produced which becomes trapped within its honeycomb structure. This gives the material good heat insulating properties. It is a very low density material, and because of its spongy nature is very good at absorbing shock. It is used a great deal in the building trade as an insulating material and is widely used in packaging.

Thermosetting plastics - Phenol formaldehyde (Bakelite) The first plastic to be made artificially from chemicals was Bakelite (named after the man who first made it in 1909 Leo Baekeland). It is a hard, brittle plastic with a natural dark glossy colour. As it is a 'thermo set' plastic it resists heat without softening and is a good thermal insulator. However at very high temperatures it will char and decompose. Bakelite is a good electrical insulator. Despite its dark colour, it has many applications. Some examples are shown here. Thermoplastics - Polystyrene Polystyrene is available in several forms but is most common as a crystal clear solid, and a 'foamed' plastic known as expanded polystyrene. In its 'solid' form it is very brittle and can be identified by the metallic ring it makes when dropped. In this form it is used to make a wide range of products, including containers and packaging.

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Thermosetting plastics - Urea formaldehyde Unlike Bakelite urea formaldehyde is a colorless polymer. It can therefore be colored artificially with pigments 10 produce articles in a wide range of colours. It is harder than Bakelite and has no taste or odor. It is a good thermal and electrical insulator. Some examples of products made from this material are shown here.

Thermosetting plastics - Polyester resin Polyester resin is one example of a thermosetting plastic which polymerizes at room temperature. The resin, (a treacle-like substance) and a chemical known as a hardener are mixed just before use. When set the plastic is stiff, hard and brittle. To add strength and bulk, it is often reinforced with glass fiber to make glass reinforced plastic (GRP). Some examples of its uses are shown here.

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Thermosetting plastics - Melamine formaldehyde This polymer has similar properties to urea formaldehyde and is used in the manufacture of high quality tableware. Its heat resistant properties make it particularly suitable for the surfaces of laminated kitchen work tops.

Plastics - Manufacturing process

Plastic raw materials are available in a variety of forms including powders, viscous fluids, pellets and granules. Product manufacturers use a wide range of processing machinery to convert these materials into components and products. Some of this machinery is described below.

Extrusion - This is the process used to make long products like drain-pipes and curtain rails. Plastic granules are fed from a hopper on to a rotating screw. The screw forces the plastic through a heated tube where it becomes molten before being forced under pressure through a die. The die contains a hole whose shape corresponds to that of the required article. As it leaves the die, the extrusion is cooled in a water bath or in jets of air. The hardened extrusion is then cut into lengths or coiled, depending on the product. Thermoplastics such as polythene, PVC and nylon are commonly used in extrusion.

Some common extrusions

Blow moulding - This process is used for making articles like bottles and hollow toys. Air is blown into a section of extruded plastic tube, causing it to expand and take up the shape of take mould. The mould is then opened and the product removed.PVC, Polythene and Polypropylene are common blow moulding materials.

Injection moulding - This is the process of forming articles by injecting molten plastic into a mould. An injection moulding machine is similar to that used for extrusion, the difference being that the feed screw (in addition to feeding plastic from the hopper) is used as a ram. The screw is move backwards as it rotates, until a measured quantity of plastic is at position A in the diagram. The screw is then driven forwards by a hydraulic ram, forcing the molten plastic into the mould. The mould consists of two or more parts which fit together forming a cavity of the required shape. Cold water is circulated through the body of the mould to reduce the cooling time of the moulding. After a short lime the mould can be opened and the moulding removed. The complete cycle can then be repeated. Injection moulding produces components and products which have consistently accurate dimensions and a high quality finish. A wide range of complex forms can be produced which could otherwise only be manufactured by expensive machining processes. Production is fast and the process produces very little waste. Polythene, polystyrene, polypropylene and nylon are typical injection moulding materials. An enormous range of products are manufactured in this way. These include: kitchenware - pedal bins, bowls, buckets, jugs, cutlery and containers; cases for electrical appliances - hairdryers, vacuum cleaners, food mixers etc;

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toys and games; products for the car industry; Component parts for many other products.

Compression moulding - In compression moulding huge forces are used to squeeze a measured quantity of polymer into shape between heated moulds. The polymer can be in the form of a powder or 'slug'. A slug is simply powder which has been compressed into a cube shape. Slugs can be handled more easily than powder, and can be pre heated in a high frequency oven. This reduces the 'cycle time' in the moulding machine. Compression moulding is used for thermosetting plastics. The heat from the mould triggers the chemical reaction known as 'crosslinking' After a short period of time (known as the curing time). The crosslinking is complete and the mould can be opened and the moulding removed. The mouldings have a high quality finish requiring only the removal of 'flash'. Electrical fittings (plugs and sockets for example), Saucepan and cutlery handles, bottle tops and toilet seats are just a few of the many products which are manufactured in this way. Phenol, urea, and melamine formaldehyde are typical compression moulding materials.

Rotational moulding This is mainly used for making hollow parts, especially of really large size. The most popular product made in this process is the water tanks by brands like sintex. In this process, the plastic raw material in dropped inside a hollow mould. The mould is then heated and rotated simultaneously along its axis. As it is heated the plastic gets melted and as the mould is rotated it gets uniformly deposited on the walls of the mould. After the process is complete, the mould is allowed to cool and the product is removed. They are used to manufacture planter boxes, furniture, chemical storage containers and any part that is hollow. HDPE,PP and Acrylic are some of the typical rotational moulding materials.

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Vacuum forming - This is one of the processes used to make articles from thermoplastic sheet. The sheet is first cut to size and clamped above a mould. A heater then raises the temperature of the sheet until it becomes soft and rubbery. Finally air is evacuated from beneath the sheet. This allows the normal outside air pressure to push down on the softened sheet, forcing it to take up the shape of the

mould. After a suitable cooling period the hardened moulding can be removed from the mould. The process described above is used mainly for shallow products made from thin sheet. When large or complex mouldings are produced using thicker sheet. a pressure chamber may also be used above the sheet. Vacuum forming enables large irregular shaped mouldings to be produced which could not be manufactured by any other plastic forming process. Further the equipment is relatively cheap and requires the use of only one mould. Acrylic, polystyrene and PVC are typical vacuum forming materials. Products manufactured in this way include: egg boxes. chocolate box liners and numerous other food and confectionery packaging seed trays shop signs and fittings some motor car dashboards Wash basins and baths.

Plastics - Shaping
Sawing plastics like Acrylic (e.g. Perspex) can be cut using a saw. To prevent breaking however, it is important to hold the material firmly, and to regularly move the work so that it is always being gripped in the area of cutting. Nylon and other plastics that come in the shape of rods or pipes can also be cut using a saw. Bending - Acrylic sheet is ideally suited to bending because it is a thermoplastic and softens on heating. After marking out acrylic can be prepared for bending using a strip heater. This consists of an electric heating element mounted below a narrow opening in a heat resistant material.The plastic should be turned frequently to ensure even heating and to prevent burning. When the plastic is soft enough it can be bent into the required shape 'freehand' or using a former. Vacuum foaming -This is a common industrial process which can be carried out using relatively inexpensive equipment. The process is used to produce 'hollow' shapes from sheet plastic

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Plastics - Joints
Parts made of thermoplastics can be snap fitted, ultrasonically welded, induction welded, hot die welded, hot gas welded, spin welded, vibration welded, laser welded, and solvent welded. The traditional methods of assembly such as press fits, adhesive joining, staking, swaging and the use of fasteners can also be used for plastics. Fasteners - Plastics can be joined using the conventional mechanical fasteners. Threads and threaded inserts for fasteners can be molded right into the part or can be added as a secondary operation. Adhesive joining - The most common method of producing a permanent joint in plastic is the use of adhesives. If you use the wrong glue for a particular plastic however, it is likely that the plastic will 'break down' or melt. For acrylic, although Araldite can be used successfully, special acrylic glues are better. Ten sol cement (the trade name of acrylic cements manufactured by ICI) is probably the best known.

Plastics - Finishing
The manufacturing process leaves most plastics with a high quality surface which does not require any kind of surface finish. After cutting and shaping however, the edges (of acrylic for example) will require smoothing. Some plastics, including acrylic, are supplied with a protective paper covering. This should be 'kept on' for as long as possible during working.

operations are completely eliminated. Changes in wall thickness can create some variation in part stiffness, thereby providing additional opportunities for part consolidation. 5. Corrosion resistance - Plastics do not corrode. Indeed, most of the paints used to protect other materials are essentially plastics themselves. Aside from the obvious benefits for outdoor applications, there are assembly advantages as well, as there need be no concern for galvanic action between metal components. 6.Integral coloring -Painting is an expensive process and one in which consistency is difficult to maintain. Nearly all of the plastics materials and processes permit a vast spectrum of integral coloring. Not only is there a substantial cost savings, but surface abrasions do not remove the paint to reveal a different colored substrate. Color matching between parts is readily accomplished when they are of the same material and with varying degrees of precision when they are of dissimilar materials. Multi-part injection molding permits parts of different colors or materials to be molded together, thus eliminating an assembly operation. Co-extrusion permits twocolor extrusions that can be used alone, as in striped soda straws 7.Transparency with flexibility - Glass, the traditional transparent material, is very brittle and breaks readily upon impact. It is also quite stiff and cannot be readily bent without cracking it. Very high temperatures are required to form it. There are a significant number of plastic materials in the acetate, polycarbonate, ABS, cellulosic, polyester, vinyl, polyethylene and polypropylene families that offer varying degrees of transparency with flexibility and/or ductility. Acrylic, while not flexible, is capable of offering even greater transparency than the finest lead glass. These materials can be formed at relatively low temperatures and by the group of processes unique to the plastics industry. They can permit shapes that are impossible to duplicate with glass processes. These attributes provide product design opportunities and vastly increase the number of assembly techniques available to the design engineer. 8.Compound customization - The chemical composition of plastics often allow them to be modified for specific characteristics for applications whose volume can warrant the cost. The most economical combination of properties can be combined to optimize the material utilization. 9.New assembly techniques - Parts made of thermoplastics can be snap fitted, ultrasonically welded, induction welded, hot die welded, hot gas welded, spin

Plastics - Advantages
1. Low product cost. - The principal reason engineers look to plastics as the material for their applications is to achieve a lower product cost. Note that the term product cost is used. That is because, with the possible exception of a few of the lowest-cost resins, most plastic materials are more expensive than their competitors. However, the processes by which they are converted to usable parts are extremely efficient. Extrusion, thermoforming, blow molding and, in some cases, injection molding can create extremely thin wall sections of less than 1 mm. Most of the remaining processes can produce wall thicknesses less than 2 mm. The thermoplastics processes can achieve nearly 100% utilization through recycling of the in process scrap. 2. Weight reduction - Plastics generally weigh far less than natural materials. This has been the driving force for many applications. The increased use of plastics has enabled automobile manufacturers to reduce the weight of each vehicle by approximately 25% in recent years, resulting in a corresponding improvement in fuel economy. 3. Wide range of available properties. - The range of properties available with the various plastics ranges from values too low to test to those that approach low-grade steels. Furthermore, there are plastics materials that offer properties that are unique to this class of materials. 4. Highly complex integral shapes - The processing methods associated with traditional materials cannot create the kind of complex integral shapes that the plastics processing methods can accomplish. From an assembly standpoint, that permits the combination of many parts into one. In this way, many assembly

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welded, vibration welded, laser welded, and solvent welded. The traditional methods of assembly such as press fits, adhesive joining, staking, swaging and the use of fasteners can also be used for plastics. Threads and threaded inserts can be molded right into the part or can be added as a secondary operation. 10. Insulation qualities - Plastics can provide both thermal and electrical insulating properties. Many plastics provide both, permitting the elimination of parts and assembly operations.

3. Chemical characteristics. Plastics are essentially chemical in nature. Consequently, most of them are significantly affected by chemical exposures and environments. This can lead to disaster when the potential for chemical exposure is not taken into account. Cleaning solutions, greases, oils, acids, bases, gases, and other chemicals have led to the downfall of many plastics applications. Many of these exposures occur in the field, far from the eyes of the manufacturers engineers. The potential chemical exposures must be thoroughly investigated for any product application. 4.Design complexity. Designing in plastic is more complex than designing in other materials. There are a great number of resin options and a variety of processes to choose from. There are also tooling considerations to take into account. It is important to recognize that one cannot take a design made of metal, for example, and simply convert it to plastic. Projects encounter development problems that could be avoided, or they fail to take full advantage of the capabilities of the medium. Pressure to speed a new product to market often results in failure to fully investigate all the aspects of a given project. Each step skipped incurs additional risk. In short, it is more work to design in plastic. 5.Flammability. Flammability is defined as relative ease of ignition and the ability to withstand combustion. Materials behave quite differently when exposed to open flame, and standards for flammability are difficult to establish. In general plastic burns, quite readily ,while a few polymers do not support their own combustion. Flame retardants can be used, but they are expensive, and they have an effect on the other properties as well. For applications where there is the possible presence of an open flame, or where fire is a major risk, the flammability of the selected resin must be carefully examined. 6 .Ultraviolet light sensitivity. Ultraviolet light causes or catalyzes chemical degradation in many plastics. The result is photo-oxidation, which leads to the loss of color, transparency, and physical properties over a period of time. Some polymers exhibit a natural resistance to ultraviolet rays. Others require barrier coatings or additives, such as ultraviolet stabilizers and antioxidants, for pro-longed life in environments where high concentrations of ultraviolet light are present (i.e., outdoors).

Plastics - Disadvantages
1. Variable properties. Plastics physical and thermal properties can vary considerably with changes in wall thickness, temperature, humidity, processing parameters, gating locations, environmental conditions and chemical exposures. Testing procedures cannot cope with the number of variables existing in product applications. Thus, the data is suspect and cannot be used with high levels of reliability. Experienced plastics engineers rely on significant safety factors and testing of actual assemblies for highrisk applications. 2.Thermal characteristics. Plastics properties are affected by much smaller changes in temperature than are those of metals. Data sheets usually list physical properties at 23C. Properties such as tensile strength and stiffness can drop off noticeably by the time the temperature has reached 38C. As temperatures drop, ductility declines such that plastics that are normally thought of as relatively ductile at room temperature may actually be quite brittle when the temperature drops below freezing. Thermal degradation can cause plastics to lose their physical properties with prolonged exposure to heat. While this can take years at 23C (72F), it can occur in minutes at elevated temperatures. Each time the temperature of a thermoplastic is elevated, some degradation occurs. Therefore, some plastics can be recycled only a limited number of times. For many critical applications, only fresh resin, known as virgin, must be used. This characteristic must be taken into account when designing with plastics. In certain cases, a form of heat shielding is required.

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Manufacturing process overview

A wide variety of manufacturing processes are used to form product elements. These processes use thermal, mechanical, electromagnetic, chemical, Electrochemical, and radiation means to manipulate materials into product elements with the desired shape, dimensions, material features, and material properties.For the purposes of our understanding, two broad categories of component fabrication processes are defined: primary and secondary. Many components are fabricated using a combination of these processes. The term component-in-process refers to an incomplete component that awaits further processing. Primary processes are used to shape a material into a form that is at or close to the final shape and dimensions of the component being fabricated. Secondary processes are used to modify the surface of a component-in-process, to modify the material properties of a component-in-process, and to deposit a coating on a component-in-process.

Powder Compaction and Sintering - These processes involve placing a metal or ceramic powder into a die and applying pressure to consolidate the powder into the desired shape. The compaction is followed by baking in a furnace at high temperatures during which the powder particles coalesce (i.e., sinter) to form a solid component. Deformation - These processes involve mechanical deformation of a solid piece of metal or polymer to form it into the desired shape. The starting material can be in the shape of a sheet, tube, solid rod or wire, plate, or slab. In some processes, the material is heated so that it can be shaped more easily. Metal components can be stamped from a sheet of metal (blanking, press forming), metal bending, drawn from a sheet of metal, or forged or extruded from a bar or slab of metal. Polymer components are formed by compression molding, and thermoforming. For compression molding, a plastic component is formed from a powder, pellets, or preform. A preform is a large pellet or plug of material that has been partially cured. As the mold closes, there is a shearing action of the material being compressed. Also, the two halves of the mold are heated. Both of these cause the plastic to soften and fill the mold cavity. Continued heating and pressure are applied to completely cure the plastic after forming. Material Removal -These processes involve removing material from a plate, block, or rod of material. They are also used for additional processing of components that have been cast, molded, or formed and require removal of excess material, finishing to tolerances that are tighter than would be possible through forming processes, or cosmetic alteration. Material removal processes include mechanical machining, chemical etching, and laser beam machining. Metals, polymers, and ceramics can be machined using some or all of these techniques. Mechanical machining includes grinding, milling, and drilling. Chemical etching forms fine features in thin pieces of metal and etches away unwanted material from larger pieces of metal. Laser beam machining is used to drill holes in metals, polymers, and ceramics, and to cut these materials. Lamination - This method involves assembling individual sheets of materials into a multilayered material or component. It is typically used to make composite materials and involves pressing sheets of materials together with or without the use of an adhesive between the layers. Sometimes heat is also applied.

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Primary Manufacturing Processes

Most primary processes can be placed into one of the following categories: 1. Molding and casting 2. Powder compaction and sintering 3. Mechanical and thermo mechanical deformation 4. Material removal 5. Lamination Molding and Casting - These methods involve pouring or injecting molten material into a mold that is formed in the shape of the component to be fabricated. After the molten material has solidified and sufficiently cooled, it is removed from the mold. These processes can be used to form components from metals, polymers, and glass. For plastics, this category of processes includes injection molding and blow molding. For metals, it includes die casting, sand casting, and investment casting.

Secondary Manufacturing Processes

Secondary processes are used to modify a component-in-process and are able to be placed in one of the following categories: Modification of the material through the entire cross section of a component Modification of the surface of a component Deposition or growth of a coating onto the surface of a component Modification of the material through the entire cross section of a Component Heat treating is used to bring about desired changes in a metals microstructure, with the associated changes in its properties. Different heat-treatment processes are used for purposes such as increasing the strength of metals, increasing the ductility of metals, or improving the magnetic properties of ferromagnetic alloys. Heat treatment processes involve controlled heating and cooling of components. The specific temperatures and treatment processes depend on the material and the microstructure and properties desired. Steel alloys are strengthened and hardened by heating the material in an oven or furnace. After exposure to the high temperature, the steel can be cooled at different rates. For slow cooling, the furnace is turned off and the item is left inside or the item is removed from the furnace and allowed to cool in the air. For fast cooling rate an item can be immersed in a liquid such as oil or water. Aluminum alloys, copper alloys, and nickel alloys are strengthened and hardened using a two-step process. First, the component is heated to an elevated temperature, held there for some period of time, and then quickly cooled. The second step is referred to as precipitation hardening or aging. The strength and hardness of an alloy depends on the temperature and time for the second step. Ferromagnetic alloys are heat treated at high temperatures to allow for grain growth and to allow gaseous impurities like hydrogen to diffuse out of the material. The resulting material has improved magnetic properties. Heat treatments like annealing and tempering increase the ductility of a metal while decreasing its strength and hardness. These processes involve heating a metal to a moderately elevated temperature, which depends on the particular metal being heat treated.

Modification of the Surface of a Component Chemical, mechanical, thermal, and thermo chemical methods are used to modify the composition or microscopic structure of a component in a thin region near its surface, change the physical texture of the surface, or alter the chemical properties of the surface. These processes are used to increase wear resistance, enhance fatigue resistance, reduce the coefficient of friction, and improve the ability to form good weld, solder, braze, and adhesive joints to a component. The different types of surface modification processes are described next. Surface heat treatment -These processes are used to form a strong, hard surface layer, referred to as the case, around a more ductile core of material. This is referred to as case hardening. The core is the inner portion of material not affected by the heat treatment. Processes such as induction hardening, laser hardening, and flame hardening are used to heat the near surface region of a steel component to the desired temperature. Thermo chemical processes -. They involve heating a metal component to a high temperature in the presence of gases, liquids, or solids that contain elements such as carbon or nitrogen. At the high temperatures, these elements diffuse into or react with the material near the surface of the component being processed, creating a hard layer at the surface and improving the mechanical properties at the surface. Examples of thermo chemical processes include steel carburizing, nitriding, and carbonitriding. Mechanical processes - Shot peening, grit blasting, and sanding are examples of processes used to mechanically modify the surface of a component. Shot peening modifies the residual stresses at the surface of a component to make it more resistant to fatigue. It involves spraying beads of metal, ceramic, or glass against a components surface. Grit blasting cleans and roughens surfaces. It involves spraying a components surface with fine particles made of a variety of materials including ceramics. Sanding removes excess material and dirt. It is also used to give the sanded surface a certain appearance. Chemical cleaning processes - These processes remove dirt, oils, and other contaminants from the surface of a component. Cleaning is done to prepare surfaces for subsequent processing or for cosmetic reasons. Acids, bases, detergents, and solvents are used for cleaning.

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Coating a Component Surface Surface coatings consist of thin layers of one or more materials that have been deposited onto or grown from the surface of a base material. The base material is called the substrate. Coatings range in thickness from less than 100 nm tohundreds of microns. A coating is grown from a surface by chemical reaction of the substrate surface with a vapor or liquid. Coatings or surface coatings provide wear, corrosion, chemical, electrical, optical, and cosmetic properties that exceed those possible for the base material surface. The combination of a base material and surface coating enables the fabrication of components that meet performance, reliability, and cost requirements that would not be possible using an uncoated base material. For example, carbon steel screws are coated with zinc. The steel provides the strength, and the zinc provides corrosion protection. Without the zinc coating, the steel would corrode too quickly in products used outdoors. Different coating processes are described next. Electrolytic Plating - In this process, a component is immersed in a conductive chemical solution (plating bath) that contains ions of the metal to be deposited. Electric current is passed through the component, which is the cathode (negative charge) in the electric circuit. The metal ions in the solution gain electrons at the surface of the component and attach themselves to the surface. A wide variety of metals can be deposited using electrolytic plating, including copper, silver, gold, platinum, palladium, nickel, lead, tin, zinc, and chromium. Also, various alloys such as brass, bronze, tin-lead, and nickel iron can be deposited. Electrolytic plating can be used to deposit coatings onto most metals and onto plastics and ceramics that have been properly prepared. Conversion Coating - Conversion coatings are formed by immersing a metallic item into a chemical solution, with or without the application of electric current to the item. The reaction between the material and chemical solution results in the growth of a coating layer from the substrate surface. The coating is an integral part of the component surface and not just deposited over the surface. Chemical conversion coatings include phosphate coatings formed on zinc or steel; chromate coatings formed on zinc, aluminum, cadmium, copper, magnesium, and silver; and oxide coatings formed on copper, iron, steel, and zinc alloys.

Electrochemical conversion coating - Electrochemical conversion coating, also referred to as anodizing, converts the surface of certain aluminum, magnesium, titanium, and zinc alloys to an oxide of the metal. This process involves immersion of a component in an acid solution and passing electricity through the component, with the component being the anode in the electrical circuit. Painting - These processes involve application of a polymeric based liquid onto the surface of a component or subassembly, followed by heating to dry or cure the deposited material. Paint can be applied by methods such as spraying, dip coating, or curtain coating. Powder Coating - This process involves spraying dry polymer powder particles onto the surface of the component, followed by heating to melt and flow the particles to form a nonporous coating. Prior to the heating step, the powder particles are held onto the surface of a component by electrostatic forces made possible by applying a voltage to the component during the coating process. Physical Vapor Deposition - These processes take place in a vacuum chamber where metal atoms, which have been vaporized from a source by sputtering or evaporation, deposit on the surface of components. Metals such as aluminum, copper, titanium, gold, platinum, chromium, and nickel can be deposited. Oxides, nitrides, and carbides can also be deposited by reacting vaporized and deposited metal with oxygen, nitrogen, or carbon containing gases during the deposition process. Thermal Spraying - This process involves passing materials, in the form of wire, rod, or powder, through a spray unit where they are heated to a molten or nearmolten state and form droplets. The droplets of material are accelerated in a gas stream and projected against the surface to be coated. On impact, the droplets flow into thin lamellar particles adhering to the surface, overlapping and interlocking as they solidify. The different thermal spray processes include flame spray, electricarc spray, plasma spray, high-velocity oxyfuel, and a detonation gun. A wide variety of metals, ceramics, and polymeric material can be deposited over various metal, ceramic, and polymeric components using thermal spraying. Note 1: Some components receive more than one secondary process treatment. For example, before painting, a surface may first be grit-blasted to clean and roughen

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the surface. Also, some materials are coated before forming the component (e.g.sheet steel, which is zinc or tin coated before the component is formed). The benefit is reduced cost compared to forming the component and then coating it afterward. Note 2: Instead of the bulk shaping processes, some components are fabricated using a series of deposition, etching, or chemical conversion processes to build the various structures of the component. A base material is used as a substrate on which all of the structures are formed. The substrate provides mechanical support and may also be incorporated into the functional structures of the component. Examples include components for electronics such as integrated circuits and micro electro mechanical systems (MEMS).

processes include shielded metal arc welding, metal inert-gas welding, tungsten inert-gas welding, plasma arc welding, and submerged arc welding. Resistance Welding - Resistance welding involves passing an electric current through the components being joined to heat the interface enough to cause melting of the materials at the interface. No filler material is used. A clamping force, which is applied during the heating process, holds the components in place until the joint has solidified. Resistance welding processes are used to join metals and include spot welding, seam welding, flash welding, and projection welding. Aluminium, copper etc are welded using spot welding Laser and Electron Beam Welding - These processes involve the use of highenergy beams to weld metals. A clamping force, which is applied during the welding process, helps maintain intimate contact between the components being joined. No filler material is used. These processes are used to produce metal-metal, metalceramic, and ceramic ceramic joints at temperatures below the melting point of the materials being joined, without the addition of filler metal. Either diffusion or deformation is used to form the joints. Solid-state welding processes- include friction welding, diffusion bonding, and explosion bonding. The heat for friction welding is produced by the relative motion of the two interfaces being joined. This method relies on the direct conversion of mechanical energy to thermal energy to form the weld, without the application of heat from another source. Under normal conditions, no melting occurs at the interface. Once the interface is heated, pressure is used to bring the weld interfaces into intimate contact. During this last stage, atomic diffusion occurs while the interfaces are in contact, allowing a bond to form between the two materials. Friction welding processes include stir and ultrasonic welding, which are used to join metals and join plastics. Solvent Bonding - Solvent bonding is used to bond thermoplastic materials. First, a solvent is applied to the surface of one of the components being joined, causing the material to soften. Then the two components are brought together and held in place with a clamping force until the interface is sufficiently set.

Joining process
Joining processes are used to connect components and subassemblies. The broad categories of joining processes are as follows: 1. Welding 2. Soldering and brazing 3. Adhesive bonding 4. Mechanical fastening Welding Welding is the process of forming a joint, either through localized melting (fusion) of the materials in the area of the joint or through high-temperature, solid-state reaction at the joint interface. Some of the fusion processes require the use of a filler material to fill the joint. Solid-state reactions take place below the melting point temperature of the materials being joined and involve the diffusion of the atoms of one material into the other or reactions to form compounds at the interface between the two materials being joined. The solid-state processes do not employ filler material. Some of the welding processes used are described next. Arc Welding - Arc welding is used to join metals. An electric arc is created between an electrode and the components being joined in order to melt the components in the joint area. A filler material is fed into the joint at the same time. Arc-welding

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Soldering and Brazing These processes involve applying a filler material to the components being joined, placing the components together, and then applying heat to cause the filler material to melt and react with the component materials. A metallurgical joint is formed between the parts. Soldering and brazing are used to join metal components and metal-coated ceramic components. Also, electrical components are soldered to circuit boards to make electronic circuits. The major difference between brazing and soldering is the process temperature. The melting points of solders are less than 450C, and the melting points of braze filler metals are greater than 450C. The methods of applying heat to form solder joints include using solder irons, ovens, and resistance heating. Braze joints are formed by heating in a furnace, by induction heating, and by heating with a torch. Adhesive Bonding This process involves applying a polymeric material to one or both of the surfaces of the components being joined, pressing the components together, and allowing the adhesive to cure. Adhesives come in liquid, paste, and tape form. Liquids, pastes, and some tapes need to be cured after they are applied. Curing can take place at room temperature or may require heating in an oven. During the curing process, the adhesive material is converted from a relatively fluid, low-molecular-weight, nonload-bearing form to a solid, high-molecular-weight form able to bear loads. Epoxies, silicones, acrylics, and polyurethanes are used as adhesives. In some cases, a primer must be applied to the mating surfaces to enhance adhesion. Mechanical Fastening Mechanical fastening includes joining components and subassemblies by press fitting, snap fitting, and using fasteners such as integral fasteners, threaded fasteners, and rivets. Integral fasteners are formed areas of a part that interfere or interlock with other parts of the assembly and include tabs, holes, embossed protrusions, and crimps. Threaded fasteners are separate parts that have internal or external threads and include bots, nuts, and screws. Rivets, which consist of a head and body, are used to fasten two or more parts together by passing the body through a hole in each part and then forming a second head (clinching) on the body end.

Materials -Composites
What are composite materials? - Composites materials can be engineered or naturally occurring Wood is a natural composite of cellulose fibers in a matrix of lignin. The earliest man made composite was straw and mud combined to form bricks. The most familiar composite to architects are reinforced concrete. What are engineered composites? - Engineered composites are a blend of two or more components, with very different physical and chemical properties. They are generally made of reinforcement and matrix. Reinforcement is made up of stiff, long fibers; Matrix is a resinous binder that holds the fibers in place. What are the different kinds of fibers used? Fibers can be of the same material within a lamina or several fibers mixed (hybrid). The common commercially available fiber classes are as follows: 1. Carbon/graphite 2. Fiberglass 3. Organic (Aramide, Polyethylene, PBO) 4. Boron 5. Silicon carbide 6. Silicon nitride, silica, alumina, alumina silica What are the different Matrix Materials? Matrix help to distribute or transfer loads; protect the filaments, both in the structure and before and during structure fabrication; control the electrical and chemical properties of the composite There are two alternates in matrix selection, thermoplastic and thermoset, and there are many matrix choices available within the two main divisions. The basic difference between the two is that thermoplastic materials can be repeatedly softened by heat, and thermosetting resins cannot be changed after the chemical reaction to cause their cure has been completed. Thermoplastic matrices - Nylon; polypropylene; polyether-ether-ketone Thermoset matrices - Polyester and vinylesters; Epoxy; Bismaleimide; Polyimide; Cyanate ester and phenolic triazine

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What are the different types of composites and their applications? There are two general types of composites, based on 1.type of materials that are used in construction; 2. Market in which they can be found. Commodity composites - They are generally reinforced with fiberglass fabric, use a type of polyester resin as the matrix. The more prevalent composites, such as used in printed circuit boards, shower enclosures, bath tubs and pleasure boats Advanced composites - They use more exotic or expensive matrix materials and higher-priced reinforcements such as carbon/graphite etc. They are used in structurally demanding locations that have a greater need for weight savings. Popular applications are in air craft industry What are the advantages of composites? Weight reduction High strength or stiffness-to-weight ratio Tailorable properties: can tailor strength or stiffness to be in the load direction Longer life (no corrosion) Lower manufacturing costs because of lower part count Inherent damping Better fatigue life What are disadvantages of composites? Cost of raw materials and fabrication Matrix weakness, low toughness Matrix subject to environmental degradation Difficult to attach Nondestructive testing tedious Acceptable methods for evaluation of properties have not reached a consensus Manufacture of composites In general, the reinforcing and matrix materials are combined, compacted and processed to undergo a melding event. After the melding event, the part shape is essentially set, although it can deform under certain process conditions. For a thermo set polymeric matrix material, the melding event is a curing reaction that

is initiated by the application of additional heat or chemical reactivity such as organic peroxide. For a thermoplastic polymeric matrix material, the melding event is solidification from the melted state. For a metal matrix material such as titanium foil, the melding event is a fusing at high pressure and a temperature near the melt point. For many molding methods, it is convenient to refer to one mold piece as a "lower" mold and another mold piece as an "upper" mold. Lower and upper refer to the different faces of the molded panel, not the mold's configuration in space. In this convention, there is always a lower mold, and sometimes an upper mold. Part construction begins by applying materials to the lower mold. Lower mold and upper mold are more generalized descriptors than more common and specific terms such as male side, female side, a-side, b-side, tool side, bowl, hat, mandrel, etc. Continuous manufacturing processes use a different nomenclature. The molded product is often referred to as a panel. For certain geometries and material combinations, it can be referred to as a casting. For certain continuous processes, it can be referred to as a profile. What are the applications of composites? Composite materials have gained popularity (despite their generally high cost) in high-performance products that need to be lightweight, yet strong enough to take harsh loading conditions such as aerospace components (tails, wings, fuselages, propellers),boat and scull hulls, bicycle frames and racing car bodies. Other uses include fishing rods, storage tanks, and base ball bats. The new Boeing 787 structure including the wings and fuselage is composed largely of composites. Composite materials are also becoming more common in the realm of orthopedic surgery. Carbon composite is a key material in today's launch vehicles and spacecraft. It is widely used in solar panel substrates, antenna reflectors and yokes of spacecraft. It is also used in payload adapters, inter-stage structures and heat shields of launch vehicles.

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Materials Glass
What is glass and how is it produced? Glass is a hard material normally fragile and transparent common in our daily life. It is composed mainly of sand (silicates, SiO2) and an alkali. These materials at high temperature (i.e. molten viscous state) fuse together; then they are cooled rapidly forming a rigid structure, however not having enough time to form a crystalline regular structure .Depending on the final use and application the composition of the glass and cooling rate will vary to achieve the adequate properties for the specific application. What are the common ingredients used in the making of glass? These are the common ingredients to obtain glass: 1. Sand (SiO2 silica) In its pure form it exists as a polymer, (SiO2)n. 2. Soda ash (sodium carbonate Na2CO3) Normally SiO2 softens up to 2000C, where it starts to degrade (at 1713C most of the molecules can already move freely). Adding soda will lower the melting point to 1000C making it more manageable. 3. Limestone (calcium carbonate or CaCo3) or dolomite (MgCO3) Also known as lime, calcium carbonate is found naturally as limestone, marble, or chalk. The soda makes the glass water-soluble, soft and not very durable. Therefore lime is added increasing the hardness and chemical durability and providing insolubility of the materials Other materials and oxides can be added to increase properties (tinting, durability, etc.), produce different effects, colors, etc. What are the main properties of glass? These are the main characteristics of glass: - Solid and hard material - Disordered and amorphous structure - Fragile and easily breakable into sharp pieces - Transparent to visible light - Inert and biologically inactive material.

- Glass is 100% recyclable and one of the safest packaging materials due to its composition and properties Glass is used for architecture application, illumination, electrical transmission, instruments for scientific research, optical instruments, domestic tools and even textiles. Glass does not deteriorate, corrode, stain or fade and therefore is one of the safest packaging materials. These properties can be modified and changed by adding other compounds or heat treatment. What are the different types of glass and their market application? Commercial glass or Soda-lime glass This is the most common commercial glass and less expensive. The composition of soda-lime glass is normally 60-75% silica, 12-18% soda, and 5-12% lime. A low percentage of other materials can be added for specific properties such as coloring. - It has light transmission appropriate to be use in flat glass in windows; - It has a smooth and nonporous surface that allows glass bottles and packaging glass to be easily cleaned; - Soda-lime glass containers are virtually inert, resistant to chemical attack from aqueous solutions so they will not contaminate the contents inside or affect the taste. Whereas pure glass SiO2 does not absorb UV light, soda-lime glass does not allow light at a wavelength of lower than 400 nm (UV light) to pass. The disadvantages of soda-lime glass are that is not resistant to high temperatures and sudden thermal changes. For example, everybody has experienced a glass breaking down when pouring liquid at high temperature, for example to make tea. Some of the use of soda-lime glass is primarily used for bottles, jars, everyday drinking glasses, and window glass. Lead glass Lead glass is composed of 54-65% SiO2, 18-38% lead oxide (PbO), 13-15% soda (Na2O) or potash (K2), and various other oxides. When the content of PbO is less than 18% is known as crystal glass. - In moderate amounts lead increases durability; - In high amounts it lowers the melting point and decreases the hardness giving a soft surface;

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- In addition it has a high refractive index giving high brilliance glass. These two last properties make it appropriate for decorating purposes. Glass with high lead oxide contents (i.e. 65%) may be used as radiation shielding glass because lead absorb gamma rays and other forms of harmful radiation, for example, for nuclear industry.As with soda-lime glass, lead glass will not withstand high temperatures or sudden changes in temperature. Borosilicate glass Borosilicate glass is mainly composed of silica (70-80%), boric oxide B2O3 (7-13%) and smaller amounts of the alkalis (sodium and potassium oxides) such as 4-8% of Na2O and K2O, and 2-7% aluminum oxide (Al2O3). Boron gives greater resistance to thermal changes and chemical corrosion. It is suitable for industrial chemical process plants, in laboratories, in the pharmaceutical industry, in bulbs for high-powered lamps, etc. Borosilicate glass is also used in the home for cooking plates and other heat-resistant products. It is used for domestic kitchens and chemistry laboratories, this is because it has greater resistance to thermal shock and allows for greater accuracy in laboratory measurements when heating and cooling experiments. Special application glasses What are the special types of glasses made using different additives? There are other special types of glass by adding different substances. For example: Alumina - It improves chemical resistance and increases viscosity in lower temperature ranges Cerium - To absorb infrared rays Coloring agents - Metals and metal oxides to change color (ex. manganese and selenium to decolorized gas, cobalt for blue, copper for red, nickel produces blue, violet or black glass, titanium produces yellowish-brown, etc.). Barium oxide - Glass containing barium is not quite as heavy as lead crystal, but achieves similar brilliance due to its high refractive index. Fluorine-containing materials, such as fluorspar (CaF2) or phosphates to form small crystalline particles in the glass which gives them a cloudy and opaque impression

What are the recently developed forms of glasses? - Safety glass, constructed of two pieces of plate glass join by a plastic to prevent the glass from scattering when broken. - Fiberglass made from molten glass formed into continuous filaments that is used for fabrics or electrical insulation - Foam glass made by trapping gas bubbles in glass to produce a spongy material for insulating purposes. What is flat glass? What are its types and applications? Flat glass is the basic material that goes into end-products that we see (and see through) every day. It is used to make windscreens and windows for automobiles and transport, windows and faades for houses and buildings as well as in solarenergy equipments such as solar thermal panels and photovoltaic modules. It is also used, in much smaller quantities, for many other applications like interior fittings and decoration, furniture, "street furniture" (like bus stops for example), appliances and electronics, and others. Flat glass is glass manufactured in flat sheets and therefore it excludes bottles, containers, fiberglass, rods, and tubes, which form other glass industries. Depending on the manufacturing process used, flat glass comes either as float glass, sheet glass or rolled glass. Glass produced by way of the float process represents the overwhelming majority of the production. Modifications, both during and after the float process, are used to produce the main types of glass. Today, flat glass comes in many highly specialised forms intended for different products and applications. Flat glass produced by way of the float process is often further processed to give it certain qualities or specificities. In this way, the industry can meet the various requirements and needs of the construction, automotive and solar-energy industries: Annealed glass | Toughened glass | Laminated glass | Coated glass | Mirrored glass | Patterned glass | Extra-Clear glass

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Annealed Glass - Annealed glass is the basic flat glass product that is the first result of the float process. It is the common glass that tends to break into large, jagged shards. It is used in some end products -- often in double-glazed windows, for example. It is also the starting material that is turned into more advanced products through further processing such as laminating, toughening, coating, etc. Toughened Glass - Toughened glass is treated to be far more resistant to breakage than simple annealed glass, and to break in a more predictable way when it does break, thus providing a major safety advantage in almost all of its applications. Toughened glass is made from annealed glass treated with a thermal tempering process. A sheet of annealed glass is heated to above its "annealing point" of 600 C; its surfaces are then rapidly cooled while the inner portion of the glass remains hotter. The different cooling rates between the surface and the inside of the glass produces different physical properties, resulting in compressive stresses in the surface balanced by tensile stresses in the body of the glass. These counteracting stresses give toughened glass its increased mechanical resistance to breakage, and are also, when it does break, what cause it to produce regular, small, typically square fragments rather than long, dangerous shards that are far more likely to lead to injuries. Toughened glass also has an increased resistance to breakage as a result of stresses caused by different temperatures within a pane. Toughened glass has extremely broad application in products both for buildings and for automobiles and transport, as well as other areas. Car windshields and windows, glass portions of building faades, glass sliding doors and partitions in houses and offices, glass furniture such as table tops, and many other products typically use toughened glass. Products made from toughened glass often also incorporate other technologies, especially in the building and automotive and transport sectors. Laminated Glass - Laminated glass is made of two or more layers of glass with one or more "interlayers" of polymeric material bonded between the glass layers. Laminated glass is produced using one of two methods: Poly Vinyl Butyral (PVB) laminated glass is produced using heat and pressure to sandwich a thin layer of PVB between layers of glass. On occasion, other polymers such as Ethyl Vinyl Acetate (EVA) or Polyurethane (PU) are used. This is the most common method.

For special applications, Cast in Place (CIP) laminated glass is made by pouring a resin into the space between two sheets of glass that are held parallel and very close to each other. Laminated glass offers many advantages. Safety and security are the best-known of these -- rather than shattering on impact, laminated glass is held together by the interlayer, reducing the safety hazard associated with shattered glass fragments, as well as, to some degree, the security risks associated with easy penetration. But the interlayer also provides a way to apply several other technologies and benefits, such as colouring, sound dampening, resistance to fire, ultraviolet filtering, and other technologies that can be embedded in or with the interlayer. Laminated glass is used extensively in building and housing products and in the automotive and transport industries. Most building faades and most car windscreens, for example, are made with laminated glass, usually with other technologies also incorporated. Coated - Surface coatings can be applied to glass to modify its appearance and give it many of the advanced characteristics and functions available in today's flat glass products, such as low maintenance, special reflection/transmission/absorption properties, scratch resistance, corrosion resistance, etc. Coatings are usually applied by controlled exposure of the glass surface to vapours, which bind to the glass forming a permanent coating. The coating process can be applied while the glass is still in the float line with the glass still warm, producing what is known as "hard-coated" glass. Alternatively, in the "off-line" or "vacuum" coating process, the vapour is applied to the cold glass surface in a vacuum vessel. Mirrored Glass - To produce mirrored glass, a metal coating is applied to one side of the glass. The coating is generally made of silver, aluminium, gold or chrome. For simple mirrored glass, a fully reflective metal coating is applied and then sealed with a protective layer. To produce "one-way" mirrors, a much thinner metal coating is used, with no additional sealing or otherwise opaque layer. Mirrored glass is gaining a more prominent place in architecture, for important functional reasons as well as for the aesthetic effect. Patterned - Patterned glass is flat glass whose surfaces display a regular pattern. The most common method for producing patterned glass is to pass heated glass

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(usually just after it exits the furnace where it is made) between rollers whose surfaces contain the negative relief of the desired pattern(s). Patterned glass is mostly used in internal decoration and internal architecture. Today, it is typically used for functional reasons, where light but not transparency is desired, and the patterns are accordingly subtle. However, it has also at times been fashionable as a design feature in itself, in such cases often displaying more prominent patterns. Extra-Clear glass - Extra-clear glass is not the result of processing of annealed glass but instead a specific type of melted glass. Extra-clear glass differs from other types of glass by its basic raw material composition. In particular, this glass is made with a very low iron-content in order to minimize its sun reflection properties. It therefore lets as much light as possible through the glass. It is most particularly of use for solar-energy applications where it is important that the glass cover lets light through to reach the thermal tubes or photovoltaic cells. Anti-reflective properties can be further increased by applying a special coating on the low-iron glass. It can also be used in windows or facades as it offers excellent clarity, which allows occupants to appreciate true colors and to enjoy unimpaired views. What is Glass Forming? Glass Forming is the word that collectively refers to all the processes of glass making used to form a solid object or product from the molten glass. Here is the list of glass forming processes blowing Blowing | Pressing | Casting | Centrifugal forming | Rod and tube drawing |Sheet Drawing | Rolling | The Float Process | Fritting Blowing By far, containers (bottles and like products) account for the largest volume of glass production. Almost all these products are manufactured using some form of a blowing process. Historically, glass containers have been blown to shape by gathering a gob of molten glass on the end of a hollow iron pipe, the blowpipe or blowing iron, and blowing a puff of air into the soft glass to form a bubble, which is gradually expanded and worked into shape by the combined effects of gravity and the forces of tools pressed against it. Generally, the blowing iron, with the soft glass attached, is rotated to balance the effects of gravity and provide an axial symmetry to the product. While useful containers of remarkably repeatable shapes and

dimensions can be created in this manner, for rapid and precise production, it is preferable to use a two-step process. First, a hollow preform, called a parison, is prepared using a simple blowing process. Second, the parison is blown to the final shape in a mold. This process has been automated to a very high degree in modern times, to the point where more than a dozen containers per minute can be generated from each mold. Two common processes are called blow-and-blow and press-and-blow, depending on the method used to form the parison. Blow-and-blow is generally used for narrow-neck containers such as beverage bottles. Press forming of the parison before blowing to final shape is used for wide-mouthed containers such as food jars

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Pressing In simplest terms, pressing or press forming of glass involves placing a gob of molten glass in a hot metal mold and pressing it into final shape with a plunger. Sometimes a ring is used, to limit the flow of glass up the side of the mold and produce a rim of well controlled shape. The process steps can be performed entirely by hand or fully automated. It produces more accurate and controllable wall thickness distributions than blowing but is generally limited to open, moderately shallow articles such as dinnerware, cups, baking dishes, sealed-beam headlamp lenses, and television panels and funnels, or for solid objects. Pressing is capable of generating intricate and accurate patterns in the glass surface.

Casting Casting is a relatively little used process, found mostly in hand shops and for the production of very large pieces of glass such as glass sculptures and astronomical telescope mirrors. For the large pieces, glass is poured into hot ceramic refractory molds (often sand with a small amount of binder) that are slowly cooled after the mold is completely filled. Alternatively, chunks of rigid glass may be placed in a cold mold and raised in temperature until the glass is sufficiently fluid to flow and fill the mold. This latter method is more susceptible to entrapment of bubbles. Generally, slow cooling and long annealing times are required. The mold can be used only once. The glass surfaces in contact with the mold are generally rough. Centrifugal Forming Centrifugal forces have often been utilized by the glassmaker. A glass bubble on the end of a blowing iron can be elongated by swinging the iron back and forth to aid gravity in elongating the bubble to generate the parison. A thick-walled bubble on the end of a rod can be cut open at the point opposite to the rod, and the rod rotated to generate sufficient centrifugal force to open the bubble and spin it into a relatively flat, circular sheet of glass. This is one of the earliest flat glass manufacturing methods, the crown process. Glass made this way is often found in old European churches. A droplet of very fluid glass placed at the center of a rotating turntable will also spread under centrifugal force, a process utilized in spin coating or spin casting. The latter is sometimes simply called spinning. If molten glass partially fills a rotating container such as a mold or a crucible, the molten glass will tend to climb the walls, propelled by the centrifugal forces, giving the glass surface the shape of a paraboloid of revolution. This method, called centrifugal casting, is used to form the parabolic shapes for thin astronomical telescope mirrors. It has also been used to spin, rather than press, large, deep television tube funnels and glass-ceramic missile radomes. Rod Drawing - Drawing is the term for a process in which a pre shaped blank, or glass flowing from an orifice, is elongated (stretched) in one dimension while diminishing in orthogonal dimensions without losing its cross-sectional characteristics. The above statement is exactly true for the drawing of cane (rods) or fiber. It is not so for tubing or sheet, where the ratios of inside to outside diameter or width to thickness are not the same as they were at the root. (The solid section of the blank or the glass at the orifice is often referred to as the root.)

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Tube drawing processes -In a hand process, a gob of glass is gathered on the end of a blow pipe, a bubble is blown within the glass, and an assistant attaches a rod to the side of the gob opposite the blow pipe (or grabs the gob with a pair of tongs) and walks across the room to stretch out the glass and the bubble within it. The final diameter of the resulting tubing, and its wall thickness, depend on several factors, including how fast the assistant walks (compared to how rapidly the glass cools) and how much pressure the blower maintains in the bubble. If faster cooling is needed, a second assistant may fan the tubing as it is drawn out. The air pressure resists tubing collapse from the draw forces and surface tension. After the drawing step is completed, the hollow glass tubing is cut away from the bulky pieces at each end. Sheet Drawing-Sheets of glass can be drawn either upward or downward from a bath of molten glass by a tractive mechanism, provided a method can be found to maintain the root of the draw in a fixed position at constant dimensions. Rolling - Rolling can be used to manufacture thin or thick sheets of glass. In the simplest form, a puddle of glass can be poured onto a metal table, and a metal roller is used to spread it to a constant thickness. Generally, parallel spacer bars are used to limit the thinness to which the roller can spread the glass The Float Process - Grinding and polishing of rolled glass was very expensive, labor intensive, and wasteful of materials. In the 1950s and 1960s, the Pilkington company in England developed a much more economical process based on floating a continuous ribbon of molten glass on a bath of molten tin as the glass cooled and solidified. The glass product, known as float glass, has excellent surface properties, the upper surface having flowed freely without contact with rollers or any other forming devices before its solidification, and the lower surface similarly having been in contact only with a flat, smooth liquid metal surface that was incapable of marring it. The product also has exceptionally uniform thickness. Fritting - Techniques used for making glass frit (granules) include dry gauging or dry gagging (drizzling or pouring a stream of molten glass into cold water) and rolling as very thin ribbon, followed by particle attrition or comminution (size reduction) processes.

Relationship between technological progress and design issues, through an analysis of current technological trends and their effects on culture, society and industrial production
Design and technology an overview We live in a high technology society. In simple terms this means that our way of life, our standard of living and the wealth of our country is dependent upon the manufacture of sophisticated products and, of course, all of these have to be designed. Indeed, everything which has ever been made was designed by someone. I wonder how many different things you have designed without actually realizing it. The layout of a room perhaps, a flower bed in the garden, the cover for a school book and so on. But what 'makes' someone design something? It happens because human beings like to be creative and when a person 'sees a problem' or 'identifies a need' the reaction is to try to 'do something about it '. To a stone-age family standing in the rain, the need for shelter might appear obvious. It is not always so easy, however, to identify needs in today's world To our early ancestors, with only limited materials and skills design was probably a very 'hit and miss affair. Today we have numerous different materials and access to an enormous range of information, knowledge and skills. Further, we have the facilities for using these resources to their best advantage to ensure that our designs work well, look good, are safe to use and so on. Even so, it is important to realize that the manufacture, use and disposal of any product will have both beneficial and detrimental effects upon people, wildlife and the environment. The various technologies identified are beneficial can cause harm in some ways. For example, chemical technology has provided farmers with insecticides and artificial fertilizers. The benefits include increased crop yields and cheaper food in the shops. Among the negative effects, however is the pollution of rivers and lakes. Clearly designers and technologists have an enormous responsibility for the wellbeing of people in our society of all the peoples of the world and of the very future of planet Earth.

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Designers are expected to act as a responsible whilst generating designs to solve problems or satisfy needs. Whenever anything is made, of course, from the simplest to the most complex product, materials, Components and tools will be used, and skills and knowledge will be required. A thorough understanding and application of these resourcestherefore, is necessary to ensure a high quality product. And for economic reasons, designers try to make sure that their products appeal to a large number of people. What is technology? Technology can be described as any method of applying technical knowledge to a productive process. That knowledge may be of various kinds of materials, of methods of production, of programming computers or other electronics, for example. With much coverage given to high and new technologies, it is easy to forget that even the simplest tasks within organized manufacturing constitute technology, such as a jig to help drill a hole at the same point on multiple components. Contemporary technological trends Looking into the history of worlds, we are privileged once to witness, a vast and fast technological progress. To be specific it is too vast to consolidated, and too fast and needs to be constantly updated Here are some of the significant trends in respect to the domain of design 1. We are currently witnessing the emergence of high tech materials. "Light and strong has become the mantra behind these projects. The range of innovation from frp to carbon fibers has greatly influenced our lives 2. This is era of information technology. There are tremendous developments in the computing, Internet and electronics technology computer aided design and computer aided manufacture is revolutionizing the world of industrial production 3. There is tremendous growth in energy efficient technologies solar panels, clean energy; hydrogen fuels are explored to the maximum energy saving LED technologies is revolutionizing the world of lighting

4. Intelligence and memory is no more the qualities of only a human being. Today technological progress has made it possible to impart it to any designed object 5. Solving structural complications is the era of the past. We have traveled a long way making our walls more visually dynamic so that they can speak for themselves 6. The technological progress has changed the basics of certain process. For example, should I just talk over phone, why cant I watch? Should I just print 2d on paper, why can't I print 3d objects. The answer to these questions have become yes with the growth in technology 7. Technology, specially the involvement of computers has given rise to completely new fields like interaction design. Computers help us perform our tasks but making them do it by interacting with them has become a domain on its own. 8. Technology has aided tremendous growth in the field of medicine. The average life of a man has increased today. From hospitality furniture to computerized surgical assistance technology plays a crucial role 9.Techonolgy no more assist daily living or aims at making life more comfortable. The technological progress aims at providing identity. Technology helps in creating identity for individuals and organizations, through products 10. We re-look into old or conventional technology, reinvent them and give them new perspective, thus creating a technological progress. The creative sides of these processes are exploited in much better way than ever Role of society and culture in the world design It is very difficult to consolidate the social and cultural scenario of today. But here are some of the major factors listed. They greatly influence the design world and its out come. In other words the design world revolves around these factors the social and cultural changes are translated directly into design needs for the designers to work upon

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1. Day by day the society is getting conscious of being eco-friendly". We are shifting from 'use and throw' mode to 'reuse, recycle' mode. This has forced the designers to come up with products that can be reused, recycled or biodegradable 2. Reducing carbon foot prints is a big challenge faced, even by the developed nations. all the products that we use today are manufactured at one side of the world and used at the other side the fact that French fries you eat has traveled have way through the globe, using so much energy is quite shocking. Designers today have the moral responsibility in designing products, systems and services to address this issue 3. We live in the era of 'individualism. Avenues to quench intellectual quest are being developed day by day. Work is passion. Most ideas come from passionate individuals than corporate thinks tanks. Designers are greatly working on products that will help these individual meet their passion 4. The youngsters of today have orientation to the two extremes of learning. Art and technology day by day we hear more and more youngsters getting into the domain of art, graphics, movies etc. they are highly dependent on technology to create an artistic expression. Everything today is checked and visualized virtually and executed using technology. The design world has custom made products and process specially to appeal this fraternity 5. World is becoming a global village. People are traveling day in and day out. Business related travel has increased like never seen before places like stations and especially airports are gaining a great significance. Product are specially design for these set ups 6. The basic needs are already satisfied. The society is looking for more. Anything from soap to a movie is an experience. We pay for experience and not just the products. Experiential products are marching into the market more than ever 7. As expressed in most media, we today are restless. We greatly look forward to change. We embrace it very fast and look for a further change even faster. The domain of design is also rushing towards successfully satisfying this need

8. The culture values have changed. We dont any more look for safe options. Being safe in risky today we love to experiment at the same time, enjoy uncertainty by leaving it to chance in a vastly controlled environment. Lot of products and process today reflect this nature 9. Today we interact more with vitality than with reality. It has risen to that extent that we need an interface to interact with our own friends this has created more opportunity for designers, in new field like interaction design 10.Stress' is the most used word in today's society. The global culture is evolving in such way that it adds up to the stress. This has forced us to look in a different perspective. for example concepts like 'slow food movement', grow your own food, the importance of kinesthetic feel of food has come up in response to fast foods, canned and pre cooked off the shelf edible. The design world ads up to this response In spite all good and welcome changes, we cannot deny the fact that our culture today is preoccupied with work, consumption and entertainment. There is commoditization of technologies into prescriptive objects that homogenize experience and behavior. There is a great need for designers to look into, and promote the subtle values of human life Relationship between design and technology in the perspective of contemporary technological trends and social cultural changes As new technologies emerge, designers are naturally interested in how these could be applied to new products. This section looks at a number of approaches that designers have taken to utilize technology and explores some of the products that have emerged HIGH-TECH MATERIALS New methods of doing things emerge from the discovery and application of new materials. In regard to new materials the focus has always been in achieving highest performance in relation to desired goals. Fusing lightness with strength has been one such common goal, fuelling

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Developments principally in metals, plastics and composite materials (those made from two or more materials molded together to give enhanced properties, such as bricks made with mud and straw, laminated plywood and fiber-reinforced plastics). Carbon fiber reinforced plastic is the most explored material in this field, which is also highly used for its visual appearance than for its highest strength lightness ratio. Yet with an expensive and time consuming manufacturing process, its applications remain in those areas where performance is priorities over affordability In Formula 1 John Barnard pioneered its use in chassis design .He also created an innovative suspension system using flexures sections of the suspensions carbon fiber wishbones that literally flexed. Barnard went on to design aerodynamic carbon-fiber covers for the point at which the suspension attaches to the car body. Areas of industry such as sport, aerospace andMedicine produces a technological pull from their customers for the development of ever higher performing Materials that is far less evident among domestic consumer products. Consequently, when designers apply high-tech materials in the home, they must establish a genuine need for their use or their efforts can appear futile. It is generally an expensive process to design and create superfluous performance. So care should be taken that it is not forced and foster wastefulness To avoid this trap, concerned designers are focusing their attention on the provenance of objects (how are they made, with what materials and under what conditions). By forging collaborations with material scientists they explore new formulations of materials that are no less useful but come from renewable sources, are recyclable or biodegradable. Potato starch, nutshells, bamboo and other forms of biomass are among many natural ingredients likely to find their way into our domestic products in the future. CONTROL AND PRODUCTION Developments in computing, the Internet and electronics have had an enormous impact on the design and manufacturing industries. From the presentation of ideas, drawings, model-making and prototyping, through to the control of manufacturing equipment, computers can be seen at every step of design development. But they have also had a profound effect upon concepts. Designers have grasped the

idiosyncrasies of computers and electronics and made use of them to create designs never before possible. A number of these are discussed below: Computers allow precision control of systems, which when applied to manufacture, allows precision automated production. This is broadly referred to as computeraided design and computer-aided manufacture or CADCAM. Until recently the preserve of the factory, now almost every secondary school has some kind of computer-numerically-controlled (CNC) making equipment: routers, laser cutters, vinyl cutters, for example. The ready availability of this technology in local workshops has allowed designers to use it for quick prototyping or self-production projects. Inspired by Airfoil x model kits, where all the components came held within a plastic frame, Ben Wilson designed Chairfix. Using a computer-controlled milling machine, Wilson created a chair cut from sheet plywood but with its components held in place, ready to be pushed out and assembled at home. Perhaps the ultimate flat-pack, Chairfix has no other screws or nails, requiring only a wooden mallet to construct it.

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Chairfix by Ben Wilson The availability of computer-controlled routing equipment allowed Ben Wilson to produce his Chairfix chair. Lines plotted on screen are translated into the movement of a cutting head with precision. The piece is cut accurately enough to be push fitted together without screws

With these simple two-axis cutting machines becoming commonplace, the next wave of fully three-dimensional prototyping equipment is set to have even greater impact. In use in the product design industry for many years, technologies that enable computer files describing three-dimensional components to be transformed into solid models are being developed for the hobby and home markets. With home 3D printing becoming a serious proposition, designers have gone from treating these rapid prototyping technologies as model-making tools to seeing them as manufacturing processes in themselves. Hctor Serranos project Reduced Carbon Footprint Souvenirs, proposes a scenario in which the data to make miniature statues or buildings would be emailed to family or friends to be printed by them instead of being carried home. Extrapolating on such concepts, Massachusetts Institute of Technologys (MIT) Professor Neil Gershenfeld predicts a global manufacturing revolution sparked by these machines.

TECH-CRAFT AND PROGRAMMING Gershenfelds Fab Labs marry the power of material fabrication with tools to construct and programme electronic devices, an activity known as physical computing. The Stamp Chip is one of a number of inventions that have brought physical computing to a pro-am audience (in this context, pro-ams are enthusiasts who, despite being amateur by dint of their having another occupation, nonetheless engage in their hobby with the seriousness of professionals). The Stamp Chip is a microcontroller that can be connected to a home computer and programmed using the language BASIC.

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Reduced Carbon Footprint Souvenirs by Hctor Serrano This project proposed that instead of carrying souvenirs home, the data to make them could be emailed and new 3D printing technology used to print them in the place where they will be enjoyed. This should reduce the energy used in Manufacturing, packaging and transporting them.

The Basic Stamp Chip manufactured by Parallax Inc. The Stamp Chip is a microcontroller that can be connected to a home computer and programmed. It allows home users the ability to craft one-off electronic products more easily than ever before.

By creating and touring fabrication laboratories or Fab Labs, Gershenfeld discovered that, while affluent audiences created products with a market of one, developing world entrepreneurs used the labs to solve local problems, making tools, replacement components and unavailable products. By making almost anything manufacturable on site, the democratising of innovation Putting the production of their ideas in the hands of the people becomes a genuine possibility.

Arduino boards are a newer development that augment the functionality of the Stamp and are easier to program. Such technology makes it possible to construct your own electronic products that in the past might have needed considerable investment. As the ability to create electronic products escapes the corporate realm, so, too, the concepts that emerge no longer follow typical models. Hektor, by Jrg Lehni and Uli Franke and Pixelroller by random International are electronic products that enable large-scale murals to be printed or painted automatically.

Hektor automates the use of a spray can, operating it via a system of wires and pulleys that enable it to reproduce screen graphics many times their original scale. Pixelroller mixes computer-print technology with the typology of a paint roller to allow a digital image to be rolled on to any surface. In both systems, the computer is aware of the location of the printing or painting device so it can ensure that the Image is transferred accurately.

Throwies can be transferred simultaneously, creating removable illuminated graffiti. Co-opting higher technology, GRL pioneered projected graffiti by marrying a car battery with a suitable transformer to powerful LCD projection equipment.

LED Throwies by Graffi ti Research Lab created by glueing together an LED, a watch battery and a magnet, LED Throwies are permanently illuminated miniature light sources that will attach themselves to any ferrous metal surface and glow for the life of the battery Hektor by Jrg Lehni with Uli Franke Hektor is the name of a system that translates on-screen graphics into painted murals via the automation of a spray can. The can is moved and operated from the computer by a series of motors, wires and pulleys.

While these tools show how technology can be a conduit for self-expression, other designers have investigated how objects can appear to express themselves. Andy Huntington and Louise Klinkers Tap Tap Box , as the designers explain, is a construction toy capturing a fascination with rhythm and fidgeting. The system is built up of individual knock boxes. Each box has its own memory and is completely self-contained. As you tap on the top of a box, the box waits for a few seconds and then taps back what it has heard. At four seconds, the delay is just long enough to give the boxes a life of their own. Just long enough to wonder if they have forgotten.

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Pixelroller by random International By bringing together various technologies around the typology of a paint roller, random International were able to create a device capable of painting digital images directly on to large surfaces.

With technology becoming cheaper and knowledge of how to use it more readily available through the Internet, creative activists have started to find striking ways of making their presence felt. Members of New York-based Graffiti Research Labs (GRL), committed to developing high-tech tools for the art underground, glued an LED, a watch battery and a magnet together to create the first LED Throwie, a permanently illuminated miniature light source that, when thrown, attaches itself to any ferrous metal surface. GRL went on to produce thousands of Throwies, decorating metal-clad buildings, trams and public sculptures. By arranging them to form text on a board, sets of

Tap Tap Boxes by Andy Huntington with Louise W. Klinker TapTap is a construction toy that, after a short delay, taps back any rhythm tapped on to it. Combinations of boxes can be made to tap on to each other creating complex rhythms

Applying similar skills on a large scale, Troikas Cloudat Heathrow Airport uses data to control over 4,000 mechanical flip-dots on its surface. As the dots flip back and forth from shiny to black and back, a wide variety of patterns flow over and animate the skin of the object.

Like craftwork centered on material properties, techcraft offers the danger of becoming a self-conscious activity promoting only the skill of the maker, rather than a means of fulfilling broader goals. While proam enthusiasts are at liberty to indulge in designing primarily for themselves, designers for industry and the public sector are in the business of finding ways to apply technology that will have more widespread appeal. POETIC TECH OBJECTS In an attempt to achieve this, some practitioners have tried to embody a poetic idea either in the method of production of their products or in the way they operate. Like a visual translation of the Tap Tap Box, the History Tablecloth memorizes and displays the location of objects placed upon it. Developed at the Royal College of Arts Interaction Design Research Studio, the tablecloth uses electroluminescent material to create filigree pixels that give the impression of glowing lace. The cloth creates a halo around objects left on it, which fades away once they are removed. It is responsive, quietly and briefly recording the flow of objects it encounters.

Cloud electronic sculpture byTroika for Heathrow Airport Terminal 5 Flip dots are mechanisms used in public transport information boards, flicking from black to white to hide and reveal parts of words. Design group Troika used the dots to cover their Cloud sculpture, enabling preprogrammed patterns to flow over its surface.

Other companies such as Luckybite have mixed the sense that the object itself is alive with the ability for the public to send information that will affect its appearance. Their Comment installation, a 26-metre-high wall of LED light tracks, sends visitors comments on a visible journey, becoming legible as they pass through defined display stations.

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History Tablecloth by Interaction Design Research Department, Royal College of Art, developed with Rachel Wingfield The History Tablecloth uses sensors and electro-luminescent material to leave glowing traces of objects left on it. These fade slowly once the objects have been removed.

Comment installation by Luckybite for The Science Museum Luckybite created an enormous, animated, visitor feedback wall that enabled Messages to be sent to it, becoming trains that traveled along LED light tracks.

Colliding computer animation with computer-controlled rapid prototyping, Ron Arad highlighted the sense in which a three-dimensional print-out of an object is but one frame in its evolution. For his Not Made by Hand, Not Made in China exhibition, he

created and animated a vase-like form that bounced excitedly on screen before being frozen at various points in its cycle to be printed . The project took a postmodern approach to form the designer could delegate its choice to the purchaser, allowing them to stop the animation at any point and print the result.

efficient as each other. If a computer can generate random versions of products, it can also be employed to help measure which one performs best outside of our subjective aesthetic judgments.

Breeding Tables by Kram Weisshaar a computer algorithm decides the exact form of Reed Kram and Clemens Weisshaars Breeding Tables.

Bouncing Vase from the Not Made By Hand, Not Made in China collection by Ron Arad Each vase-like form is a rapid prototype of one frame of an animation Arad made using computer software in his studio.

Similarly, designers Reed Kram and Clemens Weishaar devolve the exact configuration of their Breeding Tables to a computer algorithm . Able to generate an infinite number of unique table bases to be folded from sheet steel, their software generates random forms within set parameters (such as foot position and table height). Drawings of the resulting forms are automatically generated and sent to laser cutting equipment (although their fabrication still takes place manually). These projects raise questions about the role of the designer in the creation of form. By allowing aspects of a design to be left to chance, designers step down from their apparent position of controlling every detail. However, this generosity becomes an abdication of responsibility if the elements being made arbitrary would benefit from intelligent analysis. In Arads vase, chance impacts most upon its aesthetics, but in Kram Weishaars tables it has a greater influence upon material use. Not all of the tables can be as

Oscar Diaz, when developing a product for champagne ompany Veuve Clicquot, took advantage of the accurate calibration that computers can provide. In order to create a set of translucent glass vases that, when stacked together, revealed the clients signature orange, Diaz used the RGB values displayed in computer graphics packages to calculate the correct colours for each. By printing on to transparent acetate, overlays could be tested and given as samples to the glassmakers for matching.

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RGB Vases by Oscar Diaz for Veuve Clicquot Three nesting glass vases of different colours come together to create a volume displaying a particular hue of orange used by the client, Veuve Clicquot. Accurate colour matching was achieved using a computer.

While fascinating in itself, new technology can be a trap into which designers in awe of it fall, blinkered from the need to apply it effectively to progress our product-based culture. The objects that emerge from projects such as design group Fronts Sketch Furniture appears to beg our forgiveness for their inadequacies as practical products on the grounds that their creation produced a spectacular performance. (Front used motion capture an animation technique that tracks and records movement combined with rapid prototyping to create furniture that looks to have been drawn in space). Yet if such projects are a genuine attempt to improve upon the development of chairs, tables and lamps, the technology used must be judged against all that have come before and that could have been used instead.

difficult to work the material so as to avoid them being heavy and uncomfortable.
Fresh Fat Plastic machine by Tom Dixon By modifying a plastic extrusion machine, Tom Dixon created a tool for the free manipulation of hot plastic as a craft skill. A continuous worm of pliable hot plastic emerges from the machine that the operator must manually shape into a usable product.Fresh Fat Plastic chair by Tom Dixon The imprecise and spontaneous nature of the Fresh Fat Plastic process means that it is difficult to produce large objects that use material efficiently, this chair being a case in point.

Both examples point to the need for materials, processes and technologies to be chosen and used as appropriate to the objects they are making, regardless of how engaging they are to watch. INTERACTION Interaction design, an entire discipline unto itself, emerged from industrial design when those involved with designing electronic equipment, in particular computers, realised they were spending more time designing the way we interacted with them than on their physical form.
Sketch Furniture by Front Although bringing together a set of technologies never previously applied to product design, the objects resulting from Fronts Sketch Furniture project are considerably less effective in their own right than the video performance showing them being made.

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In tandem, those involved in designing computer software faced the same problem: how can systems be designed around people rather than people having to change the way they think in order to use them? Without undertaking a history of interaction design more than adequately covered by father of the discipline, Bill Moggridge, in his book Designing Interactions (2007, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press) its worth noting its key achievements. It has been responsible for exploring and defining the layout of desktop, laptop palmtop computers and mobile phones (still an unsettled typology with bar, clamshell, sliding and fanning varieties currently competing for market dominance). It has defined the input devices we have become familiar with, from remote controls, the computer mouse and numerous game controllers, to the touch-sensitive wheel of the iPod.

Tom Dixons project Fresh Fat Plastic raises the same issue. The designer recognized that by removing the die from a plastic extrusion machine, it continually pumps out a toothpaste-like worm of hot, soft plastic, which can then be worked manually into a desired form. The material is attractive, having a glass-like luster, and the process works effectively for small objects like bowls and lamps, but when applied to chairs it is

And where would we be without the graphical user interface (GUI), with its desktop metaphor of files, folders and trashcans? As well as incorporating technology into products to go on sale immediately, some designers are involved in speculating upon the types of products that might emerge in the future. A few large consumer electronics corporations, including Royal Philips Electronics in The Netherlands, regularly run projects that investigate the scenarios, functionality, interaction and appearance of the objects we might be using up to 20 years hence. Their Home of the Near Future project of 1999 examined social and technological trends and presented a vision of the smart home where objects became assistants or companions that would respond to our preferences. The Home Medical Box combines a videoconference portal and medical encyclopedia with diagnostic tools to check heart rate and blood pressure and can send data, as well as images, to the doctor wirelessly. Part of the earlier Visions of the Future project, Hot Badges are dating aids that hold personal information about their wearers likes and dislikes and flash when in the vicinity of another badge with matching attributes. Perhaps ill-advisedly, such projects suggest that technology, packaged correctly, offers a utopian solution to our frenetic lifestyles. The time used to get to know someone or to visit the doctor is freed up, but to what end? And wouldnt we rather discover someones interests for ourselves through talking to them rather than through a device? By generalizing about desires and seeing technology as a cure for all ills, designers risk adding further unwanted layers of complexity to life. Possibly in response to such concerns, Royal Philipss recent SKIN Probes project instead used technology to reflect emotional states. Garments were produced that were sensitive rather than intelligent (5) and visualised emotional and physiological changes in the wearers body on their surface.

CRITICAL POSITIONS Designers critical of the way technology has been applied to electronic products have emerged as strong voices within academia. Professor Anthony Dunne, leader of the Design Interactions course at the RCA and former colleague Professor William Gaver, now Head of the Interaction Research Studio at Goldsmiths, University of London, share distaste at the commoditisation of technologies into prescriptive objects that homogenise experience and behaviour. Both argue that technology as conventionally applied to common electronic object types has led to an optimum level of performance being achieved, reducing the designers role to little more than that of packaging. These products, Dunne says, support a banal reality and condition us to act according to the rules of systems design pioneered by cognitive scientists. Gaver contends that: Digital products especially those for the home do not have to reproduce our cultures preoccupation with work, consumption and entertainment. Instead, technology can encourage more exploratory engagements with life, providing evocative resources with which to discover new perspectives on ourselves and the world around us. His research associates have developed a number of projects that propose alternative methodologies for the development of electronic products. As well as meditations upon the electronic object, Anthony Dunne, with partner Fiona Raby and their RCA students are investigating the future implications of bioand nanotechnology. In contrast to the blindly utopian technological visions of the past, much of this work, rather than pushing commercial propositions, uses design as a tool for enquiry, exploring potential conclusions of current scientific advances. Developing from the Slow Food movement founded in Italy nearly 15 years ago, there is a growing network of designers who apply the same principles of reviving pleasure, quality and an awareness of nature and the environment given to eating, to the design, manufacture and use of products. In an on-demand world of 24/7 consumption, products that force us to slow down and take time to enjoy experiences can be seen as virtuous. Droog Design took the theme for their 2004 Milan exhibition, where seniors served customers a slow meal. The previous year, sometime Droog Design collaborator Dick van Hoff unveiled his Tyranny of the Plug range of kitchen machines an entirely hand-powered set of appliances consisting of a food processor, blender, whisk and juicer

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SKIN Probes project by Philips Philipss SKIN Probes project used soft, wearable technologies to visualise emotional and physiological changes in the wearers body on the surface of their clothes.

The progressive shift from steam to electrodynamics production has liberated both machines and workmen from the older inflexible matrix of belts and overhead driveshafts. Automatic machinery carries with it a large initial capital investment, correlated with high fixed costs of interest, rent, and insurance. The recovery of these prior claims on production, at the same time keeping unit costs low, requires a speeding up of the entire process and has etched in sharp relief the element of time-dependency in the articulation of industrial processes. Time is replacing labor and materials as the chief basis for computing costs. The social as well as pecuniary costs of such a technology hinges upon the ability of society to maintain its inherent rhythms. .
Tyranny of the Plug human-powered kitchen tools by Dick Van Hoff Van Hoffs human powered kitchen tools make use of precise gearing and high-quality materials to engage us more physically in the act of food preparation instead of relying upon electrical appliances.

Arguments abound as to whether small gestures such as these have an impact upon energy usage. Yet rather than relying upon our guilt as an incentive, Van Hoff has done everything in his power to make his tools a pleasure to use, gearing them efficiently and constructing them from solid and beautiful materials. Consequently, they are far less likely to languish at the back of kitchen cupboards than their electrically powered cousins. The influences on industrial production In broad retrospect the march of technological change has appeared as a series of successive revolutionary innovations, at first affecting mechanical equipment itself, more recently transforming the arrangements by which such equipment is utilized. In the inventory of more significant technological changes the following should be listed: (1) increased use of electric power, (2) installation of automatic machinery, (3)achievement of continuous flow production through serialization of labor processes, (4) instrument control of machines.

The latest devices which research has contributed to our technological repertoire have further accelerated the momentums in industry. For example, in the field of machine construction the use of carboloy tools of great hardness has imparted more speed to operations. Rollers instead of friction bearings have upped rates of production even further. Improvements in paints, varnishes, and lacquers, particularly the perfecting of cellulose lacquers, have cut down time required to finish a motor car (through reducing drying time to 25 minutes) to a few hours, with attendant savings on inventories and storage space. Savings in any area of industry, whether they ensue from technological changes or managerial inventions, may be returned as consumption power to investors or to workers, or they may be used for plant expansion and the creation of new industries. These savings are translated into new costs which can be met only by maintaining the industrial pace which originally produced them. Otherwise, technological change becomes a meaningless waste of labor and materials. While technological developments have rapidly displaced thousands of workers, at the same time they have tremendously enhanced the technical importance of individual and units of workers who remain employed. In the last few years industrial changes have reduced their worker dependence. The main transformation has been the installation of large-capacity equipment and

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"topping" devices, with smaller capital costs per unit capacity. Some additional saving has been achieved by the "drive right" principle, the discovery that a single electric motor suffices to drive a multiple machine unit. Accompanying the utilization of many-unit capacity machines is found an increasing reliance upon instrument measuring and control of machinery in place of the older manual control. This involves the multiple and co-ordinate use of gauges and levers. Strength, stamina, and endurance lose their relevance to such production methods, while sustained attention, correct perception, quick reaction, and general intelligence assume prime significance in the stock of traits required of labor. There is no indication of any noteworthy abatement in the swift pace of technological change in our culture. The proliferation of research laboratories in the United States a 700 percent increase in annual expenditures for the developments of new products and processes during the same period bears ample testimony to this fact. The generalized societal reaction to this technological dynamic has been similar to the adjustments occurring within industry. Our cultural arrangements have lost much of their specificity, rendering it exceedingly difficult to define them in terms of the attributes of folkways, mores, and institutions, i.e, uniformity, formality, and persistence. They have acquired extreme flexibility and in determinism in the face of day-to-day changes and wide occupational and geographic diversity. Correspondingly, while generalized policy tends to emanate from centralized authority, control at the point of contact between the policy and local areas has been delegated to administrators and leaders enjoying extensive discretionary powers. This is best seen in the growth of administrative law. One of the most outstanding needs crystallized by technological trends is for a system of agencies to control the abuse of these amplified powers and to provide redress for individuals injured as a consequence of their illegal use.

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