CELLULAR FUNCTIONS

(c) Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

Types of cells (a) Prokaryotic Cell (b) Eukaryotic Cell

Prokaryotic Cell Has no true nucles Flagella(if present) lack internal 9+2 fibril arrangement Single circular DNA with no histones Lack membrane-bound organelles Contain smaller ribosomes(70s) Multiply by binary fissin/ budding

Eukaryotic Cell Has nucleas, bounded by nuclear envelope Flagella have internal 9+2 fibril arrangement Multiple linear DNA with histones Contain membrane bound organelles Contain larger ribosomes(80s) Multiply be meiosis/Mitosis

Parts of a cell (a) Nucleus(Nuclei)

Controls all cell activities Essential for cell division: Nucleus contains genetic information (DNA) essential for the synthesis of RNAs and protein needed for cellular metabolism and function. Found in all Eukaryotic cells except phloem sieve cell and mature mammalian RBC. Spherical, 5-20m in diameter Largest and most conspicuous organelle Nuclear envelope consists of double membranes separated by a narrow space. Outer membrane is continuous with rER. the nuclear membrane is perforated by pores (as a result of fusion of 2 membranes) which regulate the entrance and exit of large macromolecules and particles between nucleus and cytoplasm. Nucleoplasm is a gel like matrix within the nucleus which contains chromatin + chemical subs + 1 or more nucleoli. Chromatin are coils f negatively charged DNA wrapped around positively charged histones. It appears as a dispersed, entangled mass in non-dividing cells. During prophase, chromatin shortens, thickens, condenses to form chromosome. Nucleolus (nucleoli) appears as dark staining spherical bodies within the nucleus of non-diving cells. It is the site of rRNA synthesis/ site of transcription of genes coding for rRNA. After rRNA synthesis, the rRNA combines with proteins to form small and large ribosomal subunits, which leave the nucleus, enter cytoplasm, and join to form ribosomes.

Network of tubules, ribosomes are absent. Site of lipid synthesis Stores Ca2+ ions needed for muscle contraction Detoxification: contains detoxifying enzyme s that add OH- to drugs, making them more soluble and hence easy to be excreted. Involved in carbohydrate metabolism: glycogenolysis in liver Glycogen Glucose Phosphate, sER removes phosphate (cannot exit cell and enter blood) Glucose (can enter blood) (d) Golgi Apparatus Consists of a stack of flattened membrane-bound sacs called cisternae and Golgi vesicles. further modify, sort, package proteins into vesicles before transporting them in/out of cell Formation of secretory polysaccharides Formation of lysosomes

Endomembrane System 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Proteins destined for secretion are synthesized by ribosomes attached to rER. These proteins enter the ER lumen via pores on the ER membrane. In lumen, proteins are modified by enzymes that add complex carbo/lipid to them. The proteins are then transported out via transport vesicles budding off from the ER membrane. The transport vesicles move towards and fuse with cisternae as cis face of GA, emptying its contents in the GAs cisternal space. In the GA, the proteins are further sorted, modified and packaged before the mature proteins bud off from the cisternae at the trans face of the GA. The secretory vesicles containing mature proteins and lipids will move towards the plasma membrane and fuse with it, releasing its contents outside the cell, via exocytosis. The lysosome containing hydrolytic enzymes remain in the cell to fuse with food/phagocytic vesicle/autophagic vacuole to digest the materials.

(b) Rough endoplasmic Reticulum Network of sheets, with ribosomes present on surface of rER.
rER membrane is continuous with that of nucleus, hence the space between the membranes of the nuclear envelope in continuous with cisternal space of rER. Prominent in enzyme secreting cells (eg. Pancreatic cell) Site of protein synthesis: Ribosomes present on surface of rER synthesize proteins. These proteins are transported into the ER lumen through the pores in the ER membrane, where they are modified by enzymes that add complex carbos/lipids to them. Involved in intracellular transport system: rER isolates and transport these proteins to the other compartments of the cells via transport vesicles budding off the ER membrane.

7.

8.

(e)

Lysosome

Single membrane bound vesicles, 0.2-0.5m in diameter, contains hydrolytic enzymes (acidic, pH= 5) Path of hydrolytic enzymes: rERGolgiLysosome Intracellular Digestion: to digest material which the cell consumes from the environment through phagocytosis.

Site of Aerobic Respiration for synthesis of ATP: an oxygen-requiring process that syntheses ATP using energy released from the oxidation of organic acids. Mitochondrial matrix is where Krebss cycle takes place as it contains the enzymes required. Cristae increase SA for the attachment of enzymes, electron transport chains and ATP synthase involved. Heat production: about 55% of energy released during aerobic respiration is given off as heat. (i)

Autophagy: to digest parts of the cell (worn out organelles) Worn out organelles within a cell is engulfed to form autophagic vacuole, which then fuse with lysosomes. The hydrolytic enzymes digest the ingested material and the organic monomers are returned to the cytosol to be recycled into new macromolecules. Autolysis: Self-destruction of a cell by releasing the contents of all lysosomes within the cell. ( occurs after cell damage/death) eg. Reabsorption of tadpole tails during metamorphosis eg. Hands of human embryos are webbed until lysosomes digest the tissue between the fingers. (f)

Chloroplast

Cytoplasm

An aqueous substance ( 90% water) containing a variety of cell

organelles. contains a skeleton of very fine fibers: cytoskeleton Cytosol: the semi-fluid portion of the cytoplasm where the organelles are suspended. A store of vital chemicals: ions, sugars, salts, amino acids, nucleotides, vitamins, dissolved gas Site of certain metabolic pathways (g)

= chromolasts that contain chlorophyll + yellow/orange pigments called carotenoids Present in all eukaryotic photosynthetic cells. Generally about 20-100 chloroplasts/cell Disc shaped structures, enclosed by a double membrane separated by a small space. The inner membrane encloses a fluid filled space called stroma which contains enzymes, sugars, DNA, starch grains, lipid droplets & 70s ribosomes. A system of internal membranes, suspended in the stroma, consists of an interconnected set of flat, disc-like sacs called thylakoids. Thylakoids are arranged in stacks called grana, which are connected by intergrana lamellae.

Vacuole

In animal cell, In plant cell, 1. Phagocytic vacuole: A fluid filled sac bounded by a digestion of bacteria single membrane, tonoplast. 2. Food vacuole: contain Contains sap salt, sugar, food organic acid, waste product of 3. Contractile vacuole: metabolism. contracts to pump excess water out of cell Serves as a depository area for metabolic waste Contains food reserves which may be utilized by cytoplasm. Stores inorganic ions such a potassium and chloride Protects plants against predators by containing poisonous compounds Contain anthocyanin: purple/blue/dark reds seen in flowers/fruits/autumn leaves Maintains turgidity of plant cells and increases cell size. (h)

Site of photosynthesis: light dependent reaction occurs on thylakoids, light independent reaction occurs in stroma. Involved in important biosynthetic processes: eg. Synthesis of most amino acids, fatty acids, purines and pyrimidine. Mitochondrion & Chloroplast Both are energy transducers that convert energy to forms that the cell uses to do work Both are not part of the endomembrane system as their membrane proteins are made not by the ER, but by free ribosomes in the cytosol and ribosomes connected within themselves. Both contain 70s ribosomes, small amt of double stranded circular DNA and synthesize some of their own proteins. Both grow and reproduce within the cell Both are enclosed by double membranes

1. 2.

Mitochondrion
3. 4. 5.

Cylindrical, rod-shaped, width ranges from 0.5-1.5m, length from 310m Enclosed by double membranes separated by an extremely narrow fluid-filled space, intermembrane space. Outer: smooth Inner: highly folded, giving rise to in-foldings called cristae Contains as organic, semifluid mitochondrial matrix with 70s ribosomes, circular DNA and enzymes.