Coastal System and Processes Waves Waves are generated by the wind.

nd. As wind blows over the surface of the ocean, wind energy is transferred from the wind to the water. This causes the surface water to rise and fall, resulting in water movement called waves.

Wave Energy Wave energy is the energy produced by the movement of waves. The three main factors which determine the size and energy of waves are wind energy, duration of wind and fetch. Duration of wind refers to the length of time which the wind blows continuously While fetch refers to the distance of the sea over which wind blows to generate waves. The faster the wind speed, the greater the wave energy. The longer the wind blows, the larger the waves. The greater the fetch, the more energy the waves have.

Wave movement Waves move in a series of circular loop-like motions. As they move through deep water, little energy is lost. When they approach the shore, changes take place. As the water becomes shallower, the friction of the waves against the surface of the sea floor slows down the wave movement. This frictional force causes the waves to rise and bend forward. As they continue to move forward, they collapse into foaming water. The forward movement of waves up the shore is called swash. The flow back to the sea (due to gravity) is called backwash. The swash carries materials up the shore while the backwash carries the materials back towards the sea.

Constructive waves Constructive waves are waves that occur in calm weather on gently-sloping coasts. These waves break gently with little energy. They have a strong swash but a weak backwash. The gentle gradient allows the waves to surge a greater distance up the coast and carry sediment up the beach. More materials are therefore brought up and deposited on the coast then are removed. Over time, the coast is built up by the deposited sediment. Hence, the term constructive waves is used to describe this types of waves.

Destructive waves 1

 Tides

Destructive waves occur on steeply-sloping coasts. These waves break violently with high energy. They have a weak swash but a strong backwash. This is because the steep gradient causes the waves to break and plunge directly back down the coast. The near-vertical breaking of waves results in a weak swash, which does not get to travel far up the coast to deposit materials. However, it generates a strong backwash which can move a considerable amount of sediment towards the sea. Instead of depositing materials on the coast, destructive waves erode the coast and transport coastal rocks and beach materials away from it.

Besides waves, another agent responsible for shaping coasts is tides. Tides refer to the daily alternate rising and falling of the sea level seen along coasts. They are caused primarily by the gravitational pull of the Moon and, to a lesser extent, the Sun. The pull produces two tidal bulges or high tides on opposite sides of the Earth. As the Earth makes one rotation every 24 hours, every coastal area will move under both bulges once a day. Coastal areas between those two high tides experience low tides. Therefore, each coastal area receives two high tides and two low tides daily. The difference in water level between low and high tides is called the tidal range. Tidal action, like wave action, has a significant impact on the coast. The rise and fall of the sea level affects coastal processes of erosion and transportation. At high tides, for example, waves attack, erode and transport away a larger part of the coast than at low tides. Areas located between low and high tides will have more weathering and erosion than areas constantly submerged by sea water because the former experiences continuous drying and wetting.

Currents Coasts are also shaped by currents. Currents are large-scale and persistent movements of water in the ocean, driven largely by prevailing winds. Longshore currents are an example of ocean currents that flow parallel to a coast. They are formed by waves that approach the coast at an oblique angle.

Coastal Erosion Types of waves Destructive waves have more energy than constructive waves. More materials are eroded than deposited when destructive waves are present. 2

Structure and composition of coastal rocks Coastal rocks with numerous lines of weakness such as cracks and joints will be eroded and broken down more quickly when attacked by waves. Furthermore, a coast that consists of soft rocks such as shale and clay will be eroded much faster than a coast that is made up of harder rocks such as granite or basalt. Coastal rocks with mineral composition that can be easily dissolved in the water, or that can chemically react with water to form new chemicals, may be gradually weakened and broken down under the constant attack of sea water.

Position of the coast Coasts that are protected or sheltered from prevailing winds and wave action by natural or man-made structures will experience less erosion than coasts that are open and unprotected.

Processes of Coastal Erosion There are four coastal erosional processes hydraulic action, abrasion, solution (corrosion) and attrition.

Hydraulic action Hydraulic action is the direct impact of the waves against the coast. The sheer force of breaking waves pounding against a sea cliff exerts great pressure on the cliff face. Destructive waves, in particular, can be highly effective in eroding the coasts. Air in the cracks may be compressed by the water entering the cracks and the pressure exerted can widen the cracks. Over time, this constant compression and outward push of the air may cause the cracks to be enlarged. Eventually, it will cause the breakdown of the rocks.

Abrasion Abrasion refers to the impact of materials carried by the waves scraping against the coast. Destructive waves are known to be capable of lifting up considerably large pieces of rocks from the sea bed and hurling them against the coast. The powerful impact of the rocks being thrown against the coast may eventually erode and change the coast.

Solution When waves react chemically with soluble minerals contained in the rocks and dissolve them, a chemical solution is formed. A coast made up of limestone, for example, is susceptible to this process.

Attrition When rocks carried by the waves rub or hit against each other, they break down into smaller pieces. Over time, the rocks become more rounded too.

Coastal Transportation One of the most important ways in which waves transport sediment along the coast is by longshore drift. When waves approach the coast at an angle, the swash carries the materials in the water up the beach at an oblique angle, while the backwash carries the materials perpendicularly down the beach because of the pull of gravity. This results in a zigzag movement of the materials along the beach. This process is known as longshore drift. The direction of the longshore drift is affected by the direction of the wind. For example, if the wind is blowing from a southeast direction, the direction of the longshore drift will be from east to west. It is a powerful process that is capable of moving very large amounts of beach materials along the direction of movement.

Coastal Deposition Supply of sediment Most sediment is transported down to the coast by rivers. Some sediment come from coastal erosion, and some is deposited onto the coast by the waves. When the wave energy is weak and the waves cannot carry their load of sediment, deposition takes place.

Gradient of slope On gentle slopes, the wave energy is spread out and reduced because of friction with the shore as well as because of the gravitational pull. The resultant waves are constructive waves because they deposit materials rather than erode the materials from the shore.

Position of the coast Along coasts that are sheltered from strong winds, such as indented coastlines and riverine inlets, destructive waves are not common. The calm coastal conditions allow the deposition to take place and a beach may develop. Sandy beaches are common in protected bays. Headlands, which are extensions of bedrock jutting out into the sea, are also common features.

Erosional Landforms Cliffs and Wave-Cut Platforms Some common erosional features found along coasts are cliffs and wave-cut platforms. A cliff refers to a steep rock face. Some cliffs tilt forward while others tilt backwards. Cliffs are produced by the action of waves undercutting a steep rocky coast. Hydraulic action and abrasion, in particular, may erode a crack on the rock surface. Eventually, the crack may be enlarged to produce a notch. This notch may be further deepened inwards to produce a cave. Further undercutting by the waves will eventually cause the roof of the cave to collapse. As the process continues, an overhanging cliff is formed. In time, this overhanging cliff will collapse and the materials will be deposited at the foot of the cliff. Some of these materials may be washed out to sea while other rocks may be picked up by the crashing waves and thrown against the base of the cliff, thus causing further erosion. As the erosional process continues, the cliff may retreat further inland. Over time, a gently-sloping platform appears at the base where the cliff used to be. This platform is called a wave-cut platform, which is usually submerged during high tides. Another term for a wave-cut platform is a shore platform.

Headlands and Bays Some coastlines are fairly straight because they are of similar hardness and resistance to erosion. However, some have alternate strips of resistant hard rock and less resistant soft rock arranged at right angles to the coast. The less resistant soft rocks will be eroded faster than the more resistant hard rocks. The result is the formation of indented coasts with headlands and bays. When the softer rocks are eroded away, the bays are formed. The remaining hard rocks extending into the sea are known as headlands. The south coast of the United Kingdom is a good place to see impressive headlands and bays. Headlands and bays give rise to wave refraction. Waves usually approach the shore at an angle. However, as they approach an indented shore with headlands and bays, the waves are refracted or bent. Consequently, they move almost parallel to the shore. The refraction is caused by the uneven depth of the sea-floor. As the waves bend, their energy is distributed unevenly along the shoreline.

The waves nearer to the shore touch the sea floor first and slow down due to friction with the bottom of the sea. Meanwhile the waves at the back continue to move towards the shore at full speed. As a result of wave refraction, waves approach the shallow sea in front of the headlands first before they reach the adjacent bays. As wave energy tends to concentrate and strike at the headlands rather than the bays, erosion takes place at the protruding headlands. Along the bays, waves are diverged and their energy spread out and weakens. Deposition of sediment thus takes place along the bays and over time, sandy beaches are formed. Wave refraction, therefore, determines when and where erosion, transportation and deposition take place. It causes erosion at the headlands and deposition along the bays. Over time, the indented coast will be straightened.

Depositional Landforms Beaches The most common depositional feature along a coast is the beach. Although beaches usually consist of sandy materials, they can also be formed from broken coral pieces, broken shells, small stones and black volcanic sand. The size and composition of the materials on the beach vary greatly and may change over time according to changes in weather conditions, wind direction and ocean currents. Usually, the waves and winds will cause the materials on the beach to be sorted by size. Generally, the finer materials are deposited nearer the sea and the coarser materials further inland if the wind is strong and there are destructive waves. During calm conditions with constructive waves, fine materials are deposited further up the coast and the coarser materials are deposited nearer the sea.

Spits and Tombolos Spits are beaches joined to the coast at just one end. They are formed by longshore drift. Sometimes, even when there are abrupt changes in the direction of the coastline, the longshore drift continues to transport the materials in the original direction into the sea. The materials are deposited in the sea where they accumulate over time. Eventually, the accumulated materials will appear above the surface of the water forming a spit. A spit has one end connected to a mainland while the other end projects out into the sea. If an island lies near the mainland where the spit is formed, the spit may continue to expand until it joins the island to the mainland. 6

In this case, a new landform called a tombolo is formed. A tombolo may also join two islands.

Need for Coastal Management Other than coastal flooding caused by natural phenomena such as storm surges and tsunamis, large-scale development of coastal areas can also bring about problems if the development is not properly planned and managed. Erosion and water pollution, for example, are just two common problems found along poorly managed coasts. As such, it is necessary to have proper coastal management and protection to preserve the quality of the coastal environment.

Types of Approaches Measures to protect coasts can be divided into hard engineering and soft engineering approaches. The hard engineering approach refers to the construction of physical structures to defend against the erosive power of waves. This is also known as the structural approach. The soft engineering approach, on the other hand, does not involve the building of any physical structures. It focuses on planning and management so that both coastal areas and property will not be damaged by erosion. It also aims at changing individual behaviour or attitudes towards coastal protection by encouraging minimal human interference and allowing nature to take its course. This approach is also known as the non-structural approach.

Hard engineering measures Seawalls Seawalls can be built along the coast. These structures absorb the energy of waves before they can erode away loose materials. Seawalls can be made of concrete, rocks or wood. Seawalls are especially effective in protecting cliffs from erosion. Some of these can be found along the coasts of Penang and Malacca in Peninsular Malaysia, and in Singapore. However, seawalls can only absorb the energy of incoming waves. They do not prevent the powerful backwash of refracted waves from washing away the beach materials beneath the walls. This eventually undermines the base of the seawalls and leads to their collapse. Furthermore, seawalls are costly to build and maintain as constant repairs have to be made to prevent their collapse.

Breakwaters 7

Breakwaters help to protect the coast and harbour by reducing the force of high energy waves before they reach the shore. They can either be built with one end attached to the coast or built away from the coast. When constructed offshore, breakwaters can create a zone of calm water behind them. Load materials can then be deposited and built up in this zone of calm water to form beaches. Like seawalls, breakwaters can cause problems too. For example, materials deposited in the zones behind the breakwater are protected while those in the zones located away from the breakwater are not. These zones will not receive any new supply of materials and will be eroded away.

Groynes Groynes are built at right angles to the shore to prevent longshore drift. These structures absorb or reduce the energy of the waves and cause materials to be deposited on the side of the groyne facing the longshore drift. However, no fresh materials are deposited on the downdrift side. As a result, longshore drift will gradually erode that part of the beach. To prevent or reduce the erosion of beach materials on the downdrift side of the groyne, the tips of the groynes are sometimes angled about 5 to 10 degrees, depending on the direction of the prevailing waves. If successful, the beach may also be extended and enlarged. However, erosion can still take place on the part of the coast that is not protected by groynes.

Gabions Gabions are wire cages usually filled with crushed rocks. These cages are then piled up along the shore to prevent or reduce coastal erosion by weakening the wave energy. However, this method offers only short-term protection (about five to ten years). The wire cages need regular maintenance as they are easily corroded by the sea water or they are affected by excessive trampling and vandalism. If not properly maintained, these wire baskets are unsightly and become a danger along the beach.

Soft Engineering Measures Beach nourishment This soft engineering measure refers to the constant replenishment of large quantities of sand to the beach system. The beach is therefore extended seawards, which leads to the improvement of both beach quality and storm protection. This method has obvious drawbacks. 8

It is very expensive to constantly transport large quantities of sand to fill up the beach as sand is continuously being eroded and transported away by waves and winds. This could have serious consequences for the wildlife living within the coastal environment. For example, the coral reefs at Waikiki Beach in Hawaii are destroyed as the imported sand gets washed out to sea and covers the corals, depriving them of the light they need to survive. Moreover, given a limited supply of sand in most places, beach nourishment is also rather impractical as there may not be sufficient amount for continual replenishment. In Singapore, large scale land reclamation along the coast has led to muddy and polluted water and has destroyed the coral reefs.

Relocation of Property Instead of constructing seawalls and groynes, coastal planners are trying to protect manmade structures such as buildings by relocating them and letting nature reclaim the beach in its own time. No building of new properties or structures would be allowed in coastal areas that are vulnerable to coastal erosion. For example, in parts of the east coast of England, there is a green line policy which discourages any building beyond a given line. It states clearly that properties built beyond the given line will not be defended or protected should they be threatened by coastal erosion. This approach is likely to be opposed by people who have considerable investments in the coastal areas. However, with the danger of increasing sea levels due to global warming, this relocation approach will become more important in future coastal management.

Planting of mangroves Mangroves, with their long, curved roots that prop up from the soil help to trap sediments and reduce coastal erosion. The prop roots of the mangrove are constantly looking for new anchorage and can secure and trap enough sediments to form small islands. Therefore, as mangrove communities grow and expand seawards, they also help to extend the coastal land seawards. In parts of Aceh, more than 5000 mangrove seedlings were planted to rehabilitate the coast devastated by the 2004 tsunami. However, not all coastal regions can support mangroves, especially in coastal areas affected by violent destructive waves. As sediments build up along the coast after planting the mangroves, the depth of the coast may become shallower and this will affect coastal transportation and port activities. This in turn will cause problems for countries such as Singapore which depend heavily on maritime trade 9

Likewise, the growth of coral reefs may also have the same effect and cause problems to coastal navigation.

Stabilising dunes Coastal dunes can be found along the shore where there is a large supply of sand and strong winds. The winds carry and deposit the sand on the coast further inland. Gradually, the sand piles up to form coastal dunes which help to defend the coast from the sea. These dunes are so fragile that delicate shrubs struggle to hold them in place. To prevent the dunes from being disturbed by human traffic, access points to the beach should be controlled and designated. Shrubs and trees can be planted to stabilise the dunes because the roots can reach downwards to tap the groundwater and thereby anchor the sand in the process.

Growth of coral reefs Coral reefs can weaken wave energy. When coral reefs are destroyed, the waves may move towards the shore at full force and wash away beaches. Increasingly, coral reefs around the world are damaged by reclamation and water pollution. Fortunately, natural reefs can be conserved and protected while damaged reefs can be stored. Artificial reefs can be created along the coast by placing environmentally friendly and durable materials such as steel or concrete on the sea-floor. Such man-made reefs can be just as protective of the coasts as naturally-formed reefs. They can also help to enhance fishing opportunities and serve as undersea barriers to reduce the impact of wave energy.

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