UNIT V Power Plant Engineering NON - CONVENTIONAL POWER GENERATION

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NON CONVENTIONAL POWER GENERATION Unit III Course material
UNIT V EE1252-POWER PLANT ENGINEERING UNIT V NON CONVENTIONAL POWER GENERATION
N.KARTHIKEYAN
Solar energy collectors OTEC Wind power plants Tidal power plants and geothermal resources Fuel cell MHD power generation Principle Thermoelectric power generation Thermionic power generation.
SOLAR THERMAL SYSTEMS

Many of the passive solar thermal systems will be used for water heating and will make it possible to heat a large amount of water then naturally disperse it to other locations. One of the most used options is through solar vacuum tubes which will produce movement of the water as it heats and will make it possible to heat the water in a pool or to save in a reservoir which can contain up to 50-80 gallons of water in reserve until needed at a nice temperature. You may have already seen this type of thermal system in a normal water hose which can hold water in it even when shut off. The heat of the sun will heat up the water and that water will be significantly hotter than the water that will be displacing it for a few seconds to a few minutes. Heat Transfer Concepts a) Radiation b) Conduction c) Convection Solar thermal system Active Solar thermal system Passive Solar thermal system Solar thermal collectors 1. Low-temperature collectors. 2. Medium-temperature collectors 3. High-temperature collectors Solar collector Stationary collector (or) non-concentrating. Sun tracking concentrating collector (or) concentrating. Stationary collector (or) non-concentrating. Flat plate collector (FPC) (30c 80c) Stationary compound parabolic collector (CPC) (80c 300c) Evacuated tube collectors (ETC) (50c 200c)
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NON CONVENTIONAL POWER GENERATION
Sun tracking concentrating collector (or) concentrating. Single axis tracking Two axis tracking Single axis tracking 1. Parabolic through collector (PTC) (80c 300c) 2. Linear Fresnel reflector(LFR) (80c 250c) Two axis tracking Parabolic disc reflector (PDR) (100c 500c) Heliostat field collector (HFC) or central receiver (150c 2000c) Stationary collector (or) non-concentrating. Flat plate collector (FPC) (30c 80c) Stationary compound parabolic collector (CPC) (80c 300c) Evacuated tube collectors (ETC) (50c 200c) Flat plate collectors:
Flat plate collectors, developed by Hottel and Whillier in the 1950s, are the most common type. They consist of (1) a dark flat-plate absorber of solar energy, (2) a transparent cover that allows solar energy to pass through but reduces heat losses, (3) a heat-transport fluid (air, antifreeze or water) to remove heat from the absorber, and (4) a heat insulating backing. The absorber consists of a thin absorber sheet (of thermally stable polymers, aluminum, steel or copper, to which a matt black or selective coating is applied) often backed by a grid or coil of fluid tubing placed in an insulated casing with a glass or polycarbonate cover. In water heat panels, fluid is usually circulated through tubing to transfer heat from the absorber to an insulated water tank. This may be achieved directly or through a heat exchanger. Most air heat fabricates and some water heat manufacturers have a completely flooded absorber consisting of two sheets of metal which the fluid passes between. Because the heat exchange area is greater they may be marginally more efficient than traditional absorbers. Flat collectors and even concentrator is a tool used to collect solar radiation energy so that thermal energy produced can be used in more practical for a variety of processes. Flat solar collector consists of a transparent cover, absorber and insulator. Solar radiation that falls on the surface of the transparent material in the short wave will be forwarded by transparent material and then absorbed by absorber. Black colour has an ability to absorb a larger radiation so that most of the sun radiation will be absorbed. Absorption of this radiation will create a high temperature absorber. Heat radiation emanated by absorber but in the form of long waves. Most of the transparent material has an opaque nature of long wave radiation and therefore part of the long wave radiation reflected back by this transparent material to the absorber. Some radiation is absorbed will be reflected back and the rest will experience the same process that is part reflected back to the absorber. Thus, the loss of heat due
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to radiation can be minimized by flat collector. In addition, the transparent cover also functions as a heat loss barrier carried by the air above the absorber to the environment.
Heat pipe
evacuated-tube
collectors
These consist of a metal (copper) heat pipe, to which is attached a black copper absorber plate, inside a vacuum-sealed solar tube. The heat pipe is hollow and the space inside, like that of the solar tube, is evacuated. The reason for evacuating the heat pipe, however, is not insulation but to promote a change of state of the liquid it contains. Inside the heat pipe is a small quantity of liquid, such as alcohol or purified water plus special additives. The vacuum enables the liquid to boil (i.e. turn from liquid to vapor) at a much lower temperature than it would at normal atmospheric pressure. When solar radiation falls the surface of the absorber, the liquid within the heat tube quickly turns to hot vapor rises to the top of the pipe. Water, or glycol, flows through a manifold and picks up the heat, while the fluid in the heat pipe condenses and flows back down the tube for the process to be repeated. An advantage of heat pipes over direct-flow evacuated-tubes is the "dry" connection between the absorber and the header, which makes installation easier and also means that individual tubes can be exchanged without emptying the entire system of its fluid. Some heat pipe collectors are also supplied with a built in overheat protection when a programmed temperature has been reached, a "memory metal" spring expands and pushes a plug against the neck of the heat pipe. This blocks the return of the condensed fluid and stops the heat transfer. 3
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A drawback of heat pipe collectors is that they must be mounted with a minimum tilt angle of around 25 in order to allow the internal fluid of the heat pipe to return to the hot absorber.
Direct-flow
evacuated-tube
collectors
These consist of a group of glass tubes inside each of which is a flat or curved aluminium fin attached to a metal (usually copper) or glass absorber pipe. The fin is covered with a selective coating that absorbs solar radiation well but inhibits radioactive heat loss. The heat transfer fluid is water and circulates through the pipes, one for inlet fluid and the other for outlet fluid. Direct-flow evacuated tube collectors come in several varieties distinguished by the arrangement of these pipes. 1. Concentric fluid inlet and outlet (glass-metal). These use a single glass tube. Inside this is a copper heat pipe or water flow pipe with attached fin. This type of construction means that each single pipe can be easily rotated to allow the absorber fin to be at the desired tilt angle even if the collector is mounted horizontally. The glass-metal design is efficient but can suffer reliability problems. The different heat expansion rates of the glass and metal tubes can cause the seal between them to weaken and fail, resulting in a loss of vacuum. Without a vacuum, the efficiency of an evacuated-tube collector is no better, and may be worse than, that of a flat-plate collector. 2. Separated inlet and outlet pipes (glass-metal). This is the traditional type of evacuated-tube collector. The absorber may be flat or curved. As in the case of the concentric tube design, the efficiency can be very high, especially at relatively low working temperatures. The weakness again is the potential loss of vacuum after a few years of operation. 3. Two glass tubes fused together at one end (glass-glass). The inner tube is coated with an integrated cylindrical metal absorber. Glass-glass tubes are not generally as efficient as glassmetal tubes but are cheaper and tend to be more reliable. For very high temperature applications, glass-glass tubes can actually be more efficient than their glass-metal counterparts
Type 2: Concentrating solar collector:

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A solar collector that uses reflective surfaces to concentrate sunlight onto a small area, where it is absorbed and converted to heat or, in the case of solar photovoltaic (PV) devices, into electricity. Concentrators can increase the power flux of sunlight hundreds of times. This class of collector is used for high-temperature applications such as steam production for the generation of electricity and thermal detoxification. Concentrating collectors are best suited to climates that have a high percentage of clear sky days.
A PV concentrating module uses optical elements (Fresnel lenses) to increase the amount of sunlight incident onto a PV cell. Concentrating PV modules/arrays must track the sun and use only the direct sunlight because the diffuse portion can't be focused onto the PV cells. Concentrating collectors for home or small business solar water heating applications are usually parabolic troughs that concentrate the sun's energy on an absorber tube (called a receiver), which contains a heat-transfer fluid.
Compound Parabolic Concentrators (CPC)

CPC Design Concepts - An interesting design for a concentrating collector makes use of the fact that when the rim of a parabola is tilted toward the sun, the rays are no longer concentrated to a point, but are all reflected somewhere below the focus. The rays striking the half of the parabola which is now tilted away from the sun are reflected somewhere above the focus. This can be seen on Figure (repeated below as Figure) where the rays on the right-hand side are reflecting below the focus and the rays on the left-hand side are reflecting above the focus. If the half parabola tilted away from the sun is discarded, and replaced with a similarly shaped parabola with its rim pointed toward the sun, we have a concentrator that reflects (i.e. traps) all incoming rays to a region below the focal point.
Since the rays are no longer concentrated to a single point, this design is called a non-imaging concentrator. A receiver is now placed in the region below the focus and we have a concentrator that will trap sun rays coming from any angle between the focal line of the two parabola segments. Receivers can be flat plates at the base of the intersection of the two parabola, or a cylindrical tube passing through the region below the focus. 5
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The basic shape of the compound parabolic concentrator (CPC) is illustrated in Figure 9.10. The name, compound parabolic concentrator, derives from the fact that the CPC is comprised of two parabolic mirror segments with different focal points as indicated. The focal point for parabola A (FA) lies on parabola B, whereas the focal point of parabola B (FB) lies on parabola A. The two parabolic surfaces are symmetrical with respect to reflection through the axis of the CPC.
Types of concentrating solar collector: Single axis tracking 1. Parabolic through collector (PTC) (80c 300c) 2. Linear Fresnel reflector(LFR) (80c 250c)
1. Parabolic through collector (PTC) (80c 300c) Introduction to Technology:
A parabolic trough is a large, curved mirror that sits on a motorized base, allowing it to follow the movement of the sun throughout the day. The mirror's unique parabolic shape is designed to gather a great deal of sunlight and then reflect that light onto a single point, concentrating the solar power.
A receiver tube sits at the point where the mirror concentrates all the sunlight. The tube is filled with synthetic heat transfer oil, heated by the mirror's light to around 750 F (400 C). This superheated oil is then pumped from the solar field to a nearby power block, where the oil's heat is converted to highpressure steam in a series of heat exchangers. This steam pushes a conventional steam turbine, creating electricity.
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Parabolic trough technology is the most developed CSP technology, and has been a major focus of Abengoa Solar's research efforts. Abengoa Solar is currently deploying parabolic troughs at the Solcar Platform outside of Seville, Spain a collection of five 50 MW plants. Continue on [link] for more information about Abengoa Solar's use of parabolic trough CSP technology around the world. The main components of parabolic trough technology are:
The parabolic trough reflector: The cylindrical parabolic reflector reflects incident
sunlight from its surface onto the receiver at the focal point. Typically, the reflector is made of thick glass silver mirrors formed into the shape of a parabola. Alternatively, mirrors can be made from thin glass, plastic films or polished metals.
The receiver tube or heat collection element: The receiver tube consists of a metal
absorber surrounded by a glass envelope. The absorber is coated with a selective coating to maximize energy collection and to minimize heat loss. The glass envelope is used to insulate the absorber from heat loss, and is typically coated with an anti-reflective surface to increase the transmittance of light through the glass to the absorber. For high temperature CSP applications, the space between the absorber and glass tube is evacuated to form a vacuum.
The sun tracking system: An electronic control system and associated mechanical drive
system is used to focus the reflector onto the sun. Linear Fresnel Reflector In this latest technology, reflector stripes are tilted in a way that is similar to a Fresnel such that all incoming beams are reflected into collector that is situated around 3m above the mirrors. The idea here is similar to the parabolic trough, except that it does not require a huge parabolically shaped mirror, which is expensive to manufacture. Instead, the reflector stripes can be flat
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Fresnel lens collector: This type of collector must track the sun and can collect only direct radiation. Figure 15-7, view (B), shows a linear-trough, Fresnel lens collector. In this design, a curved lens is used to focus incoming rays onto a small absorber plate or tube through which the heat transfer liquid is circulated. This type of collector also requires a tracking mechanism and can collect only direct radiation. Figure 15-7, view (C), shows a compound parabolic mirror collector. The design of the mirror allows the collector to collect and focus both direct and diffuse radiation without tracking the sun. Periodic changes in the tilt angle are the only adjustments necessary. Direct radiation is intercepted by only a portion of the mirror at a time; thus this collector does not collect as much solar energy as a 15-10 focusing collector that tracks the sun. It is, however, less expensive to install and maintain. The absorber tube is encased within an evacuated tube to reduce heat losses. Many other types of concentrating collectors produce high temperatures at good efficiencies However, the high cost of installing and maintaining tracking collectors restricts their use to solar cooling and industrial applications where extremely high fluid temperatures are required. In addition, concentrating collectors must be used only in those locations where clear-sky direct radiation is abundant.
Solar thermal systems:

The most promising solar thermal technology is Solar Thermal Parabolic Trough. Parabolic trough power plants consist of numerous trough-shaped parabolic mirrors that concentrate sunlight onto receivers. This heats a fluid that transfers the heat back to an electrical generator that makes electricity. Several of these power plants are inuse today. With advanced heat storage systems, these power plants can provide power 24 hours a day, 365 days a year.
Once built, a thermal parabolic trough power plant continues to produce electricity at a very low cost (3 cents/kwh). More information on Solar Thermal Power Plants is available here: Solar Thermal Power Plants
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A second form of solar thermal electrical power is via Dish/Engine Systems.These systems use a dish of mirrors to focus the suns heat on a Sterling Engine. Though each individual system produces a small amount of electricity, thousands of dishes can be setup to create power plants that generate gigawatts of power. A third solar thermal system is called Power Towers. These plants use a couple thousand mirrors to focus the suns heat onto a central tower. Solar One and Solar Two in the Mojave Desert, was a demo projected that created 10 MW of power. A new production system called Solar Tres is presently being constructed in Spain, which will produce 17 MW of power, and will run 24 hours per day.
Parabolic dish collector

A concentrating solar collector that is similar in appearance to a large satellite dish, but has mirror-like reflectors and an absorber at the focal point. A parabolic dish system uses a computer and dual-axis tracking to follow the Sun across the sky and concentrate the Sun's rays onto the receiver located at the focal point in front of the dish. In some systems, a heat engine, such as a Stirling engine, is linked to the receiver to generate electricity. Parabolic dish systems can reach 1000C at the receiver, and achieve the highest efficiencies for converting solar energy to electricity in the small-
power capacity range.
Heliostat field collector (HFC) or central receiver (150c 2000c)
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A heliostat is a device that includes a plane mirror which turns so as to keep reflecting sunlight toward a predetermined target, compensating for the sun's apparent motions in the sky. The target may be a physical object, distant from the heliostat, or a direction in space. To do this, the reflective surface of the mirror is kept perpendicular to the bisector of the angle between the directions of the sun and the target as seen from the mirror. In almost every case, the target is stationary relative to the heliostat, so the light is reflected in a fixed direction. Most modern heliostats are controlled by computers. The computer is given the latitude and longitude of the heliostat's position on the earth and the time and date. From these, using astronomical theory, it calculates the direction of the sun as seen from the mirror, e.g. its compass bearing and angle of elevation. Then, given the direction of the target, the computer calculates the direction of the required angle-bisector, and sends control signals to motors, often stepper motors, so they turn the mirror to the correct alignment. This sequence of operations is repeated frequently to keep the mirror properly oriented. Large installations such as solar-thermal power stations include fields of heliostats comprising many mirrors. Usually, all the mirrors in such a field are controlled by a single computer.
Application of solar energy:

Introduction:
Alongside a variety of consumer products - electronic watches, calculators, power for leisure equipment and tourism - there is an extensive range of applications where solar cells are already viewed as the best option for electricity supply. These applications are usually stand-alone, and exploit the following advantages of photovoltaic electricity:

There are no fuel costs or fuel supply problems The equipment can usually operate unattended Solar cells are very reliable and require little maintenance
1. Solar water heating:

Solar water heating systems use heat from the sun to work alongside your conventional water heater. The technology is well developed with a large choice of equipment to suit many applications. Solar water heating panels or solar collectors are completely different to solar photovoltaic panels. In a solar water heating system, water runs through pipes in the solar collector, and is heated up by the sun. A solar water heating system will only produce hot water; work usually takes place on the roof and in the loft space with some changes to the existing plumbing. Modern lifestyles need a flexible supply of hot water. Our solar systems are designed to compliment your original hot water system to create the flexibility you need. For domestic hot water there are three main components: solar panels, a heat transfer system, and a hot water cylinder. Solar panels - or collectors - are fitted to your roof. They collect heat from the sun's radiation. The heat transfer system uses the collected heat to heat water. A hot water cylinder stores the hot water that is heated during the day and supplies it for use later. 10
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Whenever the collectors are hotter than the cylinder, the controller switches on the system's circulating pump. A mixture of antifreeze and water is then circulated through the collectors and the cylinder's heat exchanger, heating the cylinder in just the same way as a central heating boiler.
2. Solar heating of building:
Solar thermal (heat) energy is often used for heating swimming pools, heating water used in homes, and space heating of buildings. Solar space heating systems can be classified as passive or active. Passive space heating is what happens to your car on a hot summer day. In buildings, the air is circulated past a solar heat surface(s) and through the building by convection (i.e. less dense warm air tends to rise while more dense cooler air moves downward). No mechanical equipment is needed for passive solar heating. Image of a house with solar cells on the roof. Active heating systems require a collector to absorb and collect solar radiation. Fans or pumps are used to circulate the heated air or heat absorbing fluid. Active systems often include some type of energy storage system. Solar collectors can be either non-concentrating or concentrating. 11
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1) Non-concentrating collectors have a collector area (i.e. the area that intercepts the solar radiation) that is the same as the absorber area (i.e., the area absorbing the radiation). Flat-plate collectors are the most common and are used when temperatures below about 200o degrees F are sufficient, such as for space heating. 2) Concentrating collectors where the area intercepting the solar radiation is greater, sometimes
hundreds of times greater, than the absorber area Working: Solar space heating operates the same as a solar hot water system except that the heat energy is used to heat air instead of domestic hot water.
3. Solar distillation:
The process of distilling (purifying) water using solar energy. In the simplest arrangement, untreated water is placed in an air tight solar collector with a sloped glazing material, and as it heats and evaporates, distilled water condenses on the collector glazing, and runs down where it can be collected in a tray.
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5. Solar pumping:
Solar pumping systems work anywhere the sun shines. Pumping water is a sensible and effective use of solar electric power. During the hot months, when water requirements are highest, a solar pump will provide a reliable water source for a farm. Wind power, by comparison, can be inconsistent, and may not be available during the hottest months in many inland areas. Wind may be too unreliable for water pumping when a relatively constant supply is required, particularly for when watering animals. A solar water pumping system is essentially an electrically driven pumping system. Electricity, in this instance, is produced by the sunlight energizing photovoltaic (solar) modules. The typical solar cell is a thin wafer of silicon that transforms light energy into electrical energy. The cells are encapsulated in flat modules to protect them from the weather. Any number of modules can be connected together to form an array. The array is sized to meet a pumping system power requirements. A solar pumping system is available for almost all applications where an electric pump can be used. Because solar energy varies from one location to another, and over the course of a day, system design is important. Adequate water storage ensures that water is available whenever needed, and balances daily variations in water supply and demand. Thus a small pump only running when the sun shines, plus water storage, can often provide all that is requiremed for water supply. Different needs can be serviced and systems are determined by the quantity of water to be pumped: 1. Water for drinking & cooking 2. Water for livestock 3. Water for crop irrigation 13
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There are also a number of other minor uses such as the small pumps used in solar fountains . For the best electrical and mechanical performance, all components of the solar pumping system must be carefully matched. Correct sizing of the pump, motor and controlling devices, will allow the system to operate at the highest efficiency to ensure economical water pumping 6. Solar furnace:
solar furnace:
Plant that concentrates solar radiation to reach very high temperatures (over 5,400F) as part of a research effort to develop experimental materials (including astronautic materials and ceramics). Reaching temperatures of over 5,400F, it is mainly used to process and develop materials.
7. Solar cooking:
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Using stoves and ovens, we can cook foods like meat, vegetables, beans, rice, bread and fruit in just about any way. We can bake, stew, steam, fry and braise. Using a solar cooker, we can do the same things, but by using sunlight instead of gas or electricity. Sunlight isn't hot in and of itself. It's just radiation, or light waves -- basically energy generated by fluctuating electric and magnetic fields. It feels warm on your skin, but that's because of what happens when those light waves hit the molecules in your skin. This interaction is similar to the concept that makes one form of solar cooker, the box cooker, generate high temperatures from sunlight. At its simplest, the sunlight-to-heat conversion occurs when photons (particles of light) moving around within light waves interact with molecules moving around in a substance. The electromagnetic rays emitted by the sun have a lot of energy in them. When they strike matter, whether solid or liquid, all of this energy causes the molecules in that matter to vibrate. They get excited and start jumping around. This activity generates heat. Solar cookers use a couple of different methods to harness this heat. The box cooker is a simple type of solar cooker. At maybe 3 to 5 feet (1 to 1.5 meters) across, it's essentially a sun-powered oven -- an enclosed box that heats up and seals in that heat. At its most basic, the box cooker consists of an open-topped box that's black on the inside, and a piece of glass or transparent plastic that sits on top. It often also has several reflectors (flat, metallic or mirrored surfaces) positioned outside the box to collect and direct additional sunlight onto the glass. To cook, you leave this box in the sun with a pot of food inside, the pot sitting on top of the black bottom of the box. When sunlight enters the box through the glass top, the light waves strike the bottom, making it scorching hot. Dark colors are better at absorbing heat, that's why the inside is black. The molecules that make up the box get excited and generate more heat. The box traps the heat, and the oven gets hotter and hotter. The effect is the same as what goes on in a standard oven: The food cooks. Box cookers can reach up to 300 degrees F (150 degrees C) [source: SHEI]. That's hot enough to safely cook meat.
1) Solar cell
A solar cell (also called photovoltaic cell) is a solid state device that converts the energy of sunlight directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect. Assemblies of cells are used to make solar modules, also known as solar panels. The energy generated from these solar modules, referred to as solar power, is an example of solar energy. Photovoltaics is the field of technology and research related to the practical application of photovoltaic cells in producing electricity from light, though it is often used specifically to refer to the generation of electricity from sunlight.
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Cells are described as photovoltaic cells when the light source is not necesssarily sunlight. These are used for detecting light or other electromagnetic radiation near the visible range, for example infrared detectors[1]), or measurement of light intensity. Operation A solar cell is an electronic device which directly converts sunlight into electricity. Light shining on the solar cell produces both a current and a voltage to generate electric power. This process requires firstly, a material in which the absorption of light raises an electron to a higher energy state, and secondly, the movement of this higher energy electron from the solar cell into an external circuit. The electron then dissipates its energy in the external circuit and returns to the solar cell. A variety of materials and processes can potentially satisfy the requirements for photovoltaic energy conversion, but in practice nearly all photovoltaic energy conversion uses semiconductor materials in the form of a p-n junction.
Cross section of a solar cell. The basic steps in the operation of a solar cell are: the generation of light-generated carriers; the collection of the light-generated carries to generate a current; the generation of a large voltage across the solar cell; and the dissipation of power in the load and in parasitic resistances Solar cells are characterized by a maximum Open Circuit Voltage (Voc) at zero output current and a Short Circuit Current (Isc) at zero output voltage. Since power can be computed via this equation: P=I*V
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Then with one term at zero these conditions (V = Voc / I = 0, V = 0 / I = Isc ) also represent zero power. As you might then expect, a combination of less than maximum current and voltage can be found that maximizes the power produced (called, not surprisingly, the "maximum power point"). Many BEAM designs (and, in particular, solar engines) attempt to stay at (or near) this point. The tricky part is building a design that can find the maximum power point regardless of lighting conditions. For solar cell selection and comparison information, see the solar cell section of the BEAM Reference Library's BEAM Pieces collection. Also see the Starting Block article on solar cells. The Principles of Solar Cell Operation The photoelectric effect is the basic physical process by which a solar cell converts light into electricity. Light absorbed by a solar cell generates electron-hole pairs. Electrons and holes are then separated at a p-n junction of the solar cell - electrons are directed to the negative terminal and the holes to the positive terminal -thus generating electrical current. Fig. 1 shows the structure of a crystalline silicon solar cell which is a typical solar cell in use today. The bulk of the cell is formed by a thick p-type base where most of the incident light is absorbed. After light absorption, the minority carriers (electrons) diffuse to the junction where they are swept across by the strong built-in electric field. Carriers are collected by metal contacts to the front and back of the cell.
An ideal solar cell can be represented by a current source connected in parallel with a rectifying diode, as shown in the equivalent circuit in Fig. 2. The corresponding I-V characteristics is described by the Shockley solar cell equation:
where kB is the Boltzmann constant, T is the absolute temperature, q >0 is the electron charge, and V is the voltage at the terminals of the cell, I0 is the diode saturation current, Iph is the photogenerated current closely related to the photon stream incident on the cell, Rs is the series resistance of the diode, Rsh is the shunt resistance of the diode. In a dark, a solar cell is simply a semiconductor diode. 17
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Fig. 2. The equivalent circuit of an ideal solar cell The I-V characteristic of the ideal solar cell is shown in Fig. 3a. In the ideal case, the short circuit current Isc is equal to the photogenerated current Iph and the open circuit voltage Voc is given by:
The power produced by the cell is equal  P=I*V (Fig. 3b). The cell generates the maximum power at a voltage Vm and current Im. The point Pmax (Vm, Im) is called the Maximum Power Point (MPP).
Fig. 3. The I-V characteristics of the ideal solar cell It is convenient to define the fill factor FF of the solar cell by:
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The quantum efficiency QE(l) of a solar cell is defined as the ratio of the number of electrons in the external circuit produced by an incident photon of a given wavelength l
the basic parameters of solar cells are: I-V characteristics, short circuit current Isc, open circuit voltage Voc, fill factor FF, maximum power point Pmax (MPP), quantum efficiency QE(l). Solar Cell technologies Solar cells can be made from a wide range of semiconductor materials: Silicon (Si) - including single-crystalline Si, multicrystalline Si, and amorphous Si, Polycrystalline thin films - including copper indium diselenide (CIS), cadmium telluride (CdTe), and thin-film silicon, Single - crystalline thin films - including high efficiency material such as gallium arsenide (GaAs).
2) FUEL CELL. Fuel Cell Basics

1. Fuel cells are operationally equivalent to a battery. 2. The reactants or fuel in a fuel cell can be replaced unlike a standard disposable or rechargeable battery. 19
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3. For automotive applications hydrogen is the fuel choice. 4. Low temperature (~85 C) Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) type cells are the standard devices. 5. Electrochemical energy comes from the reaction: H2 + O2 H2O. 6. Theoretically the maximum voltage that this reaction can generate is 1.2 V. However, in practice the cell usually generates about 0.7 V to 0.9 V and about 1 W cm-2 of power.
Anode
a. The fuel (hydrogen gas) is circulated through serpentine like channels or grooves machined in solid graphite. b. Hydrogen passes through a porous mesh layer called the gas diffusion media. c. Hydrogen makes contact with a thin layer of platinum catalyst embedded in graphite nanoparticles and electron is stripped from hydrogen. d. Electrons are conducted away through the graphite nanoparticle electrode layer to an electric circuit. e. Protons are conducted through a thin (20 m to 100 m) Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) (Nafion or Polysulfonic acid).
Cathode
a. Same configuration as the anode except oxygen gas (from the air) is circulated through the gas flow region. b. Protons coming from the anode encounter oxygen and the electrons from the external circuit in a catalyst electrode layer (platinum embeded in carbon nanoparticles). c. Liquid water byproduct must now drain away so as to not block the fuel cell.
Hydrogen fuel cell:

In principle, a fuel cell operates like a battery. Unlike a battery, a fuel cell does not run down or require recharging. It will produce energy in the form of electricity and heat as long as fuel is supplied. A fuel cell consists of two electrodes sandwiched around an electrolyte. Oxygen passes over one electrode and hydrogen over the other, generating electricity, water and heat.
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Hydrogen fuel is fed into the "anode" of the fuel cell. Oxygen (or air) enters the fuel cell through the cathode. Encouraged by a catalyst, the hydrogen atom splits into a proton and an electron, which take different paths to the cathode. The proton passes through the electrolyte. The electrons create a separate current that can be utilized before they return to the cathode, to be reunited with the hydrogen and oxygen in a molecule of water. A fuel cell system which includes a "fuel reformer" can utilize the hydrogen from any hydrocarbon fuel - from natural gas to methanol, and even gasoline. Since the fuel cell relies on chemistry and not combustion, emissions from this type of a system would still be much smaller than emissions from the cleanest fuel combustion processes.
Geothermal power generation

INTRODUCTION The term geothermal comes from the Greek geo meaning earth and therein meaning heat thus geothermal energy is energy derived from the natural heat of the earth. The earth's temperature varies widely, and geothermal energy is usable for a wide range of temperatures from room temperature to well over 300 F. For commercial use, a geothermal reservoir capable of providing hydrothermal (hot water and steam) resources is necessary. Geothermal reservoirs are generally classified as being either low temperature (<150 C) or high temperature (>150 C). Generally speaking, the high temperature reservoirs are the ones suitable for, and sought out for commercial production of electricity. Geothermal reservoirs are found in "geothermal systems" which are regionally localized geologic settings where the earth's naturally occurring heat flow is near enough to the earths surface to bring steam or hot water to the surface.
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GEOTHERMAL POWER GENERATION PLANTS: There are three types of geothermal power generation plants: DRY STEAM POWER PLANT FLASH STEAM POWER PLANT BINARY CYCLE POWER PLANT
DRY STEAM POWER PLANT: Steam plants use hydrothermal fluids that are primarily steam. The steam goes directly to a turbine, which drives a generator that produces electricity. The steam eliminates the need to burn fossil fuels to run the turbine. (Also eliminating the need to transport and store fuels!) This is the oldest type of geothermal power plant. It was first used at Lardarello in Italy in 1904, and is still very effective. These plants emit on excess steam and very minor amounts of gases.
FLASH STEAM POWER PLANTS: Hydrothermal fluids above 360F (182C) can be used in flash plants to make electricity. Fluid is sprayed into a tank held at a much lower pressure than the fluid, causing some of the fluid to rapidly vaporize, or "flash." The vapor then drives a turbine, which
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drives a generator. If any liquid remains in the tank, it can be flashed again in a second tank to extract even more energy.
BINARY CYCLE POWER PLANTS: Most geothermal areas contain moderate-temperature water (below 400 degrees F). Energy is extracted from these fluids in binary-cycle power plants. Hot geothermal fluid and a secondary (hence, "binary") fluid with a much lower boiling point than water pass through a heat exchanger. Heat from the geothermal fluid causes the secondary fluid to flash to vapor, which then drives the turbines. Because this is a closed-loop system, virtually nothing is emitted to the atmosphere. Moderate-temperature water is by far the more common geothermal resource, and most geothermal power plants in the future will be binary-cycle plants.
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HOW GEOTHERMAL HEAT GET UP TO EARTH'S SURFACE The heat from the earth's core continuously flows outward. It transfers (conducts) to the surrounding layer of rock, the mantle. When temperatures and pressures become high enough, some mantle rock melts, becoming magma. Then, because it is lighter (less dense) than the surrounding rock, the magma rises (convects), moving slowly up toward the earth's crust, carrying the heat from below. Sometimes the hot magma reaches all the way to the surface, where we know it as lava. But most often the magma remains below earth's crust, heating nearby rock and water (rainwater that has seeped deep into the earth) - sometimes as hot as 700 degrees F. Some of this hot geothermal water travels back up through faults and cracks and reaches the earth's surface as hot springs or geysers, but most of it stays deep underground, trapped in cracks and porous rock. This natural collection of hot water is called a geothermal reservoir. THE FUTURE OF GEOTHERMAL ELECTRICITY: Steam and hot water reservoirs are just a small part of the geothermal resource. The Earth's magma and hot dry rock will provide cheap, clean, and almost unlimited energy as soon as we develop the technology to use them. In the meantime, because they're so abundant, moderate-temperature sites running binary-cycle power plants will be the most common electricity producers. USE OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY TECHNOLOGY AND RESOURCES: Direct Use of Geothermal Energy Geothermal reservoirs of low-to moderate-temperature water 68F to 302F (20C to 150C) provide direct heat for residential, industrial, and commercial uses. This resource is widespread in the U.S., and is used to heat homes and offices, commercial greenhouses, fish farms, food processing facilities, gold mining operations, and a variety of other applications. Spent fluids from geothermal electric plants can be subsequently used for direct use applications in so-called "cascaded" operation. Direct use of geothermal energy in homes and commercial operations is much less expensive than using traditional fuels. Savings can be as much as 80% over fossil fuels. Direct use is
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also very clean, producing only a small percentage (and in many cases none) of the air pollutants emitted by burning fossil fuels. The DirectUse Resource In India the Geothermal is also applicable and many surveys are being conducted to analyze the geothermal resources in many parts of northern India. According to survey conducted in U.S lowtemperature geothermal resources exist throughout the western U.S., and there is tremendous potential for new directuse applications. A recent survey of 10 western states identified more than 9000 thermal wells and springs, more than 900 low to moderatetemperature geothermal resource areas, and hundreds of directuse sites. The survey also identified 271 collocated sites cities within 5 miles (8 kilometers) of a resource hotter than 122 degrees F (50 degrees C) that have excellent potential for near term direct use. If these collocated resources were used only to heat buildings, the cities have the potential to displace 18 million barrels of oil per year! Tapping the Resource Directuse systems typically include three components:

A production facility usually a well to bring the hot water to the surface; A mechanical system piping, heat exchanger, controls to deliver the heat to the space or process; and
A disposal system injection well or storage pond to receive the cooled geothermal fluid.
A disposal system injection well or storage pond to receive the cooled geothermal fluid.
Greenhouse and Aquaculture Facilities Greenhouses and aquaculture (fish farming) are the two primary uses of geothermal energy in the agribusiness industry. Most greenhouse operators estimate that using geothermal resources instead of traditional energy sources saves about 80% of fuel costs about 5% to
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8% of total operating costs. The relatively rural location of most geothermal resources also offers advantages, including clean air, few disease problems, clean water, a stable workforce, and, often, low taxes. Industrial and Commercial Uses Industrial applications include food dehydration, laundries, gold mining, milk pasteurizing, spas, and others. Dehydration, or the drying of vegetable and fruit products, is the most common industrial use of geothermal energy. The earliest commercial use of geothermal energy was for swimming pools. APPLICATIONS OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY TECHNOLOGY: The three main applications of Geothermal Energy PowerPlants Power plant technologies are being used to convert hydrothermal fluids to electricity. The type of conversion used depends on the state of the fluid (whether steam or water) and its temperature. DirectUse Geothermal reservoirs of low-to moderate-temperature water 68F to 302F (20C to 150C) provide direct heat for residential, industrial, and commercial uses. This resource is widespread in the U.S., and is used to heat homes and offices, commercial greenhouses, fish farms, food processing facilities, gold mining operations, and a variety of other applications. GeothermalHeatPumps The geothermal heat pump, also known as the ground source heat pump, is a highly efficient renewable energy technology that is gaining wide acceptance for both residential and commercial buildings. Geothermal heat pumps are used for space heating and cooling, as well as water heating. Its great advantage is that it works by concentrating naturally existing heat, rather than by producing heat through combustion of fossil fuels.
Wind energy
Wind energy is a converted form of solar energy. The suns radiation heats different parts of the earth at different rates-most notably during the day and night, but also when different surfaces (for example, 26
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water and land) absorb or reflect at different rates. This in turn causes portions of the atmosphere to warm differently. Hot air rises, reducing the atmospheric pressure at the earths surface, and cooler air is drawn in to replace it. The result is wind. Air has mass, and when it is in motion, it contains the energy of that motion (kinetic energy). Some portion of that energy can converted into other forms mechanical force or electricity that we can use to perform work.
The Mechanics of Wind Turbines

Modern electric wind turbines come in a few different styles and many different sizes, depending on their use. The most common style, large or small, is the "horizontal axis design" (with the axis of the blades horizontal to the ground). On this turbine, two or three blades spin upwind of the tower that it sits on. Small wind turbines are generally used for providing power off the grid, ranging from very small, 250-watt turbines designed for charging up batteries on a sailboat, to 50-kilowatt turbines that power dairy farms and remote villages. Like old farm windmills, these small wind turbines often have tail fans that keep them oriented into the wind. Large wind turbines, most often used by utilities to provide power to a grid, range from 250 kilowatts up to the enormous 3.5 to 5 MW machines that are being used offshore. In 2008, the average landbased wind turbines had a capacity of 1.67 MW.x Utility-scale turbines are usually placed in groups or rows to take advantage of prime windy spots. Wind "farms" like these can consist of a few or hundreds of turbines, providing enough power for tens of thousands of homes. From the outside, horizontal axis wind turbines consist of three big parts: the tower, the blades, and a box behind the blades, called the nacelle. Inside the nacelle is where most of the action takes place, where motion is turned into electricity. Large turbines don't have tail fans; instead they have hydraulic controls that orient the blades into the wind. 27
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In the most typical design, the blades are attached to an axle that runs into a gearbox. The gearbox, or transmission, steps up the speed of the rotation, from about 50 rpm up to 1,800 rpm. The faster spinning shaft spins inside the generator, producing AC electricity. Electricity must be produced at just the right frequency and voltage to be compatible with a utility grid. Since the wind speed varies, the speed of the generator could vary, producing fluctuations in the electricity. One solution to this problem is to have constant speed turbines, where the blades adjust, by turning slightly to the side, to slow down when wind speeds gust. Another solution is to use variable-speed turbines, where the blades and generator change speeds with the wind, and sophisticated power controls fix the fluctuations of the electrical output. A third approach is to use low-speed generators. Germany's Enercon turbines have a direct drive that skips the step-up gearbox. An advantage that variable-speed turbines have over constant-speed turbines is that they can operate in a wider range of wind speeds. All turbines have upper and lower limits to the wind speed they can handle: if the wind is too slow, there's not enough power to turn the blades; if it's too fast, there's the danger of damage to the equipment. The "cut in" and "cut out" speeds of turbines can affect the amount of time the turbines operate and thus their power output.
2) Power and energy relation:

P = air density Area Swept by Rotor Wind Speed3
P = A V3
1) Power in the wind is correlated 1:1 with area and is extremely sensitive to wind speed (the cubic amplifies the power significantly) 28
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2) If the wind speed is twice as high, it contains 23 = 2 x 2 x 2 = 8 times as much energy 3) A site with 16 mph average wind speed will generate nearly 50% more electricity and be more cost effective than one with 14 mph average wind speed (16*16*16) / (14*14*14) = 1.4927 4) Therefore, it pay $ to hunt for good wind sites with better wind speeds
Power generated by wind turbine

Power = ()(A)(V3) = Density of air = 1.2 kg/m3 (0.745lb/ft3), at sea level, 20 C and dry air A = swept area = (radius)2 , m2 V = wind velocity, m/sec. = 1.16kg/m3, at 1000 feet elevation = 1.00kg/m3, at 5000 feet elevation = 1.203kg/m3, at san jose, at 85 feet elevation. The average wind velocity is 5mph at 50m tower height
Turbine output drives wind economics and output is a strong function of wind speed Wind speed increases with height above the ground Power = 1/2 (air density) (area) (wind speed) Energy in the wind increases as height increases (theoretically) V2/V1 = (H2/H1)1/7
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Power Generated by Different Wind Turbine:

There are about 4,800 wind turbines in California at Altamont Pass (between Tracy and Livermore). The capacity is 580 MW, enough to serve 180,000 homes. In 2003, Altamont generated 822x106 kW hours, enough to provide power for 126,000 homes (6500 Kw-hr per house)
4) Predictions of Wind Energy:

Reliable predictions of the background solar wind speed and interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) polarity can be directly used to improve forecasts of high-speed streams, current sheet crossings, and many other space weather applications. Our application of the Wang & Sheeley model provides solar wind speed and IMF polarity based on current daily photospheric magnetic field measurements (modified by a number of correction techniques) from multiple ground based solar observatories. Using WIND and ACE data for comparisons, we find that the model makes successful predictions of background solar wind conditions from about a year before the 1996 solar minimum to at least 3 years into the ascending phase of the solar cycle.
Expected Output/Capacity Factor: The capacity factor is simply the wind turbines actual energy output for the year divided by the energy output if the machine operated at its rated power output for the entire year A reasonable capacity factor would be 0.25 to 0.30. A very good capacity factor would be 0.40 Capacity factor is very sensitive to the average wind speed Block diagram: 31
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In reverse, a Grid-Tied or On-Grid system will be generating more electrical power than you use, example a windy night with all lights and household appliances are off, your meter actually running backward as you generate clean electricity to the grid that will be used by neighbors and others on the grid. Power Curves: The turbine would produce about 20% of its rated power at an average wind speed of 15 miles per hour (or 20 kilowatts if the turbine was rated at 100 kilowatts).
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6) Wind turbine design:

Wind energy is created when the atmosphere is heated unevenly by the Sun; some patches of air become warmer than others. These warm patches of air raise, other air rushes in to replace them thus, wind blows. A wind turbine extracts energy from moving air by slowing the wind down, and transferring this energy into a spinning shaft, which usually turns a generator to produce electricity. The power in the wind thats available for harvest depends on both the wind speed and the area thats swept by the turbine blades.
Two Types of Turbine Designs: Drag Designs -Savonius
Lift Designs VAWT Darrieus Most HAWT designs 33
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Drag Design: For the drag design, the wind literally pushes the blades out of the way. Drag powered wind turbines are characterized by slower rotational speeds and high torque capabilities. They are useful for the pumping, sawing or grinding work that Dutch, farm and similar "work-horse" windmills perform. For example, a farm-type windmill must develop high torque at start-up in order to pump, or lift, water from a deep well. Lift Design: The lift blade design employs the same principle that enables airplanes, kites and birds to fly. The blade is essentially an airfoil, or wing. When air flows past the blade, a wind speed and pressure differential is created between the upper and lower blade surfaces. The pressure at the lower surface is greater and thus acts to "lift" the blade. When blades are attached to a central axis, like a wind turbine rotor, the lift is translated into rotational motion. Lift-powered wind turbines have much higher rotational speeds than drag types and therefore are well suited for electricity generation.
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Types of turbine:
Vertical Axis Wind Turbines Horizontal-axis wind turbine
Vertical Axis Wind Turbines:

In the last post on Power, VAWTs (Vertical Axis Wind Turbines) were mentioned as a potential power source for an Antarctic colony. This post will attempt to elaborate on that technology. Below is a basic design of a Vertical Axis Wind Turbine.
At low wind speeds traditional HAWTs (Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines) are more efficient. However, at higher wind speeds VAWTs can be up to 8 times more efficient than HAWTs. VAWTs can also withstand much higher winds, with some commercial models being rated to 35
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withstand winds in excess of 140mph. At those wind speeds most traditional bladed horizontal turbines would break or suffer damage. VAWTs on the other hand can continue to produce power even in those high wind conditions without risk of damage if they are designed and constructed properly. A specially modified Vertical Axis Wind Turbine would be ideal for power production in Antarctica. Such a VAWT would be able to withstand the most extreme winds without breakage. A built-in selfpowering defroster would help prevent the exposed areas from freezing up or being damaged from extreme blizzard conditions and excessive ice buildup. Such a system could use its own power channeled through small heated wires running along the structure and critical components. This in theory would not take a great deal of power and would most likely only need to run occasionally. It would only need to produce enough heat to melt the offending ice and snow. Considering the high and fairly constant winds available in some areas of Antarctica, a higher than normal output efficiency would likely be easily achievable with the right gearing. This high output would hopefully provide a great deal of extra power to heat a colony and also help to compensate for low wind periods. Details of a thermal energy storage and heat recycling/recovery system will follow in future posts. Such systems would greatly improve the overall energy efficiency of an Antarctic colony.
Above and to the left is a traditional Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine, with a Vertical Axis Wind Turbine on the right.
HORIZONTAL-AXIS WIND TURBINE:
Working of wind turbine:
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Rotor The portion of the wind turbine that collects energy from the wind is called the rotor. The rotor usually consists of two or more wooden, fiberglass or metal blades which rotate about an axis (horizontal or vertical) at a rate determined by the wind speed and the shape of the blades. The blades are attached to the hub, which in turn is attached to the main shaft. Generator: The generator converts the mechanical energy of the turbine to electrical energy (electricity). Inside this component, coils of wire are rotated in a magnetic field to produce electricity. Different generator designs produce either alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC), available in a large range of output power ratings. Most home and office appliances operate on 120 volt (or 240 volt), 60 cycle AC. Some appliances can operate on either AC or DC, such as light bulbs and resistance heaters, and many others can be adapted to run on DC. Storage systems using batteries store DC and usually are configured at voltages of between 12 volts and 120 volts. Generators that produce AC are generally equipped with features to produce the correct voltage (120 or 240 V) and constant frequency (60 cycles) of electricity, even when the wind speed is fluctuating. Transmission: The number of revolutions per minute (rpm) of a wind turbine rotor can range between 40 rpm and 400 rpm, depending on the model and the wind speed. Generators typically require rpm's of 1,200 to 1,800. As a result, most wind turbines require a gear-box transmission to increase the rotation of the generator to the speeds necessary for efficient electricity production. Some DC-type wind turbines do not use transmissions. Instead, they have a direct link between the rotor and generator. These are 37
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known as direct drive systems. Without a transmission, wind turbine complexity and maintenance requirements are reduced, but a much larger generator is required to deliver the same power output as the AC-type wind turbines. Cut-in Speed Cut-in speed is the minimum wind speed at which the wind turbine will generate usable power. This wind speed is typically between 7 and 15 mph. Cut out speed: At very high wind speeds, typically between 45 and 80 mph, most wind turbines cease power generation and shut down. The wind speed at which shut down occurs is called the cut-out speed. Having a cut-out speed is a safety feature which protects the wind turbine from damage. Shut down may occur in one of several ways. In some machines an automatic brake is activated by a wind speed sensor. Some machines twist or "pitch" the blades to spill the wind. Still others use "spoilers," drag flaps mounted on the blades or the hub which are automatically activated by high rotor rpm's, or mechanically activated by a spring loaded device which turns the machine sideways to the wind stream. Normal wind turbine operation usually resumes when the wind drops back to a safe level. Rated Speed The rated speed is the minimum wind speed at which the wind turbine will generate its designated rated power. For example, a "10 kilowatt" wind turbine may not generate 10 kilowatts until wind speeds reach 25 mph. Rated speed for most machines is in the range of 25 to 35 mph. At wind speeds between cut-in and rated, the power output from a wind turbine increases as the wind increases. The output of most machines levels off above the rated speed. Most manufacturers provide graphs, called "power curves," showing how their wind turbine output varies with wind speed. Betz Limit: It is the flow of air over the blades and through the rotor area that makes a wind turbine function. The wind turbine extracts energy by slowing the wind down. The theoretical maximum amount of energy in the wind that can be collected by a wind turbines rotor is approximately 59.3%. This value is known as the Betz limit. If the blades were 100% efficient, a wind turbine would not work because the air, having given up all its energy, would entirely stop. In practice, the collection efficiency of a rotor is not as high as 59%. A more typical efficiency is 35% to 45%. A complete wind energy system, including rotor, transmission, generator, storage and other devices, which all have less than perfect efficiencies, will deliver between 10% and 30% of the original energy available in the wind.
Tip Speed Ratio The tip-speed ratio is the ratio of the rotational speed of the blade to the wind speed. The larger this ratio, the faster the rotation of the wind turbine rotor at a given wind speed. Electricity generation requires high rotational speeds. Lift-type wind turbines have maximum tip-speed ratios of around 10, while drag-type ratios are approximately 1. Given the high rotational speed requirements of electrical generators, it is clear that the lift-type wind turbine is the most practical for this application. The number of blades that make up a rotor and the total area they cover affect wind turbine performance. For a lift-type rotor to function effectively, the wind must flow smoothly over the 38
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blades. To avoid turbulence, spacing between blades should be great enough so that one blade will not encounter the disturbed, weaker air flow caused by the blade which passed before it.
In a horizontal-axis wind turbine, the distance from the ground to the center-line of the turbine. The type that is most commonly used is the horizontal axis version as it is far superior to the vertical axis turbine in efficiency. In simple terms the vertical axis machine is easier to scale. The blades in these wind turbines rotate along a horizontal axis. Horizontal wind turbine. A horizontal axis with a two or three spoke turbine would work much better. The new design generates as much power as a wind. Blowing wind rotates the blades of the turbine and the mechanism in it can generate electricity upon this rotation
=
= Radial speed in Radians /sec R = Rotor Radius V = Free Stream Velocity
Twist Angle, The angle of an airfoils chord line relative to a reference chord line (usually at the blade tip). Typical blades have about 20 degrees from root to tip. 39
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Angle of attack (blade angle): The angle between the chord line of the airfoil and the flight direction is called the angle of attack. Angle of attack has a large effect on the lift generated by an airfoil. This is the propeller efficiency. Typically, numbers here can range from 1.0 to 15.0 degrees.
Generators choice:
Wind power generators are one of many ways you can lower your energy bills and stay environmentally friendly at the same time. With the recently booming renewable energy market, there are now several alternative ways to supply your house, farm or commercial building with light and electrical power, without fainting whenever electricity bill comes! Wind powers generators can help cut your energy bills, and provide you with pollution free energy. You might be also getting a tax-break for investing in ecological solutions as well. Wind energy has some significant benefits, but it also has some disadvantages. Disadvantages of Wind Power Generators One problem that very few people talk about is that wind generators can be noisy and can influence television reception. Some research has even indicated some kinds of physical effects from living close to wind generators. Some people who live near wind farms have complained about sleep disorders, headaches, panic attacks and other illnesses that were caused by vibration and low-frequency noise. The sound frequencies appear to affect the inner ear and over a long period time. The appearance "wind turbine syndrome" suggests that wind farms should be located at a distance from where people are living so they are not affected by the long term effects of the low frequency noise and vibration.hronization is a technique to match the parameters of input electrical signal with the output or connecting equipments. Else the one running at lower frequency would feed upon the one running at higher frequency and run as a motor wasting power. Phase sequence matching should be done. If it's Black Red Blue then it should be connected as Black red and blue which is a standard. See the below diagram which explain phase sequence of star ot Y connected system most simple of electrical circuits requires only a power supply (battery), an electrical load (in this simplified explanation we will use a light) and wiring to connect the lad to the battery on both the power and ground sides.
THERMIONIC SYSTEMS AND THENNIONIC EMISSION A thermionic converter transforms heat directly into electrical energy by utilizing thermionic emission. All metals and some oxides have free electrons which are released on heating. These electrons can travel through a space and collected on a cooled metal. These electrons can return to hot metal through an external load thereby producing electrical power. A thermionic converter has two electrodes enclosed in a tube. The cathode is called an emitter and is heated enough to release electrons from its surface. The electrons cross a small
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gap and accumulate on a cooled metal anode called the collector. The space between the electrodes is maintained at high vacuum or filled with a highly conducting plasma like ionised cesium vapour to minimal energy losses. The external load R is connected through anode to cathode. The electrons return to cathode through the external load and electrical power is produced. Thermionic conversions is a sealed and evacuated device comprising of 1. A heated cathode (electron emitter) 2. An anode (electron collector) 3. Vacuum gap between 1 and 2 (with ionised vapour to neutralise space charge). The gap is only about a mm. External electrical circuit is connected between anode and cathode. (Ref. Fig.). The thermionic converter converts thermal energy directly to electrical energy by virtue of flow of electrons through the vacuum gap. Heat is supplied to emitter. Electrons released from emitter flow through small vacuum gap seeded with ionising substance. Heat is rejected from collector. Electrical energy is tapped from the terminals.
THERMOIONIC CONVERSION The emission of an electron from a metal surface is opposed by a potential barrier equal to the difference between the energies of an electron outside and inside the metal. Therefore, a certain amount of energy has to be spent to release the electron from the surface. This energy is called surface work function (). The maximum electron current per unit area emitted from the surface is given by the following Richardson Dushman equation:
The kinetic energy of the free electrons at absolute zero would occupy discrete energy levels from zero up to some maximum value defined by the Fermi energy level, f. Each energy level contains a limited number of free electrons.
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Above absolute zero temperature, some electrons may have energies higher than the Fermi level. The energy that must be supplied to overcome the weak attrac-tive force on the outermost orbital electrons is the work function, , so that the electron leaving the emitter has an energy level + f. When emitter is heated, some high energy free electrons at the Fermi level receive energy equal to emitter work function c, and escape the emitter surface. They move through the gap and strike the collector. The K.E. (fa) plus the energy equal to collector work function a is given up and this energy is rejected as heat from the low temperature collector. The electron energy is reduced to the Fermi energy level of the anode fa This energy state is higher than that of the electron at the Fermi energy level of cathode fc. Therefore, the electron is able to pass through the external load from anode to cathode. The cathode materials are selected with low Fermi levels as comprised to anode materials which must have higher Fermi level. THERMOELECTRIC SYSTEMS A loop of two dissimilar metals develops an e.m.f. when the two junctions of the loop are kept at different temperatures. This is called Seebeck effect. This effect is used in a thermocouple to measure temperature. Thermoelectric generator is a device which directly converts heat energy into electrical energy using the Seebeck thermoelectric effect. The device is very simple but thermal efficiency is very low of the order of 3%. Efficiency of thermoelectric generator depends upon the temperature of hot and cold junctions and the material properties. The semiconductor materials have more favourable properties which can withstand high temperatures and can give reasonable efficiency. The probability of developing peak load power stations of the order of 100 mW working at 20 percent thermal efficiency is high. Where cheap fuels are available thermoelectric generators can be developed for base load and standby power generation also. Another important application is the use of radioactive decay heat to generate power in space and other remote locations. The use of solar energy to supply heat for generating electricity can be an attractive application of thermoelectric devices if high efficiency materials can be developed. Semiconducting materials are used to make thermocouples which can be used to generate electricity using the Seebeck effect or as cooling devices using the Peltier effect.
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When heat is applied to one side of a semiconductor thermocouple the heat energy causes charge carriers to be released into the conduction band, electrons in the N type material and holes in the P type material. The charge carriers concentrated at the hot side of the device will repel each other with the result is that they tend to migrate towards the cold side of the device. In the N type material this electron flow constitutes a current flowing from the cold side to the hot side and the movement of the electrons causes a negative charge to build up at the cold side with a corresponding positive charge on the hot side due to the deficit of electrons there. In the P type material the migration of the holes constitutes a current flowing in the opposite direction and a positive charge to be built up at the cold side and a corresponding negative charge at the hot side. By connecting the junctions together with metallic interconnections as shown in the diagram above, a current will flow in an external circuit. The current generated is proportional to the temperature gradient between the hot and cold junctions and the voltage is proportional to the temperature difference. Heat must be removed from the cold junction otherwise the migration of the charge carriers will equalise their distribution in the semiconductor eliminating the temperature difference across the device causing the migration and hence the current to stop. The generation of electrical power from the heat flux passing through a conductor is known as the Seebeck effect. Thermo-electric generators based on the Seebeck effect have been used in nuclear batteries to harness the heat of nuclear decay to produce electricity. Passage of an electrical current through the conductor is known as the Peltier effect.
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Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC or OTE) uses the difference between cooler deep and warmer shallow or surface ocean waters to run a heat engine and produce useful work, usually in the form of electricity. A heat engine gives greater efficiency and power when run with a large temperature difference. In the oceans the temperature difference between surface and deep water is greatest in the tropics, although still a modest 20oC to 25oC. It is therefore in the tropics that OTEC offers the greatest possibilities. OTEC has the potential to offer global amounts of energy that are 10 to 100 times greater than other ocean energy options such as wave power. OTEC plants can operate continuously providing a base supply for an electrical power generation system. The main technical challenge of OTEC is to generate significant amounts of power efficiently from small temperature differences. It is still considered an emerging technology. Early OTEC systems were of 1 to 3% thermal efficiency, well below the theoretical maximum for this temperature difference of between 6 and 7%.Current designs are expected to be closer to the maximum. The first operational system was built in Cuba in 1930 and generated 22 kW. Modern designs allow performance approaching the theoretical maximum Carnot efficiency and the largest built in 1999 by the USA generated 250 kW. The most commonly used heat cycle for OTEC is the Rankine cycle using a low-pressure turbine. Systems may be either closed-cycle or open-cycle. Closed-cycle engines use working fluids that are typically thought of as refrigerants such as ammonia or R-134a. Open-cycle engines use vapour from the seawater itself as the working fluid.
Types of OTEC 1. Closed cycle 2. Open cycle 3. hybrid 1. Closed cycle Closed-cycle systems use fluid with a low boiling point, such as ammonia, to power turbine to generate electricity. Warm surface seawater is pumped through a heat exchanger to vaporize the fluid. The expanding vapour turns the turbo-generator. Cold water, pumped through a second heat exchanger, condenses the vapour into a liquid, which is then recycled through the system. In 1979, the Natural Energy Laboratory and several private-sector partners developed the "mini OTEC" experiment, which achieved the first successful at-sea production of net electrical power from closed-cycle OTEC. The mini OTEC vessel was moored 1.5 miles
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(2 km) off the Hawaiian coast and produced enough net electricity to illuminate the ship's light bulbs and run its computers and television.
2. Open cycle
Open-cycle OTEC uses warm surface water directly to make electricity. Placing warm seawater in a low-pressure container causes it to boil. The expanding steam drives a lowpressure turbine attached to an electrical generator. The steam, which has left its salt and other contaminants in the low-pressure container, is pure fresh water. It is condensed into a liquid by exposure to cold temperatures from deep-ocean water. This method produces desalinized fresh water, suitable for drinking water or irrigation. In 1984, the Solar Energy Research Institute (now the National Renewable Energy Laboratory) developed a vertical-spout evaporator to convert warm seawater into lowpressure steam for open-cycle plants. Conversion efficiencies were as high as 97% for seawater-to-steam conversion (overall efficiency using a vertical-spout evaporator would still only be a few per cent). In May 1993, an open-cycle OTEC plant at Keahole Point, Hawaii, produced 50,000 watts of electricity during a net power-producing experiment. This broke the record of 40 kW set by a Japanese system in 1982. 3. Hybrid cycle
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A hybrid cycle combines the features of the closed- and open-cycle systems. In a hybrid, warm seawater enters a vacuum chamber and is flash-evaporated, similar to the open-cycle evaporation process. The steam vaporizes the ammonia working fluid of a closed-cycle loop on the other side of an ammonia vaporizer. The vaporized fluid then drives a turbine to produce electricity. The steam condenses within the heat exchanger and provides desalinated water. (See heat pipe) Working fluids A popular choice of working fluid is ammonia, which has superior transport properties, easy availability, and low cost. Ammonia, however, is toxic and flammable. Fluorinated carbons such as CFCs and HCFCs are not toxic or flammable, but they contribute to ozone layer depletion. Hydrocarbons too are good candidates, but they are highly flammable; in addition, this would create competition for use of them directly as fuels. The power plant size is dependent upon the vapour pressure of the working fluid. With increasing vapour pressure, the size of the turbine and heat exchangers decreases while the wall thickness of the pipe and heat exchangers increase to endure high pressure especially on the evaporator side. Magneto hydro dynamics It is well known that man had always been trying to find something new to achieve a new aims 80% of total electricity produced in the world is hydral while remaining 20% is produced from nuclear, thermal, solar, Geothermal energy and from magneto hydro dynamic power generation. MHD power generation is a new system of electric power generation which is said to be of high efficiency and low pollution. In advanced countries MHD generator are widely used but in developing countries like India it is still under construction. This construction work is in progress at Tiruchirapalli in Tamilnadu unders joint efforts of BARC (Bhabha Atomic Research Centre), BHEL, Associated Cement Corporation and Russian technologists. As its name implies, magneto-hydro-dynamic (MHD) is concerned with the flow of conducting fluid in presence of magnetic and electric field. This fluid may be gas at elevated temperature or liquid metal like sodium or potassium. A MHD generator is a device for converting heat energy of fuel directly into electric energy without a conventional electric generator. The basic difference between conventional generator and MHD generator is in the nature of conductor. PRINCIPLE OF MHD POWER GENERATION The principle of MHD generation is simple, discovered by faraday when an electric conductor moves across a magnetic field, a emf. Is induced in it, which produced an electric current. This is the principle of the conventional generator also, where the conductors consists of copper strips. In MHD generator the
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solid conductors are replaced by a gaseous conductor; i.e. an ionized gas. If such gas is passed at high velocity through a powerful magnetic field, i.e. suppose we have a charged particle (having charge q) moving at a high velocity V towards right and a perpendicular magnetic field is applied. A magnetic force F acts on the charged particle. Show in fig. A Positively charged particles as forced upward and negatively charged particle is forced downward. The positive ions would be accelerated towards the upper plate P, and negative ions would be accelerated towards the plate P 2 . If the P 1 and P 2 are externally connected through a resistance, a current would flow through the resistance. Thus gas energy directly converted into electrical energy. This is the principle of MHD generator. A MHD conversion is known as direct energy conversion because it produced electricity directly from heat source without the necessity of the additional stage of steam generation as in a steam power plant. The developed view of an MHD channel in show in fig. MHD SYSTEM There are two types of MHD System Open cycle System Closed cycle System In open cycle system the working fluid after generating electrical energy is discharged to the atmosphere through a stack. In a closed cycle system the working fluid is recycled to the heat sources and thus used again and again. The operation of MHD generator directly on combustion products in an open cycle system. In open cycle system working fluid is air. In closed cycle system helium or argon is used as the working fluid.
1.) 2.)
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UNIT V
OPEN CYCLE MHD SYSTEM An elementary open cycle MHD system is shown in fig. The MHD generator resembles a rocket engine surrounded by a magnet the coal is burnt to produce hot gas. The hot gas is then seeded with a small amount of an ionized alkali metal (cesium or potassium) to increase the electrical conductivities of gas. The gas expands through the generator surrounded by powerful magnet. During the motion of gas the positive and negative ions move to the electrodes and constitute an electric current. The rejected gas passes through an air heater for preheating the inlet air. The seed material is recovered for successive use. The nitrogen and sulphur are removing for pollution controlled and then gasses are discharged to the atmosphere. The above cycle is not suitable for commercial use. The exhaust gases of MHD unit are still at a sufficiently hot temperature it is possible to use for additional power generation in a steam turbine alternator unit. This is increase the efficiency of process. Such cycle is known as hybrid MHD-steam plant cycle. Figure shows hybrid MHD steam cycle, coal is processed and burnt in the combustor at high temperature (2750 to 3000 K) and pressure (7 to 15 at atmosphere). With preheated air to form the plasma. The plasma is then seeded with small fraction (1%) of an alkali metal (potassium) Introduced usually as a carbonate powder or solution.
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UNIT V
1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6)
HYBRID MHD STEAM PART OPEN CYCLE The resulting mixture having an electrically conductivity of about 10 ohm/m is expanded through a nozzle to increase its velocity and then passed through the high magnetic field (5 to 7 teslas) of the MHD generator. Electrodes channel provided electric contact between flow and external load. The power o/p is dc and it is necessary to use to change it to ac before the power can be fed to an electric grid. The gas coming out of MHD generator is still sufficiently hot and is used to raise steam, which generates additional energy in a steam in a steam turbine alternator unit. A part of this steam is also used in a steam turbine which driver a compressor for compressing air for the MHD cycle. The seed material is recovered from the gas the harmful emissions (sulphur) are also removed from gas before it is discharged to atmosphere through a stack. For efficient practical realization a MHD system must have following features: Air superheating arrangement to heat the gas to around 2500 C so that the electrical conductivity gas is increased. The combustion chamber must have low heat losses A management to add a low ionization potential seed material to the gas to increase, its conductivity. Water cooled but electrically insulating expanding dust with long life electrodes. A magnet capable of producing high magnetic flux density. Seed recovery apparatus necessary for both environmental and economic reasons. CLOSED CYCLE MHD SYSTEM
The closed cycle inert gas MHD system was conceived 1965. The main disadvantages of the open cycle system are very high temperature requirement and a very chemically active flow could be removed, by closed cycle MHD system. As the name suggests the working fluid in closed cycle, is circulated in a closed loop. The working fluid is helium or argon with cesium seeding. Figure show a closed cycle MHD system. The complete system has three distinct but interlocking loops. On the left is the external heating loop, coal is gasified and the gas having a high heat value of about 5.35 MJ/kg and temperature of about 530C is burnt in a combustor to produce heat. In the heat exchanger HX, this heat is transferred to argon the working fluid of MHD cycle. The combustion products after passing through the airpreheater (to recover a part of the heat of combustion product) and purifiers (To remove harmful emissions) and discharged to atmosphere.
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UNIT V
The loop in the centre is the MHD loop. The hot argon gas is seeded with cesium and passed through MHD generator. The dc power output of MHD generator is converted to A.C. by the inverter and is then feed into the grid. The loop shown on the right hand side in fig is the steam loop for further recovering the heat of the working fluid and converting this heat into electrical energy. The fluid passes through the heat exchanges HX 2 where it imparts its heat to water which gets converted to steam. This steam is used partly for during a turbine which runs the compressor partly for turbine driver an alternator. The output of the alternator is also to the grid. The working fluid goes back to the heat exchanges HX) after passing through compressor and intercooler. A closed system can provide more useful power conversion at lower temperatures (around 1900 o K as compared to 2500 o K for open cycle system).
ADVANTAGES OF MHD GENERATION MHD generation offers several advantages as compared to other methods of electric generation. The conversion efficiency of a MHD system can be 50% as compared to less than 40 percent for the most efficient steam plants. Large amount of power is generated. It has no moving parts, so more reliable. It has ability to reach the full power level as soon as started.
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1) 2) 3) 4)
UNIT V
5) 6)
7)
Because of higher efficiency, the overall generation cost of an MHD plant will be less. The more efficient heat utilization would efficient heat utilization would decreases the amount of heat discharged to environment and the cooling water requirements would also be lower. The higher efficiency means better fuel utilization. The reduce fuel consumption would offer additional economic and social benefits. The Closed cycle system produces power free of pollution
51

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UNIT V

NON CONVENTIONAL POWER GENERATION Unit III Course material

UNIT V EE1252-POWER PLANT ENGINEERING UNIT V NON CONVENTIONAL POWER GENERATION

SOLAR THERMAL SYSTEMS

NON CONVENTIONAL POWER GENERATION

NON CONVENTIONAL POWER GENERATION

NON CONVENTIONAL POWER GENERATION

Type 2: Concentrating solar collector:

NON CONVENTIONAL POWER GENERATION

Compound Parabolic Concentrators (CPC)

NON CONVENTIONAL POWER GENERATION

1. Parabolic through collector (PTC) (80c 300c) Introduction to Technology:

NON CONVENTIONAL POWER GENERATION

NON CONVENTIONAL POWER GENERATION

Solar thermal systems:

NON CONVENTIONAL POWER GENERATION

Parabolic dish collector

power capacity range.

Heliostat field collector (HFC) or central receiver (150c 2000c)

NON CONVENTIONAL POWER GENERATION

Application of solar energy:

1. Solar water heating:

NON CONVENTIONAL POWER GENERATION

2. Solar heating of building:

NON CONVENTIONAL POWER GENERATION

NON CONVENTIONAL POWER GENERATION

NON CONVENTIONAL POWER GENERATION

NON CONVENTIONAL POWER GENERATION

NON CONVENTIONAL POWER GENERATION

NON CONVENTIONAL POWER GENERATION

NON CONVENTIONAL POWER GENERATION

NON CONVENTIONAL POWER GENERATION

2) FUEL CELL. Fuel Cell Basics

NON CONVENTIONAL POWER GENERATION

Hydrogen fuel cell:

NON CONVENTIONAL POWER GENERATION

Geothermal power generation

NON CONVENTIONAL POWER GENERATION

NON CONVENTIONAL POWER GENERATION

NON CONVENTIONAL POWER GENERATION

NON CONVENTIONAL POWER GENERATION

NON CONVENTIONAL POWER GENERATION

NON CONVENTIONAL POWER GENERATION

The Mechanics of Wind Turbines

NON CONVENTIONAL POWER GENERATION

2) Power and energy relation:

NON CONVENTIONAL POWER GENERATION

Power generated by wind turbine

NON CONVENTIONAL POWER GENERATION

NON CONVENTIONAL POWER GENERATION

Power Generated by Different Wind Turbine:

4) Predictions of Wind Energy:

NON CONVENTIONAL POWER GENERATION

NON CONVENTIONAL POWER GENERATION

6) Wind turbine design:

Two Types of Turbine Designs: Drag Designs -Savonius

Lift Designs VAWT Darrieus Most HAWT designs 33

NON CONVENTIONAL POWER GENERATION

NON CONVENTIONAL POWER GENERATION

Vertical Axis Wind Turbines:

NON CONVENTIONAL POWER GENERATION

HORIZONTAL-AXIS WIND TURBINE:

Working of wind turbine: