Slides PSBook2006 Revised July2007

First Course on
POWER SYSTEMS
Ned Mohan
Oscar A. Schott Professor of Power Electronics and Systems Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Minnesota Minneapolis, MN 55455 USA
Copyright Ned Mohan 2006
A 345-kV Example System
Bus-1
200 km
Bus-3
P + jQ
Pm1
Pe1
150 km
150 km
Bus-2 Pe 2 Pm 2
TOPICS IN POWER SYSTEMS

Week Book Chapters 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Chapter 1: Overview Chapter 2: Fundamentals Chapter 3: Energy Sources Chapter 4: Transmission Lines Chapter 5: Power Flow Chapter 6: Transformers Chapter 7: HVDC, FACTS Chapter 8: Distribution Systems Chapter 9: Synchronous Generators Chapter 10: Voltage Stability Chapter 11: Transient Stability Chapter 12: Interconnected Systems, Economic Dispatch Chapter 13: Short-Circuit Faults, Relays, Circuit Breakers Chapter 14: Transient OverVoltages, Surge Arrestors, Insulation Coordination Laboratory Lab 1: Visit to a local substation; otherwise a virtual substation Lab 2: Introduction to PSCAD/EMTDC; 3phase circuits, vars, power-factor correction Lab 3: Transmission Lines using PSCADEMTDC Lab 4: Power Flow using MATLAB and PowerWorld Lab 5: Including Transformers in Power Flow using PowerWorld and MATLAB Lab 6: Power Converters and HVDC using PSCAD-EMTDC, HVDC in PowerWorld Lab 7: Power Quality using PSCAD-EMTDC Lab 8: Synchronous Generators and AVR using PSCAD-EMTDC. Lab 9: Voltage Regulation using PowerWorld Lab 10: Transient Stability using MATLAB Lab 11: AGC using Simulink, and Economic Dispatch using PowerWorld Lab 12: Transmission Line Faults using PowerWorld and MATLAB Lab 13: Over-voltages and Surge Arrestors using PSCAD-EMTDC
Chapter 1 POWER SYSTEMS: A CHANGING LANDSCAPE
NATURE OF POWER SYSTEMS
Fig. 1-1 Interconnected North American Power Grid [2].

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 5
Control Areas
Fig. 1-2 NERC Interconnections [3]. Source: NERC.
One-line Diagram
Step up Transformer Generator Transmission line Feeder
13.8 kV
Load
Fig. 1-3 One-line diagram as an example.
CHANGING LANDSCAPE OF POWER SYSTEMS AND UTILITY DEREGULATION
(a)
( b)
Fig. 1-4 Changing landscape [4]. Source: ABB.

CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF BASIC ELECTRIC CIRCUITS AND ELECTROMAGNETIC CONCEPTS
Symbols and Conventions

a +
vab i
b +
va
Fig. 2-1 Convention for voltages and currents.
vb
10
Phasors
Imaginary positive angles V = V 0 Real
I = I
Fig. 2-2 Phasor diagram.
11
Phasor Analysis
i( t ) I j L = j X L
Im
v( t ) = 2V cos( t )
L
V = V 0
jX c
jX L
R 1 j = j XC C
(b)
R
C
(a )
Z R
0
(c)
Re
Fig. 2-3 A circuit (a) in time-domain and (b) in phasor-domain; (c) impedance triangle.
12
Example of Impedance Calculation

j 0.1 j5 2
Fig. 2-4 Impedance network of Example 2-1.
13
Example of Impedance Calculation

0.3 + I1 V1 j15 Im I2 7.0 j 0.5 j 0.2
Fig. 2-5 Circuit of Example 2-2.
14
Power Flow
+
Subcircuit 1
v (t )
Subcircuit 2
p (t ) = v (t ) i (t )
Figure 2-6 A generic circuit divided into two sub-circuits.
15
Real and Reactive Power

p (t ) average power v(t )
p (t )
average power
0 v (t ) (a ) i (t )
0 ( b) i (t )
Figure 2-7 Instantaneous power with sinusoidal currents and voltages.
16
P, Q and VA by Phasors
I
+
Subcircuit 1
Subcircuit 2
S = P + jQ
Im
(a)
V = V v
Im
S Q
Re
P (c)
Re
I = I i (b)
Fig. 2-8 (a) Circuit in phasor-domain; (b) phasor diagram; (c) power triangle.
Example of Power Factor Correction

P = PL +
V1 jQC
j13.963
PL + jQL
Fig. 2-9 Power factor correction in Example 2-5.
18
One-line Diagram
Step up Transformer Generator Transmission line Feeder
13.8 kV
Load
Fig. 2-10 One-line diagram of a three-phase transmission and distribution system.
19
Three-Phase Voltages
van (t ) vbn (t ) vcn (t )
Vcn a bc positive sequence 120 120 Van 0
120
Vbn
( b)
3 (a )
Fig. 2-11 Three-phase voltages in time and phasor domain.
20
Balanced Three-Phase Circuit Analysis

Ia
+ V an V cn +
n V bn +
Ia
V an +
ZL N c
Ic
Ib
V cn n V bn + +
In
c
ZL N b
Ic
(b)
Ib
(a)
Fig. 2-12 Balanced wye-connected, three-phase circuit.
21
Per-Phase Analysis
a + V an n
Ia
V cn
Ic
Ib (Hypothetical)
N
Ia
V an
V bn (a) (b) Fig. 2-13 Per-phase circuit and the corresponding phasor diagram.
22
Balanced Mutual Coupling

Ia
a Ib b Ic c
(a)
Z self A Z self
a Z aA A
Z mutual
Z mutual B
Z self
Z mutual C
(Hypothetical)
( b)
Fig. 2-14 Balanced three-phase network with mutual couplings.
23
Line-Line Voltages
Vcn Vca Vb Vab
30 o
Van
Vbn
Vbc
Fig. 2-15 Line-to-line voltages in a three-phase circuit.
24
Wye-Delta Transformation
Ia
a
Ia
a Z Z Z b
Z c
I ab Z
I ca Z (a)
Ibc
(b)
Fig. 2-16 Delta-wye transformation.
25
Power Flow in AC Systems

I
+
Vs
jX
Vs +
VR

I
( b)
jXI
VR
(a )
Fig. 2-17 Power transfer between two ac systems.
26
Power-Angle Diagram
P / Pmax 1.0 0.5
180 90 Fig. 2-18 Power as a function of .
27
Per Unit Quantities

Vbase Rbase , Xbase , Zbase = Ibase Ibase Gbase , Bbase ,Ybase = Vbase (in ) (in ) (2-48) (2-49) (2-50)
P base ,Q base , (VA) base =V base Ibase
(in Watt, VAR, or VA)
In terms of these base quantities, the per-unit quantities can be specified as actual value Per-UnitValue = base value
(2-51)
28
Energy Efficiency of Apparatus

Pin
Power System Apparatus

Ploss
Po
Fig. 2-19 Energy Efficiency = Po / Pin .
29
Electro-Magnetic Concepts: Amperes Law

dl H i1
i2 i3
(a)
(b) Fig. 2-20 Amperes Law.
(c)
30
Example of a Toroid
i
rm
ID
ID
OD
OD
(a)
(b)
Fig. 2-21 Example 2-9.
31
B-H Curves in Ferromagnetic Materials

Bm Bm Bsat
o m o
Hm
Hm
(a)
(b)
Fig. 2-22 B-H characteristic of ferromagnetic materials.
32
Flux and Flux-Density

Am
Fig. 2-23 Toroid with flux m .
33
Inductance
i
Am
i
N A m
Hm
(m)
Bm N2 Am mAm
(Am)
(N)
N Lm =
(a)
(b)
Fig. 2-24 Coil inductance.
34
Example of a Toroid
w r
Fig. 2-25 Rectangular toroid.
35
Faradays Law
(t )
i (t ) + e (t )
Fig. 2-26 Voltage polarity and direction of flux and current.
36
Plot of time-varying Flux and Voltage

e(t )
(t )
Fig. 2-27 Example 2-11.
37
Leakage Flux
m
i + e i + e
(a)
(b)
Fig. 2-28 Including leakage flux.
38
Representation of Leakage Flux by Leakage Inductance

m
i (t ) + e(t )
Ll
Ll
di dt
R + v(t ) Lm
Ll
+ e(t )
i (t ) + em (t )
em (t )
(a)
(b)
Fig. 2-29 Analysis including the leakage flux.
39
CHAPTER 3
ELECTRIC ENERGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT
40
Energy Consumption and Production in the U.S.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 3-1 Production and consumption of energy in the United States in 2004 [1].
41
Power Generation by Various Fuel Types in the U.S.
Fig. 3-2 Electric power generation by various fuel types in the U.S. in 2005 [1].
42
Hydro Power Generation

Water
Penstock
Generator Turbine
Fig. 3-3 Hydro power (Source: www.bpa.gov).
43
Rankine Thermodynamic Cycle in Coal Plants

Steam at High pressure Heat in
Boiler Turbine Gen
Pump
Condenser
Heat out
Fig. 3-4 Rankine thermodynamic cycle in coal-fired power plants.
Visit the following website for Power Plant Animations: http://www.cf.missouri.edu/energy/?fun=1&flash=ppmap
44
Brayton Cycle in Gas Turbines

Fuel in Combustion Chamber
Compressor Air in
Turbine Exhaust
Fig. 3-5 Brayton thermodynamic cycle in natural-gas power plants.
45
Nuclear Power Plant Types
(a )
( b)
Fig. 3-6 (a) BWR and (b) PWR reactors [5].
Visit the following websites for Nuclear Power Plant Animations: PWR: http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/basic-ref/students/animated-pwr.html BWR: http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/basic-ref/students/animated-bwr.html
Wind Resources in the U.S.
Fig. 3-7 Wind-resource map of the United States [6].
47
Coefficient of Performance
Fig. 3-8 c p as a function of [7]; these would vary based on the turbine design.
Wind Generation using an Induction Generator Connected Directly to the AC Grid

Induction Generator
Wind Turbine
Utility
Fig. 3-9 Induction generator directly connected to the grid [8].
49
Wind Generation using a Doubly-Fed Induction Generator

Wound rotor Induction Generator
AC
Wind Turbine
DC DC AC
Grid-side Converter
Generator-side Converter
Fig. 3-10 Doubly-fed, wound-rotor induction generator [9].
50
Wind Generation using an AC Generator Connected through Power Electronics

Power Electronics Interface Gen Conv1 Conv 2 Utility
Fig. 3-11 Power Electronics connected generator [10].
51
Photovoltaics
Fig. 3-12 PV cell characteristics [11].
52
Interfacing PV with AC Grid

Isolated DC-DC Converter PWM Converter
Max. Powerpoint Tracker
Utility 1
Fig. 3-13 Photovoltaic systems.
53
Fuel Cells
Open 1.4 Circuit Voltage
1.2 -
Maximum Theoretical Voltage
E=
Activation Losses
- g
2F
- 1200
Cell Voltage ( VC in Volts )
1-
0.8 -
Ohmic
- 800
Losses
- 600
0.6 -
Cell Power PC= VC x i
0.4 -
Mass Transport Losses
- 400
0.2 -
- 200
0 -| 0
-0
500
Current Density ( i in mA/cm2 )
1000
1500
2000
Fig. 3-14 Fuel cell v-i relationship and cell power [12].
Cell Power ( PC in mW )
- 1000
54
Greenhouse Effect
Fig. 3-15 Greenhouse effect [13].
55
Resource mix XcelEnergy

6 5
4 1 1 2 3 4 5 6
3
2
Fig. 3-16 Resource mix at XcelEnergy [14].
56
Fuel Costs in the U.S. in 2005
Fig. 3-17 Electric power industry fuel costs in the U.S. in 2005 [1].
57
CHAPTER 4
AC TRANSMISSION LINES AND UNDERGROUND CABLES
58
Transmission Tower, Conductor and Bundling
(b)
Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 (a )
(c)
59
Fig. 4-1 500-kV transmission line (Source: University of Minnesota EMTP course).
Transposition
a
D2
D1 D3
b
c 1 cycle (a ) (b)
Fig. 4-2 Transposition of transmission lines.
60
Distributed Parameters
line line
R L
C
neutral (zeroimpedance)
Fig. 4-3 Distributed parameter representation on a per-phase basis.
61
Calculation of Transmission Line Resistance: Skin Effect

J T
D (a )
surface
( b)
towards center
Fig. 4-4 (a) Cross-section of ACSR conductors, (b) skin-effect in a solid conductor.
62
Calculation of Transmission Line Inductance

c ic c
c
a ia
r D (a )
b ib ia
a
r
b x dx
(b) a
b
D
ib
(c)
x
D
dx
Fig. 4-5 Flux linkage with conductor-a.
63
Electric Field Due to Transmission Line Voltage

x
q x2 Fig. 4-6 Electric field due to a charge. x1 1 2
64
Calculation of Transmission Line Capacitance

c c
qc C qa a
D (a ) hypothetical neutral C b ( b)
qb b a
Fig. 4-7 Shunt capacitances.
65
Typical Parameters for various Voltage Transmission Lines

Table 4-1 Transmission Line Parameters with Bundled Conductors (except at 230 kV) at 60 Hz [2, 6] Nominal Voltage 230 kV 345 kV 500 kV 765 kV R ( / km ) 0.055 0.037 0.029 0.013
L ( / km )
0.489 0.376 0.326 0.339
C ( / km )
3.373 4.518 5.220 4.988
66
Calculating Transmission Line Parameters using EMTDC
Fig. 4-8 A 345-kV, single-conductor per phase, transmission system.
67
Distributed-Parameter Representation
I S ( s) + VS ( s )
I x ( s) + Vx ( s )
R 1 sC
sL +
I R (s)
VR ( s )
Fig. 4-9 Distributed per-phase transmission line ( G not shown).
68
Voltage Profile under SIL

+
VS IS j L 1 j C (a )
+ Zc
IR
V R = V R 0
VS
VR
( b)
Fig. 4-10 Per-phase transmission line terminated with a resistance equal to Z c .
69
Typical Surge Impedances and SIL for various Voltage Transmission Lines
Table 4-2 Surge Impedance and Three-Phase Surge Impedance Loading [2, 6] Nominal Voltage 230 kV 345 kV 500 kV 765 kV
Z c ()
375 280 250 255
SIL ( MW ) 140 MW 425 MW 1000 MW 2300 MW
70
Loadability of Transmission Lines

Table 4-3 Loadability of Transmission Lines [6] Line Length (km) 0 - 80 80 - 240 240 - 480 Limiting Factor Thermal 5% Voltage Drop Stability Multiple of SIL >3 1.5 - 3 1.0 1.5
71
Long-Line Representation
I S ( s) + VS ( s )
Yshunt 2 Yshunt 2 Z series
I R (s) +
VR ( s )
Fig. 4-11 Long line representation.
72
Transmission Line Representations

IS +
Z series Yshunt 2
IR
IS
Rline j j 2 Cline
( b)
j Lline
IR
IS + VS
Rline
j Lline
IR
+
+ Yshunt 2
(a )
+
VS
VS
VR
2 Cline
+
VR
VR
(c )
Fig. 4-12 Per-phase transmission line representation based on length.
73
Underground Cables
Fig. 4-13 Underground cable.
74
CHAPTER 5
POWER FLOW IN POWER SYSTEM NETWORKS
75
Three-Bus Example Power System

Bus 1 200 km 150 km PQ Bus Bus 3 150 km Slack Bus P + jQ
Bus 2
PV Bus
Fig. 5-1 A three-bus 345-kV example system.
76
Transmission Lines in Example Power System

Table 5-1 Per-Unit Values in the Example System Line 1-2 1-3 2-3 Series Impedance Z in (pu) Total Susceptance B in (pu)
Z12 = (5.55 + j56.4) = (0.0047 + j 0.0474) pu Z13 = (7.40 + j 75.2) = (0.0062 + j 0.0632) pu Z 23 = (5.55 + j56.4) = (0.0047 + j 0.0474) pu
BTotal = 675 BTotal = 900 BTotal = 675
= (0.8034) pu = (1.0712) pu = (0.8034) pu
77
Calculating Y-Bus in the Example Power System

Bus 1
V1
Z13 Z12 Z 23
Bus 3
V3
I1 Bus 2 V2
I3
I2
Fig. 5-2 Example system of Fig. 5-1 for assembling Y-bus matrix.
78
Newton-Raphson Procedure
4 x2 4 2 x (2) 0.5 1.0 1.5 2 x (1) 3.0 x (0) 3.5 4.0
0
2 4 6 8
10
12
Fig. 5-3 Plot of 4 x 2 as a function of x .

Power Flow Results in the Example Power System

V1 = 100 pu
( 2.39 + j 0.29 ) pu ( 0.69 - j1.11) pu
V3 = 0.978-8.79 0 pu
P 1 + jQ1 = (3.08 - j 0.82) pu

V2 = 1.05-2.07 0 pu
( 5.0 + ( 2.68 +
j1.48) pu
j1.0 ) pu
P2 + jQ2 = ( 2.0
+ j 2.67) pu
Fig. 5-4 Power-Flow results of Example 5-4.
80
CHAPTER 6
TRANSFORMERS IN POWER SYSTEMS
81
Transformer Principle: Generation of Flux

m
+ e1
+ N1 e1
im Lm
(a)
(b)
Fig. 6-1 Principle of transformers, beginning with just one coil.
82
Core in Transformers
Bm Bm Bsat
o m o
Hm
Hm
(a)
(b)
Fig. 6-2 B-H characteristics of ferromagnetic materials.

Flux Coupling
m
+ e1
+ N1 e1 N2
im
Lm
+ e2
e2
(a)
N1 N2
Ideal Transformer
(b)
Fig. 6-3 Transformer with the open-circuited second coil.
84
Transformer with Load Connected to the Secondary

+ e1
i1 (t ) N1 N2
i1 (t ) + e1
i2 (t )
im Lm
i2 (t )
+
e2
i2 (t ) + e2
N1 N2
Ideal Transformer
(a)
(b)
Fig. 6-4 Transformer with load connected to the secondary winding.
85
Transformer Model
I1 + V1
R1
jX l1 + Rhe E1
' I2
jX l 2 + E2
R2
I2 + V2
im
jX m
N1
N2
Real Transformer

Ideal Transformer
Fig. 6-5 Transformer equivalent circuit including leakage impedances and core losses.
86
Eddy Current and Hysteresis Losses

m
circulating currents i circulating currents
(a)
(b) Fig. 6-6 Eddy currents in the transformer core.
87
Transformer Simplified Model

Ip
+ Zp
1: n +
Vs n p
Is Zs
+ Vs
Vp
ns
Fig. 6-7 Simplified transformer model.
88
Transferring Leakage Impedances from One Side to Another

Ip
+ Z ps np
1: n ns
Is
+ Vs
(a)
Vp
Ip
1: n np ns
+ Vp
( b)
Z sp
Is
+ Vs
Fig. 6-8 Transferring leakage impedances across the ideal transformer of the model.
Transformer Equivalent Circuit in Per Unit

I (pu) I (pu)
+
V p (pu)
Z tr (pu)
+
Vs (pu)
Fig. 6-9 Transformer equivalent circuit in per unit (pu).
90
Connection of Transformer Windings
(a )
(b)
Fig. 6-10 Winding connections in a three-phase system.
91
Including Nominal TurnsRatio Transformer in Power Flow Studies

Bus 1 500 kV
345 / 500 kV
Bus 3
500 / 345 kV
Fig. 6-11 Including nominal-voltage transformers in per-unit.
92
Auto-Transformer
n2 I1
+
V1
I2
+
V2
( I1 + I 2 )
+ V1
+ V2 I1
I2 +
(V1 + V2 )
n1
n2 (a)
n1
( b)
Fig. 6-12 Auto-transformer.
93
Phase-Shift Due to WyeDelta Transformers

a A n1 C B (a ) c b (b) (c) VA n2 n1 j 300 e : n2 3 Va + VA + Va
Fig. 6-13 Phase-shift in -Y connected transformers.
94
Phase-Shift Control by Transformers

a a c
c (a )
Vab Va
Vca Vc
Va
Vca Vc
Va b
Va
b b
Vb
(b) Vbc
Vb ( c ) Vbc
Fig. 6-14 Transformer for phase-angle control.
95
Three-Winding AutoTransformers
Z L () a
H
a
L
A T B
a
H
Z H ()
a
L A T C
n2 n1
n3 Z T ()
C c
(a )
b
( b) Fig. 6-15 Three-winding auto-transformer.
96
General Representation of Auto- and Phase-Shift Transformers

I1 I2
+
V1
YA = 1/ Z A
+
V2 t
+
V2
1: t Fig. 6-16 General representation of an auto-transformer and a phase-shifter.
97
PU Representation of OffNominal Turns-Ratio Transformers

I1 Y = 1/ Z A A I2 I1
YA / t
I2
+
V1
+
V2
+
V1
1 1 YA t 1 1 2 YA t t (b)
+ V2
1: t
(a )
Fig. 6-17 Transformer with an off-nominal turns-ratio or taps in per unit; t is real.
98
Example of Off-Nominal Turns-Ratio Transformers

I1 j 0.1 pu I2 I1
+
V1
+
V2
Z s = j 0.11 pu
I2 +
+
V1
Y1 = j 0.909 pu Y2 = j 0.826 pu
(b)
V2
1: t
(a )
Fig. 6-18 Transformer of Example 6-3.
99
CHAPTER 7
HIGH VOLTAGE DC (HVDC) TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS
100
Symbols and Capabilities of Power Semiconductor Devices

Power (VA)
Thyristor
108 106 104 102
IGCT IGBT
Thyristor
IGCT (a)
IGBT
MOSFET
MOSFET
101 102 103 104 Switching Frequency (Hz)

(b)
Fig. 7-1 Power semiconductor devices.
101
Power Semiconductor Devices and Applications

Device current [A] 104 Traction 103 102 101 100 101 102 103 104 Device blocking voltage [V] Power Supply Automotive Lighting Motor Drive HVDC FACTS
(a )
( b)
Figure 7-2 Power semiconductor devices: (a) ratings (source: Siemens), (b) various applications (source: ABB).
102
HVDC System
HVDC Line AC1 AC2
Fig. 7-3 HVDC system one-line diagram.
103
HVDC Systems: VoltageLink and Current-Link

+
AC1
AC2
AC1
AC2
(a )
(b)
Fig. 7-4 HVDC systems: (a) Current-Link, and (b) Voltage-Link.
104
HVDC Projects in North America

2250MW 2000MW 312MW 370MW 500MW 200MW 200MW 3100MW 100MW 200MW 1920MW 210MW 200MW 600MW 1000MW 330MW 150MW 1620MW 2138MW 200MW 1000MW 690MW 2000MW 320MW 350MW
200MW 200MW
36MW
Fig. 7-5 HVDC projects, mostly current-link systems, in North America [source: ABB]
Current-Link HVDC System
Fig. 7-6 Block diagram of a current-link HVDC system.

Thyristors
A A
(a) G (b)
P
N G
pn1 pn2 pn3
P
N
K K
Fig. 7-7 Thyristors.
107
Primitive Thyristor Circuits

is + (a ) vs + vd Ls R
vd 0 ( b)
Vd
0
iG 0
is
vs
t t
t = 0
Fig. 7-8 Thyristor circuit with a resistive load and a series inductance.
Three-Phase Thyristor Converter

id
+
van + n
ia Ls
van +
ia
1
3 5
P
+ 4 6
vbn vcn
+ + 4 6
vd
+
Id
N
vd
(a)
(b)
Fig. 7-9 Three-phase Full-Bridge thyristor converter.
109
Three-Phase Diode Rectifier Waveforms

va
0
vb vP
vc
ia
120 o
60 o
ib vN (a) vd
2VLL 0
ic Vdo
0
t
(b) (c)
Fig. 7-10 Waveforms in a three-phase rectifier with Ls = 0 and = 0 .
110
Three-Phase Thyristor Converter Waveforms with zero AC-Side Inductance

van A 0 v Pn vbn vcn
v Nn ia 0 4 1 4 3 6 ic 5 2 5 6 1
ib 0
Fig. 7-11 Waveforms with Ls = 0 .
111
Three-Phase Inverter Waveforms

v Nn van vbn vcn 0
vPn ia 1 4 ib 0 6 ic 4 1
5 2 2
Fig. Copyright Ned Mohan 2006
7-12 Waveforms in the inverter mode.
112
DC-Side Voltage as a Function of Delay Angle

Vd
1800 0 90
0
Vd
Rectifier P = Vd I d = + Id Inverter P = Vd I d =
160
(a )
( b)
Fig. 7-13 Average dc-side voltage as a function of .
113
Thyristor Converter Waveforms in the Presence of AC-Side Inductance

van Au 0 v Pn vbn vcn
u ia 0 4 1 4 v Nn 1
Fig. 7-14 Waveforms with Ls .

Power Factor Angle in Rectifier and Inverter Modes

Va 1 Va
I a1 I a1
(a ) (b)
Fig. 7-15 Power-factor angle.
115
CU One-line Diagram
116
12-Pulse Waveforms
ia (Y Y ) ia (Y )
(a )
( b)
Fig. 7-17 Six-pulse and 12-pulse current and voltage waveforms [2].
117
HVDC System Representation for Control

id
+ Rd Ld
AC 1
vd 1
vd 2
+
AC 2
Fig. 7-18 A pole of an HVDC system.
118
Control of HVDC Converters

Vd 1
Inverter characteristic with = min
Rectifier characteristic in a current-control mode
0
I d , ref
Id
Fig. 7-19 Control of an HVDC system [3].
119
A Voltage-Link HVDC System in Northeastern U.S.
Copyright Ned 2006 Fig.Mohan 7-20 Voltage-link
HVDC transmission system [source: ABB].
120
Voltage-Link HVDC System Block Diagram

+
AC1
P 1 , Q1
P2 , Q2
AC2
Fig. 7-21 Block diagram of voltage-link HVDC system.
121
Phasor Diagram on the AcSide of the Voltage-Link Converter

IL IL Vconv
+ Vd
iL
vconv
L (a )
vbus
+
Vconv
+ jX L I L
+ Vbus
IL (c)
jX L I L
Vbus
( b)
Fig. 7-22 Block diagram of a voltage-link converter and the phasor diagram.
122
Representation of VoltageLink Converter with Ideal Transformers

+ Vd
1: d a 1: d b (a ) 1: d c
a b c
ida ia
Vd
+
vaN
1: d a
( b)
Fig. 7-23 Synthesis of sinusoidal voltages.
123
Synthesis of Average Sinusoidal Voltages

da 1 0.5 0 vaN Vd 0.5Vd d a
V a
t 0 Fig. 7-24 Sinusoidal variation of turns-ratio d a .

Converter Output Voltages and Voltages across the Load

a b
Vd va ac-side 0.5Vd
vaN
vbN
vcN
c va
Vd 2
vb
Vd 2 N (a )
vc Vd 2
0
(a )
Fig. 7-25 Three-phase synthesis.
125
Switching Power-Pole of Voltage-Link Converters

Buck Boost
+ + Vd ida a + vaN N
ia + vaN
qa
ia
Vd
qa
qa
(b)
(a)
Fig. 7-26 Realization of the ideal transformer functionality.
126
Switching in Sinusoidal Average Voltage Waveform

vaN 0 vaN 0 0 Ts (a ) Vh vaN vaN Vd
f1
fs
2 fs
3 fs
( b)
Fig. 7-27 PWM to synthesize sinusoidal waveform.

CHAPTER 8
Distribution System, Loads and Power Quality
128
Residential Distribution System

120V
House1
13.8 kV
120V
House2
Transformer
120V
House 3
Fig. 8-1 Residential distribution system.
129
Daily Load and LoadDuration Curves

peak kW
Load (MW)
12
6 AM
12 NOON Time
6 PM
12
percentage of the time
100%
(a)
(b)
Fig. 8-2 System load.
130
Utility Load Distribution

Lighting 19%
29% Industrial 35% Commercial 36% Residential
IT 14% HVAC 16% Motors 51%

( b)
(a )
Fig. 8-3 Utility loads.
131
Power Factor and Voltage Sensitivity of Power Systems Load

Table 8-1 Power Factor and Voltage Sensitivity of Power Systems Load Type of Load Electric Heating Incandescent Lighting Fluorescent Lighting Motor Loads Modern PowerElectronics based Loads Power Factor 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.9 1.0
a = P / V
2.0 1.5 1.0 0.05 0.5 0
b = Q / V 0 0 1.0 1.0 3.0 0
132
Voltage-Link System used in Power Electronics Based Loads

+
Vd Utility Load
Fig. 8-4 Voltage-link-system for modern and future power-electronics based loads.
133
Induction Motor Per-Phase Diagram

Rs
+
Ia
I ra '
+
j Lls
j Llr ' I ma
j Lm
Va (at )
Ema

Rr '
syn slip
Fig. 8-5 Per-phase, steady state equivalent circuit of a three-phase induction motor.
134
Torque-Speed Characteristics
Tem
f5
f4
f3
f2
f1
Load Torque
slip syn
3
slip syn
1
Fig. 8-6 Torque-speed characteristic of induction motor at various applied frequencies.
135
Switch-Mode DC Power Supplies

input rectifier 60Hz ac + Vin topology to convert dc to dc with isolation dc to HF ac Output Vo
HF transformer
Feedback controller
Vo*
Fig. 8-7 Switch-mode dc power supply.
136
Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS)

Rectifier Energy Storage Inverter Filter Critical Load
Fig. 8-8 Uninterruptible power supply.
137
Static Power-Transfer Switch

Feeder 1 Load Feeder 2
Fig. 8-9 Alternate feeder.
138
CBEMA Curve Showing Acceptable Voltage-Time Region
Fig. 8-10 CBEMA curve.

Dynamic Voltage Restorers (DVR)
+
vs
Power Electronic Interface
vinj
Load
Fig. 8-11 Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR).
140
Voltage Regulating Transformers
Fig. 8-12 Three-Phase Voltage Regulator (Courtesy of Siemens) [5].
141
STATCOM
jX Utility
STATCOM
Fig. 8-13 STATCOM [4].
142
Linear Load
is
+
Vs
vs
(b) (a) Is
Figure 8-14 Voltage and current phasors in simple R-L circuit.
143
Waveforms Associated with Power ElectronicsBased Load

vs
is
is1
idistortion (= is is1 )
1 /
T1
0
( b)
(a ) Figure 8-15 Current drawn by power electronics equipment without PFC.
144
Example of Distorted Current

is
(a)
I t
T1 is1
(b) 0 4I /
idistortion
I
(c) 0
t I
Figure 8-16 Example 8-1. Figure 5-4 Example 5-1.
145
Influence of Distortion on Power Factor

1
0.9 0.8
PF DPF 0.6
0.5 0.4 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
0.7
%THD
Fig. 8-17 Relation between PF/DPF and THD.
146
IEEE Harmonic Limits

5-1 Harmonic current distortion (Ih/I TableTable 8-1 Harmonic current distortion (1 I)h / I1 )
Odd Harmonic Order h (in %)
I sc / I1
h < 11 4.0 7.0 10.0 12.0 15.0
11 h < 17 2.0 3.5 4.5 5.5 7.0
17 h < 23 15 . 2.5 4.0 5.0 6.0
23 h < 35 0.6 10 . 15 . 2.0 2.5
35 h 0.3 0.5 0.7 10 . 14 .
Total Harmonic Distortion(%) 5.0 8.0 12.0 15.0 20.0
< 20 20 50 50 100 100 1000 > 1000
147
Short-Circuit Current
Zs
+ +
Zs
I sc
Vs
Vs
(a)
(b)
Figure 8-18 (a) Utility (b) Short-Circuit Current. Figure 5-6 (a) UtilitySupply, supply; (b) short circuit current.
148
Retail Price of Electricity in the U.S.
Fig. 8-19 Average retail price of electricity to ultimate customers [4].

CHAPTER 9
SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS
150
Application of Synchronous Generators

Steam at High pressure
Heat in
Boiler Pump
Turbine
Gen
H
Water Penstock Generator Turbine
Condenser
(a )
Heat out
(b)
Fig. 9-1 Synchronous generators driven by (a) steam turbines, and (b) hydraulic turbines.
151
Cross-section of Synchronous Generators

Stator
Air gap
(a)
(b)
Fig. 9-2 Machine cross-section.
152
Synchronous Generator Structure

S
N
S N
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 9-3 Machine structure.
153
Sinusoidally-Distributed Windings
b axis
ib
2 / 3 2 / 3 2 / 3
3'
4'
5' 6' 7' 1
ia
a axis
2'
1'
7
ia
ic
c axis
ia
6 5
2
4
3
(a)
(b)
Fig. 9-4 Three phase windings on the stator.

Three-Phase Winding Connection in a Wye

b axis 120 o
b
ib
b'
a axis a 0 o a ' ia
ib
ia
ic
c
c'
ic c
(a) (b)
c axis 240 o
Fig. 9-5 Connection of three phase windings.

Synchronous Generator Rotor Field
syn
S
a-axis
Fig. 9-6 Field winding on the rotor that is supplied by a dc current I f .
156
Voltage induced in the Stator Phase due to Rotating Rotor Field

+
N a-axis
syn
S
ea
Fig. 9-7 Current direction and voltage polarities; the rotor position shown induces maximum ea .
Representation of Induced Stator Voltage due to Rotor Field

+
N a-axis
G B f (at t = 0)
syn
Im
syn
S
eaf
N
Re
a-axis
Eaf
(a )
S
( b) (c)
Fig. 9-8 Induced emf eaf due to rotating rotor field with the rotor.
158
Armature Reaction Due to Three Stator Currents

e b axis
j 2 3
ib
2 / 3
Im
2 / 3 2 / 3
ia
e j0 a axis 900 Ea , AR
Re
Ia
a-axis
ic
c axis
G B AR (at t = 0)
4 3
(a )
(b )
(c)
Fig. 9-9 Armature reaction due to phase currents.
159
Superposition of the two Induced Voltages and PerPhase Representation

Ea , AR + +
Ia
Im
Eaf Ea , AR
Ea Ia
Re
jX m I a
Eaf
jX m I a
X As
Rs
Ea (b )
Va
(a)
Fig. 9-10 Phasor diagram and per-phase equivalent circuit.
160
Power Out as a function of rotor Angle

P
Ia
steady state stability limit
+
Eaf = Eaf
jX T
+
V =V 0 o
generator mode 90 o
0
(a )
90 o
motoring mode steady state stability limit
(b)
Fig. 9-11 Power output and synchronism.
161
Steady State Stability Limit

Pe Pe2 Pe1
0 1 2
Pe,max Pm2 Pm1

90 o (a )
Pe
90 o (b)
Fig. 9-12 Steady state stability limit.
162
Reactive Power Control by Field Excitation

Eaf jX s I a Eaf jX s I a Eaf
90 o
jX s I a
Ia
Va
I aq
Ia
Va
I aq
Ia
Va
90 o
( b) (c)
(a )
Fig. 9-13 Excitation control to supply reactive power.
163
Synchronous Condenser
Synchronous Condenser
Fig. 9-14 Synchronous Condenser.
164
Automatic Voltage Regulation (AVR)

phase-controlled rectifier field winding
ac input slip rings
Generator
output
ac regulator
Fig. 9-15 Field exciter for automatic voltage regulation (AVR).
165
Armature Reaction Flux in Steady State Leading to Synchronous Reactance
Fig. 9-16 Armature reaction flux in steady state.
166
Simulation of a ShortCircuit Assuming a Constant-Flux Model
(a )
( b)
Fig. 9-17 Armature (a) and field current (b), after a sudden short circuit [source: 4].
167
Representation for Steady State, Transient Stability and Fault Analysis

Eaf
Ia
Im
' Eaf
'' Eaf
jX s I a
+
+ Eaf
jX s' I a
jX s'' I a
Ea
Re
' Eaf '' Eaf
jX s I a jX s' I a jX s'' I a
Ea
(a )
Ia
(b)
Fig. 9-18 Synchronous generator modeling for transient and sub-transient conditions.
168
CHAPTER 10
VOLTAGE REGULATION AND STABILITY IN POWER SYSTEMS
169
A Radial System
VS PS + jQS PR + jQR VR
PS + jQS
+
jX L
PR + jQR I +
VR
jX L
VS Load
(a) (b)
Fig. 10-1 A radial system.
170
Voltages and Current Phasors with Both-Side Voltages at 1 PU

VS
PS + jQS
jX L I
jX L +
+
VS
PR
QR
VR
/2
VR (a) (b) Fig. 10-2 Phasor diagram and the equivalent circuit with VS = VR = 1pu .
171
Voltage Profile for Three Values of SIL

+
VS + + VS (1pu)
PR < SIL PR > SIL

VR (1pu)
Vx x
(a)
VR
Vx
(b)
Fig. 10-3 Voltage profile along the transmission line.
172
Nose Curves at Three Power Factors as a function of Loading

VS jX L VR VR VS
1.4 1.2 1
PF = 1 PF = 0.9 (lagging) PF = 0.9 (leading)
0.8
0.6
(a )
PR + jQR
0.4
0.2
0 0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
( b)
PR / SIL
Fig. 10-4 Voltage collapse in a radial system (example of 345-kV line, 200 km long).
173
Synchronous Generator Reactive Power Supply Capability

Q B A 0
Fig. 10-5 Reactive power supply capability of synchronous generators.
174
Effect of Current Power Factor on Bus Voltage

I + + VTh
jX Th I jX Th
I VTh Vbus jX Th I Vbus Vbus jX Th I VTh
(a) (b)
I
Fig. 10-6 Effect of leading and lagging currents due to the shunt compensating device.
175
Static Var Compensators (SVC)

Vbus
Vbus
1 jC
IC
IC
(a )
0 ( b)
Fig. 10-7 V-I characteristic of SVC.
176
Thyristor Controlled Reactors (TCR)

Vbus vbus IL
900 > 900
Vbus iL iL
0 (a ) ( b) (c )
IL
Fig. 10-8 Thyristor-Controlled Reactor (TCR).
177
Voltage Control by SVC and TCR Combination

Vbus
Vbus
Linear Range
C A B
Vbus
V2 V1 V2 V1
1 jC
IC
IL
capacitive
(a )
inductive
( b)
capacitive
inductive
(c)
Fig. 10-9 Parallel combination of SVC and TCR.
178
STATCOM
I conv I conv + Vconv + Vd Vbus
+ +
jXI conv
+ Vconv
Vbus
jXI conv
(a )
( b)
Fig. 10-10 STATCOM.
179
STATCOM V-I Characteristic

Vbus
Linear Range
capacitive
inductive I
conv
Fig. 10-11 STATCOM VI characteristic.
180
Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC)
(a )
(b)
(c)
Fig. 10-12 Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitors (TCSC) [source: Siemens Corp.].
181
CHAPTER 11
TRANSIENT AND DYNAMIC STABILITY OF POWER SYSTEMS
182
One-Machine Infinite-Bus System

V1 XL VB = VB 0
' j( X d + X tr )
E Pm Pe XL
(a )
+ V1
jX L / 2
+ VB 0 ( b)
Fig. 11-1 Simple one-generator system connected to an infinite bus.
183
Power-Angle Characteristic in OneMachine Infinite-Bus System

Pe Pre-fault post-fault
Bus 1
XL
VB = VB 0
Pm during-fault 0
0 1
Pm
Pe
(b)
XL
(a )
Fig. 11-2 Power-angle characteristics.
184
Rotor-Angle Swing Following a Fault and a Line Taken Out

5 5 5 0 4 5 4 0 3 5 3 0 2 5 2 0
0 .2
0 .4
0 .6
0 .8
1 .2
1 .4
Fig. 11-3 Rotor-angle swing in Example 11-1.
185
Power-Angle Characteristics
Pe
Bus 1
XL
VB = VB 0
B Pe = Pm A
Pre-fault post-fault
Pm
Pe
(a )
XL
0
during fault
cA
(b)
max
Fig. 11-4 Fault on one of the transmission lines.
186
Rotor Oscillations After the Fault is Cleared

Pe Pre-fault Pe = Pm
D
post-fault
Fig. 11-5 Rotor oscillations after the fault is cleared.
187
Critical Clearing Angle using Equal-Area Criterion

Pe Pre-fault post-fault Pe = Pm B A
0 1
crit
max
Fig. 11-6 Critical clearing angle.
188
Example using Equal-Area Criterion

Pe ( pu ) 40
35 30 25 20
Pre-fault
Pe = Pm 15
10 5 0 0
B A
during fault
post-fault
0 = 22.470
20
40
60
80 0 cA = 75
100
1400 m 120 = 115.28
160
180
Fig. 11-7 Power angle curves and equal-area criterion in Example 11-2.
189
Transient Stability Calculations in Large Networks

Initial Power Flow Calculate Pe and E ' for each generator for k = 1,2,3.... Pm , k = Pe, k Pm , k and Ek' held constant Electro-dynamic differential Equations
k and k
Pe , k
Phasor Calculations using Ek' k (load may be assumed as a constant impedance)
Fig. 11-8 Block diagram of transient stability program for an n-generator case.
190
Example Power System for Transient Stability Analysis

Bus-1 Bus-3 Pm1 Pe1 Bus-2 Pe 2 Pm 2
Fig. 11-9 A 345-kV test example system.
191
Rotor Angle Swings in the Example Power System Following a Fault

8 0 0 7 0 0 6 0 0 5 0 0 4 0 0 3 0 0 2 0 0 1 0 0 0
1
0 0 .2 0 .4 0 .6
2
0 . 8 1 1 .2 1 .4 1 .6
Fig. 11-10 Rotor-angle swings of 1 and 2 in Example 11-3.
192
Importance of Dynamic Stability
Fig. 11-11 Growing Power Oscillations: Western USA/Canada system, Aug 10, 1996 [4].
193
CHAPTER 12
CONTROL OF INTERCONNECTED POWER SYSTEM AND ECONOMIC DISPATCH
194
Automatic Voltage Regulation (AVR)

phase-controlled rectifier field winding
ac input slip rings
Generator
output
ac regulator
Fig. 12-1 Field exciter for automatic voltage regulation (AVR).
195
Control Areas (Balancing Authorities)
(a )
( b)
Fig. 12-2 (a) The Interconnections in North America, (b) Control Areas [Source: 2]
196
Load-Frequency Control and Regulation

Frequency
Supplementary Control
1 R
Regulator Turbine Governor

Steam-Valve Position
f0
a f
b
slope = R
Turbine
Pm Pm
(a )
Pe
PLoad
(b)
Pm
Pm
Fig. 12-3 Load-Frequency Control (ignore the supplementary control at present).
197
Load Sharing
unit 2
f
G G1 unit1 1
unit 2
G2
Pm 2 unit 1
Pe 2
f0
a
c
e
G1
b d
G2
( Pm1 + Pm 2 ) G1
Pm 2
Pm1
Pm1
Pe1
(a )
PLoad
Pm1
(b)
Pm 2
Pm
Fig. 12-4 Response of two generators to load-frequency control.
198
Synchronizing Torque between Two Control Areas

Area 1
P 12 jX 12
P21
Area 2
Fig. 12-5 Two control areas.
199
Automatic Generation Control (AGC) and Area Control Error (ACE)

f (frequency deviation) 1 R B
+
+
Supplementary Controller k s
Governor
Change in Steam Valve Position
ACE (Area Control Error)
P (tie-line flow deviation)
Fig. 12-6 Area Control Error (ACE) for Automatic Generation Control (AGC).
200
Two Control Areas in the Example Power System

Bus-1 P 1 3
M
Bus-3
Pm1
Area 1 Pe1 P1 2
M
Area 2 Bus-2 Pe 2 Pm 2
Load
Fig. 12-7 Two control areas in the example power system with 3 buses.
201
Power Flow on Tie-Lines between Two Control Areas Following a Load Change
202
Electrical Equivalent of Two Areas

E11 +
jX 1
jX 12
jX 2
+ E2 2
Fig. 12-9 Electrical equivalent of two area interconnection.
203
Modeling of Two Control Areas with AGC

1/ syn B1 1 R1 1 K1 s Ts1s + 1 Regulator PLoad 1
+
+
ACE1
Ps1
1 TG1s + 1
Pv1
1 TS 1s + 1
+
Pm1
syn
M 1s + D1 Area 1
s1 1 s
Governor
Steam Turbine
P12 = T12 ( 1 2 )
T12
1 ( 1 2 ) 2
1 s
+
B2
ACE 2
K2 1 s Ts 2 s + 1 Regulator
Ps 2
1 R2
1 TG 2 s + 1 Governor
Pv 2
1 TS 2 s + 1 Steam Turbine
Pm 2
PLoad 2
syn
M 2 s + D2
Area 2
s 2
1/ syn
Fig. 12-10 Two-area system with AGC. Source: adapted from [6].
204
Results of Simulink Modeling Following a Step Load Change in Control Area 1

1.5 1
Pm1
0.5
Pm 2
-0.5
P 12
-1 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
Fig. 12-11 Simulink results of the two-area system with AGC in Example 12-3.
205
Economic Dispatch: Heat Rate of a Power Plant

Heat Rate 11.0 MBTU-per-Hour 10.0 MW 9.0 0 20 40 60 80 100 P [ MW ] At this point, to produce 40 MW Fuel Consumption = 400 MBTU-per-Hour
Fig. 12-12 Heat Rate at various generated power levels.
206
Cost Curve and Marginal Cost of a Power Plant

Ci ( Pi ) [$ / hour ] Ci ( Pi ) Pi [$ / MWh ] Pi 0 Ci 0
( b)
(a )
Pi [ MW ]
Pi [ MW ]
Fig. 12-13 (a) Fuel cost and (b) Marginal cost, as functions of the power output.
207
Load Sharing between Three Power Plants

C1 ( P ) P
C2 ( P ) P
C3 ( P ) P
P 1
P2
P3
Fig. 12-14 Marginal costs for the three generators.
208
CHAPTER 13
TRANSMISSION LINE FAULTS, RELAYING AND CIRCUIT BREAKERS
209
Fault (Symmetric or Unsymmetric) on a Balanced Network

a b c
f
a ia ib
ic
b c
Ia Ib
Ic
g ( b)
(a )
Fig. 13-1 Fault in power system.
210
Symmetrical Components
Ia
Ic I c1 I c0 I
b0
I a1
I b2
Ia2
Ia0
Ib
Ic2
I b1 Fig. 13-2 Sequence components.
211
Sequence Networks: PerPhase Representation of a Balanced Three-phase representation

Z1 + Ea1 + I a1 Va1 Z2 + Ia2 Va 2 Z0 + Ia0 Va 0
Fig. 13-3 Sequence networks.
212
Three-Phase Symmetrical Fault (ground may or may no be involved)

a b c Ia Ib
Ic g
(a )
Z1
I a1 + Va1 = 0
+
Ea 1
(b)
Fig. 13-4 Three-phase symmetrical fault.
213
Single-Line to Ground (SLF) Fault through a Fault Impedance

+
f
Z1
+
Va1 Ia2
I a1
Ea1
a b c
Ia
Z2
+
Va 2
3Z f
Zf g (a ) ( b) Z0
Ia0 + Va 0
Fig. 13-5 Single line to ground fault.
214
Double-Line to Ground Fault

a b c
g f I a1 Ia2 Ia0
+
Ic Ib (a ) Ea1
Z1
+ Va1
Z2
+ Va 2
Z0
+ Va 0
( b)
Fig. 13-6 Double line to ground fault.
215
Double-Line Fault (ground not involved)

f
+ Z f I a1
I a1 Ib Ic Ia2
a b c
g
+
Ea1
Z1
+ Va1
(b)
Z2
+ Va 2
(a )
Fig. 13-7 Double line fault (ground not involved).
216
Path for Zero-Sequence Currents

(a) ( b) (c)
Fig. 13-8 Path for zero-sequence currents in transformers.
217
Neutral Grounded through an Neutral Impedance)

Ia0
Z0
Zn (a ) 3Z n ( b)
+
Va 0
Fig. 13-9 Neutral grounded through an impedance.
218
One-Line Diagram of a Simple System)

V1 = 1.00 pu Bus-2 V3 = 0.98 11.790 pu X Line1 = 0.10 pu 1 = 0.12 pu X gen X gen 2 = 0.12 pu X gen 0 = 0.06 pu Bus-1 X tr1 = 0.10 pu X tr 2 = 0.10 pu X tr 0 = 0.10 pu X Line 2 = 0.10 pu X Line 0 = 0.20 pu Bus-3 PLoad = 1 pu QLoad = 0
Fig. 13-10 (a) One-line diagram of a simple power system and bus voltages.
219
Thee-phase Fault on Bus-2 in the Simple System

j 0.12 pu + E
+ V1 = 1.00 pu
j 0.10 pu I fault
j 0.10 pu
I Load RLoad = 0.9604 pu
Fig. 13-11 Positive-sequence circuit for calculating a 3-phase fault on bus-2.
220
Single-Line to Ground (SLG) Fault in the Simple System

I a / 3 ( = I fault / 3) I a1 + E
+ Va1
j 0.12 pu
+ j 0.10 pu +
V1 = 1.00 pu
j 0.10 pu RLoad = 0.9604 pu
Ia2 j 0.12 pu j 0.10 pu + Va 2
j 0.10 pu RLoad = 0.9604 pu Va = 0
Ia0 j 0.06 pu j 0.10 pu + Va 0
j 0.20 pu RLoad = 0.9604 pu
Fig. 13-12 Sequence networks for calculating fault current due to SLG fault on bus-2.
An SLG Fault in the Example 3-Bus System

Bus-1 Bus-3 Pm1 Pe1 Bus-2
Pe 2 Pm 2
Fig. 13-13 A SLG fault in the example 3-bus power system.
222
Protection in Power System

CT CB
PT R
Fig. 13-14 Protection equipment.
223
Current Transformers (CT)

CT
Burden
(b) (a)
Fig. 13-15 Current Transformer (CT) [5].
224
Capacitor-Coupled Voltage Transformers (CCVT)
(a)
(b)
Fig. 13-16 Capacitor-Coupled Voltage Transformer (CCVT) [5].
225
Differential Relays
CT CT CT
Relay
Fig. 13-17 Differential relay.
226
Directional Over-Current Relays

CT CB
PT R
Fig. 13-18 Directional over-current Relay.
227
Ground Directional OverCurrent Relays for Ground Faults

Time instantaneous
Fig. 13-19 Ground directional over-current Relay.
228
Impedance (Distance) Relays

X
Fig. 13-20 Impedance (distance) relay.
229
Microwave Terminal for Pilot Relays
Fig. 13-21 Microwave terminal [5].
230
Zones of Protection
Zone 3: 1-1.5 sec Time Zone 2: 20-25 cycles Zone 1: instantaneous
Fig. 13-22 Zones of protection.
231
Protection of Generator and its Step-up Transformer

Transformer CT Gen F1 CT F2 CT
Relay
Relay
Relay
Fig. 13-23 Protection of generator and the step-up transformer.
232
Relaying in the 3-Bus Example Power System

Zone 2 Zone1 A B Zone 2 P + jQ
Fig. 13-24 Relying in the example 3-bus power system.
233
Circuit Breakers
Fig. 13-25 SF6 circuit breaker [5].
234
Illustration of Current Offset in R-L Circuits

2
R + vs ( t ) + v (t ) (a ) i (t )
1 .5
asymmetric symmetric
offset
0 .5 0 0 - 0 .5
-1
0 .05
0.1
0 .15
0 .2
(b)
Fig. 13-26 Current in an RL circuit.
235
CHAPTER 14
TRANSIENT OVER-VOLTAGES, SURGE PROTECTION AND INSULATION COORDINATION
236
Lightning Current Impulse

i I peak 0.5I peak
t1
t2
t[ s ]
Fig. 14-1 Lightening current impulse.
237
Lightening Strike to Shield Wire and Backflash
(a )
(b)
Fig. 14-2 Lightening strike to the shield wire.
238
Switching Surges
va vb L L
500 kV Line 100 miles
A B (open) C
vc
L (a ) ( b)
Fig. 14-3 Over-voltages due to switching of transmission lines.
239
Frequency Dependence of Transmission Line Parameters
Fig. 14-4 Frequency dependence of the transmission line parameters [Source: 2].
240
Calculation of Switching Over-Voltages on Line 1-3 in the Example 3-Bus Power System
Bus-1 Bus-3
Fig. 14-5 Calculation of switching over-voltages on a transmission line.
241
Standard Voltage Impulse to Define Basic Insulation Level (BIL)

i V pea k 0.5 V pe ak
0 1 .2 s
40 s
Fig. 14-6 Standard Voltage Impulse Wave to define BIL.
242
Transformer Insulation Protected by a ZnO Arrester

1500 1300 Line-to-ground (Peak kV) 1100 900 700 1 10 100 time in s 1000 10000 chopped wave Transformer Insulation Withstand Capability Curve BIL 1175kV BSL Arrester Voltage, subjected to a 8 20 s Lightning Current Impulse with a peak of 20 kA
Fig. 14-7 A 345-kV transformer voltage insulation levels.
243

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First Course on

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A 345-kV Example System

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TOPICS IN POWER SYSTEMS

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Chapter 1 POWER SYSTEMS: A CHANGING LANDSCAPE

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NATURE OF POWER SYSTEMS

Fig. 1-1 Interconnected North American Power Grid [2].

Fig. 1-2 NERC Interconnections [3]. Source: NERC.

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Fig. 1-3 One-line diagram as an example.

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CHANGING LANDSCAPE OF POWER SYSTEMS AND UTILITY DEREGULATION

Fig. 1-4 Changing landscape [4]. Source: ABB.

REVIEW OF BASIC ELECTRIC CIRCUITS AND ELECTROMAGNETIC CONCEPTS

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Symbols and Conventions

Fig. 2-1 Convention for voltages and currents.

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Fig. 2-2 Phasor diagram.

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Example of Impedance Calculation

Fig. 2-4 Impedance network of Example 2-1.

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Example of Impedance Calculation

Fig. 2-5 Circuit of Example 2-2.

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Figure 2-6 A generic circuit divided into two sub-circuits.

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Real and Reactive Power

Figure 2-7 Instantaneous power with sinusoidal currents and voltages.

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Example of Power Factor Correction

Fig. 2-9 Power factor correction in Example 2-5.

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Fig. 2-10 One-line diagram of a three-phase transmission and distribution system.

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Fig. 2-11 Three-phase voltages in time and phasor domain.

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Balanced Three-Phase Circuit Analysis

Fig. 2-12 Balanced wye-connected, three-phase circuit.

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Balanced Mutual Coupling

Fig. 2-14 Balanced three-phase network with mutual couplings.

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Fig. 2-15 Line-to-line voltages in a three-phase circuit.

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Fig. 2-16 Delta-wye transformation.

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Power Flow in AC Systems

Fig. 2-17 Power transfer between two ac systems.

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Per Unit Quantities

P base ,Q base , (VA) base =V base Ibase

(in Watt, VAR, or VA)

Energy Efficiency of Apparatus

Power System Apparatus

Fig. 2-19 Energy Efficiency = Po / Pin .

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