Learning

Unit9

Unit4
Structure

Learning

4.1 Introduction Objectives 4.2 Theoriesoflearning SelfAssessmentQuestions1 4.3 Shapingbehavior SelfAssessmentQuestions2 4.4 Behaviormodification SelfAssessmentQuestions3 4.5 Specificorganizationalapplication 4.6 Summary TerminalQuestions AnswertoSAQsandTQs 4.1 Introduction Learningreferstoaprocessthatenhancestheknowledge,skillandattitude(KSA)ofindividuals,to increase his/her willingness to adopt those newly acquired KSA and to implement them at the workplace. Such learning should be sustainable and comparatively stable for people and for the institutions that serves people. Learning definitely includes academic studies and occupational trainingthroughhighschoolandbeyond.Butitalsoencompassesthephysical,cognitive,emotional andsocialdevelopmentofchildrenintheearliestyearsoftheirlives. Learningcanbedefinedasanyrelativelypermanentchangeinbehaviorthatoccursasaresultof experience(Robbins,2003). Followingarethecharacteristicsoflearning:

1. First,learninginvolveschange. 2. Second,thechangemustberelativelypermanent. 3. Third,learningisconcernedwithbehavior.

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4. Finally,someformofexperienceisnecessaryforlearning
Learningobjectives Thelearningobjectivesofthisunitareasfollows: 1. Theoriesoflearning 2. Behaviormodification 4.2 TheoriesofLearning

Therearethreetheoriesoflearningnamelyclassicalconditioning,operantconditioning,andsocial learning 1.Classicalconditioning: ClassicalConditioningisaformofassociativelearningprocessproposedby Pavlov(1927).This processinvolvespresentationsofaneutralstimulusalongwithastimulusofsomesignificance.The neutralstimulusdoesnotleadtoanovertbehavioralresponsefromtheorganism.Thisiscalledas ConditionedStimulus(CS).Significantstimulusevokesaninnate,oftenreflexive,response.Thisis calledUnconditionedStimulus(US)andUnconditionedResponse(UR),respectively.IftheCSand theUSarerepeatedlypaired,eventuallythetwostimulibecomeassociatedandtheorganismbegins to produce a behavioral response to it. It is the Conditioned Response (CR).Classical conditioning wasfirstexperimentedbyRussianphysiologist,IvanPavlov,toteachdogstosalivateinresponseto theringingofabell.Duringhisresearchonthephysiologyofdigestionindogs,Pavlovusedabell beforegivingfoodtohisdog.Ratherthansimplysalivatinginthepresenceofmeat(aresponseto foodunconditionedresponse),afterafewrepetitions,thedogstartedtosalivateinresponseto the bell. Thus, a neutral stimulus (bell) became a conditioned stimulus (CS) as a result of consistent pairing with the unconditioned stimulus (US meat). Pavlov referred to this learned relationshipasaConditionedResponse. 2.OperantConditioning: TheoperantconditioningtheoryisproposedbyB.F.Skinner(1953,1954).Thisisbasedontheidea that learning is a function of change in overt behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of an individual's response to stimuli. When a particular StimulusResponse (SR) pattern is reinforced

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(rewarded),theindividualisconditionedtorespond.ReinforcementisthekeyelementinSkinner'sS Rtheory.Areinforcerisanythingthatstrengthensthedesiredresponse. Principlesofoperantconditioningareasfollows: 1.Behaviorislearned. 2.Behaviorthatispositivelyreinforcedwillreoccur. 3.Informationshouldbepresentedinsmallamountssothatresponsescanbereinforced("shaping") 4. Reinforcements will generalize across similar stimuli ("stimulus generalization") producing secondaryconditioning. 5.Rewardsaremosteffectiveiftheyimmediatelyfollowthedesiredresponse. For example, if a subordinate is praised by his boss for looking good in a certain attire, the subordinateislikelytowearthatattireandpresenthimselfinfrontofboss,especiallywhenheneeds topleasetheboss. 3.SocialLearning ThesociallearningtheorywasproposedbyBandura.Itrecognizestheimportanceofobservingand modelingthebehaviors,attitudes,andemotionalreactionsofothers.AccordingtoBandura(1977), mosthumanbehaviorislearnedobservationallythroughmodeling:fromobservingothersoneforms anideaofhownewbehaviorsareperformed,andonlateroccasionsthiscodedinformationserves as a guide for action. Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocalinteractionbetweencognitive,behavioral,andenvironmentalinfluences. Sociallearninghasfourprocesses:

1. AttentionalprocessesPeoplelearnfromamodelonlywhentheyrecognizeandpayattention
toitscriticalfeatures.

2. Retention processes A models influence will dependonhow well the individual remembers
themodelsactionaftertheitisnolongerreadilyavailable.

3. Motor reproduction processes After a person has seen a new behavior by observing the
model,thewatchingmustbeconvertedtodoing.

4. Reinforcement processes Individuals will be motivated to exhibit the modeled behavior if

positiveincentivesorrewardsareprovided.

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Principlesofsociallearningareasfollows:

1. The highest level of observational learning is achieved by first organizing and rehearsing the
modeledbehaviorsymbolicallyandthenenactingitovertly.Codingmodeledbehaviorintowords, labelsorimagesresultsinbetterretentionthansimplyobserving.

2. Individualsaremorelikelytoadoptamodeledbehavior,ifitresultsinoutcomestheyvalue. 3. Individuals are more likely to adopta modeled behavior, if the model is similar to theobserver
andhasadmiredstatusandthebehaviorhasfunctionalvalue SelfAssessmentQuestions1 1.ClassicalConditioningisaformofassociativelearningprocessproposedby _________. 2.Theoperantconditioningtheoryisbasedontheideathatlearningisafunctionofchangein ___________behavior 3.Sociallearninghas__________processes 4.3:Shapingbehavior When a systematic attempt is made to change individuals behaviour by directing their learning in graduatedsteps,itiscalledshapingbehavior. TherearefourmethodsofShapingBehavior.Theyareasfollows: PositivereinforcementThisistheprocessofgettingsomethingpleasantasaconsequenceofa desired behavior, to strengthen the same behavior. For example, one get a commission, if he/she achievessalestarget NegativereinforcementThisistheprocessofhavingarewardtakenawayasaconsequenceofa undesiredbehavior.Forexample,scholarshipiswithdrawnfromthestudentwhohasnotdonewell ontheexamination Punishmentiscausinganunpleasantconditioninanattempttoeliminateanundesirablebehavior. Thisistheprocessofgettingapunishmentasaconsequenceofabehavior.Example:havingyour paydockedforlateness Extinctioneliminating any reinforcement that is maintaining a behavior. So, if a person puts in extraeffort,butgetsnorecognitionforit,hewillstopdoingit

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Bothpositiveandnegativereinforcementresultinlearning.Theystrengthenaresponseandincrease theprobabilityofrepetition.Bothpunishmentandextinctionweakenbehaviorandtendtodecrease itssubsequentfrequency Schedulesofreinforcement

Thetwomajortypesofreinforcementschedulesare:1)continuousand2)intermittent. 1.AContinuousreinforcementschedulereinforcesthedesiredbehavioreachandeverytimeitis demonstrated. It is thetraditional reinforcementschedule and is called a continuous reinforcement schedule.Eachtimethecorrectbehaviorisperformeditgetsreinforced. 2. An Intermittent reinforcement schedule are fixed and variable categories. In an intermittent schedule,noteveryinstanceofthedesirablebehaviorisreinforced,butreinforcementisgivenoften enough to make the behavior worth repeating. The intermittent, or varied, form of reinforcement tendstopromotemoreresistancetoextinctionthandoesthecontinuousform. Intermittenttechniquesbeplacedintofollowingcategories:

Fixedinterval reinforcement schedulerewards are spaced at uniform time intervals the critical variableistime,anditisheldconstant. Variableinterval reinforcementsrewards are distributed in time so that reinforcements are unpredictable. In a fixedratio schedule, after a fixed or constant number of responses are given, a reward is initiated. Whentherewardvariesrelativetothebehavioroftheindividual,heorsheissaidtobereinforcedon avariableratioschedule Forexample,honestypayisfixedintervalreinforcement,andpiecerateisfixedratioreinforcement scheme.

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Ingeneral,variableschedulestendtoleadtohigherperformancethanfixedschedules.Continuous reinforcementschedulesmayleadtoearlysatisfactionandbehaviormayweakenwhenreinforcers are withdrawn. Continuous reinforcers, thus, are appropriate for newly desired, unstable, or low frequencyresponses.Intermittentreinforcersdonotfolloweveryresponseandthus,theyalsomay lead to early satisfaction. They are appropriate for stable or highfrequency responses. Variable intervalschedulesgeneratehighratesofresponseandmorestableandconsistentbehaviorbecause ofahighcorrelationbetweenperformanceandreward. SelfAssessmentQuestions2 1.__________________iscausinganunpleasantconditioninanattempttoeliminateanundesirable behavior 2._________________iseliminatinganyreinforcementthatismaintainingabehavior 3.Ingeneral,variableschedulestendtoleadto__________performancethanfixedschedules. 4.4 Behaviormodification

ThetypicalOBModificationprogramfollowsafivestepproblemsolvingmodel:

1. Identifyingcriticalbehaviors 2. Developingbaselinedata 3. Identifyingbehaviorconsequences 4. Developingandimplementinganinterventionstrategy 5. Evaluatingperformanceimprovement

1. Criticalbehaviorsmakeasignificantimpactontheemployeesjobperformance 2. Developing baseline data determines the number of times the identified behavior is occurring underpresentconditions. 3. Identifying behavioral consequences tells the manager the antecedent cues that emit the behaviorandtheconsequencesthatarecurrentlymaintainingit. 4. Developingandimplementinganinterventionstrategywillentailchangingsomeelementsofthe performancerewardlinkagestructure,processes,technology,groups,orthetaskwiththegoal ofmakinghighlevelperformancemorerewarding.
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5. Evaluatingperformanceimprovementisimportanttodemonstratethatachangetookplaceasa resultoftheinterventionstrategy. 6. OBModificationhasbeenusedbyanumberoforganizationstoimproveemployeeproductivity and to reduce errors, absenteeism, tardiness, accident rates, and improve friendliness toward customers. SelfAssessmentQuestions3 1.ThetypicalOBModificationprogramfollowsa_________stepproblemsolvingmodel 2. OB Modification has been used by a number of organizations to improve employee ____________. 4.5 Specificorganizationalapplication 1. Usinglotteriestoreduceabsenteeism For example, Continental Airlines has created a lottery that rewards its 40,000 employees for attendance.Twiceayear,Continentalholdsaraffleandgivesawayeightnewsportutilityvehicles. Onlyemployeeswhohavenotmissedadayofworkduringtheprevioussixmonthsareeligible.This lottery system thus, follows a variableratio schedule where management credits the lottery with significantlyreducingthecompanysabsencerate(Robbins,2003). 2. Wellpayvs.sickpay Organizations with paid sick leave programs experience almost twice the absenteeism of organizationswithoutsuchprograms.OneoftheMidwestorganizationsinUSAimplementedawell payprogram.Itpaidabonustoemployeeswhohadnoabsenceforanygivenfourweekperiodand thenpaidforsickleaveonlyafterthefirsteighthoursofabsence.Thewellpayprogramproduced increased savings to the organization, reduced absenteeism, increased productivity, and improved employee satisfaction. Forbes magazine used the same approach to cut its health care costs. It rewarded employees who stayed healthy and did not file medical claims by paying them the differencebetween$500andtheirmedicalclaims,thendoublingtheamount. Bydoingthis,Forbes cutitsmajormedicalanddentalclaimsbyover30percent(Robbins,2003).

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3. Employeediscipline

a.Everymanagerwill,atsometime,havetodealwithproblembehaviorsinhis/herorganization.

a. Managers will respond with disciplinary actions such asoral reprimands, written warnings, and
temporarysuspensions.However,theuseofdisciplinecarriescosts.Itmayprovideonlyashort termsolutionandresultinserioussideeffects.

b. Disciplining employees for undesirable behaviors gives them a message to what not to do.
However,itdoesnottellthemwhatalternativebehaviorsarepreferred.

c. Disciplinedoeshaveaplaceinorganizations. d. Inpractice,ittendstobewidelyusedbecauseofitsabilitytoproducefastresultsintheshortrun. e. Developingtrainingprograms f. Mostorganizationshavesomekindofsystematictrainingprogram. g. Inonerecentyear,U.S.corporationswith100ormoreemployeesspentinexcessof$58billion

onformaltrainingfor47.3millionworkers(Robbins,2003). 4. Sociallearningtheorysuggeststhattrainingshould a.Offeramodeltograbthetraineesattention. b.Providemotivationalproperties c.Helpthetraineetofileawaywhatheorshehaslearnedforlateruseandprovideopportunitiesto practicenewbehaviors. d.Offerpositiverewardsforaccomplishments. e. If the training has taken place off the job, allow the trainee some opportunity to transfer what he/shelearnedtothejob. 5.Selfmanagement

1. Organizationalapplicationsoflearningconceptscanalsobeusedtoallowindividualstomanage
theirownbehavior.

2. Selfmanagement requires an individual to deliberately manipulate stimuli, internal processes,

andresponsestoachievepersonalbehavioraloutcomes.

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Thebasicprocessesinvolveobservingonesownbehavior,comparingthebehaviorwithastandard, andrewardingoneselfifthebehaviormeetsthestandard. SelfAssessmentQuestions4 1.ContinentalAirlineslotterysystemfollowsa_______schedule. 2.Forbesmagazineusedthe__________tocutitshealthcarecosts. 4.6 Summary Learningreferstoaprocessthatenhancestheknowledge,skillandattitude(KSA)ofindividuals,to increase his/her willingness to adopt those newly acquired KSA and to implement them at the workplace. Characteristics of learning are: learning involves change change must be relatively permanent learning is concerned with behavior and some form of experience is necessary for learning. There are three theoriesof learningnamely classical conditioning, operantconditioning, and social learning. Classical Conditioning is a form of associative learning process proposed by Pavlov. This process involves presentations of a neutral stimulus along with a stimulus of some significance.Theneutralstimulusdoesnotleadtoanovertbehavioralresponsefromtheorganism. This is called as Conditioned Stimulus (CS). Significant stimulusevokes an innate, often reflexive, response. This is called Unconditioned Stimulus (US) and Unconditioned Response (UR), respectively. If the CS and the US are repeatedly paired, eventually the two stimuli become associated and the organism begins to produce a behavioral response to it. It is the Conditioned Response(CR).TheoperantconditioningtheoryisproposedbyB.F.Skinner.Thisisbasedonthe ideathatlearningisafunctionofchangeinovertbehavior.Changesinbehavioraretheresultofan individual's response to stimuli. When a particular StimulusResponse (SR) pattern is reinforced (rewarded),theindividualisconditionedtorespond.ReinforcementisthekeyelementinSkinner'sS Rtheory.Areinforcerisanythingthatstrengthensthedesiredresponse.Thesociallearningtheory wasproposedbyBandura.Itrecognizestheimportanceofobservingandmodelingthebehaviors, attitudes,andemotionalreactionsofothers.AccordingtoBandura(1977),mosthumanbehavioris learned observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviorsareperformed,andonlateroccasionsthiscodedinformationservesasaguideforaction. Sociallearningtheoryexplainshumanbehaviorintermsofcontinuousreciprocalinteractionbetween cognitive,behavioral,andenvironmentalinfluences. Whenasystematicattemptismadetochange

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individuals behavior by directing their learning in graduated steps, it is called shaping behavior. There are four methods of Shaping Behavior. They are: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, and extinction. Both positive and negative reinforcement result in learning.Theystrengthenaresponseandincreasetheprobabilityofrepetition.Bothpunishmentand extinction weaken behavior and tend to decrease its subsequent frequency. The typical OB Mod programfollowsafivestepproblemsolvingmodel:Identifyingcriticalbehaviors,Developingbaseline data,Identifyingbehaviorconsequences,Developingandimplementinganinterventionstrategy,and Evaluatingperformanceimprovement. TerminalQuestions 1. Explaintheclassicalconditioningtheoryandsociallearningtheory. 2. Describethefourmethodsofshapingbehavior. 3. Brieflyexplainthedifferenttypesofreinforcementschedules. 4. ExplainthefivestepproblemsolvingmodeloftypicalOBmodification. AnswerstoSelfAssessingQuestions SelfAssessingQuestions1 1. Pavlov 2. Overt 3. Four SelfAssessingQuestions2 1. Punishment 2. Extinction 3. Higher SelfAssessingQuestions3 1. Five 2. Productivity

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SelfAssessingQuestions4 1. Variableratio 2. wellpay AnswerstoTerminalQuestions 1. Refersection4.2 2. Refersection4.3 3. Refersection4.3 4. Refersection4.4

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