CHAPTER 3

ELEMENTS OF POINT SET TOPOLOGY

3.1 INTRODUCTION

of the previous chapter dealt with "abstract" sets, that is, sets of arbitrary objet:ts. ln this chapter w e specialize our sets to be sets of real numbers, sets of complex numbers. and more generally, sets in higher-dimensional spaces. ln this area of study it is convenient a nd helpful to use geometric tenninology. Thus, we speak about sets of ponts on the real lin e, sets of p oints in the plane, or sets of points in some higher-dimensional space. La.ter in th is book we will study functions defined on point sets, and it is desirable to become acquainted with certain fundamental types of point sets, such as open sets, closed sets, and compact sets, before begin n ing the study of functions. The study of these sets is called point sei topology.
A la rge part l.2 EUCLIDEAN SPACE R" A point in two-dimensional space is an ordered pair of real oumbers (x1, x2). Similarly, a point in three-dim<:nsional space is an ordered tripie of real numbers (xi. x2, x3). lt is just as easy to consider an ordered rHup le of real numbers (xi. x2, , x.) and to refer to this as a po i nt in n-dimensional space.
. .

Deflntion 3.1. Let n > O /Je an integer. An ordered set of n real numbers (xh x2, ... , x.) is called an ndimensional point or a vecror with n components. Points or tJectors will usually be denoted by single bofd-face /etters; for example,

or The number xk i. ca/led the klh coordinate of the point x or the kth component of vector :x. The set of ali ndimensional points is called n-dimensonaJ Euclidean space or simply n-space, and is denoted by R.
the

The reader rnay wonder whether there is any advantage in disi;:ussing spaces of than three. Actually, the language of n sp ace makes many complicated stuations much easier to comprehend. The readeris probably familiar enough with three-dimensional ve ctor analysis to realize the advantage of writing the equations of moti on of a system having three degrees of freedom as a single vect or equation rather th an as th ree scalar equations. There is a similar advantage if the system has n degrees of freedom.
dmension greater
-

fileaads of Point Set Tepojogy

Dei'. 3.2

Another advantage in studying n-space for a general n is that we are able to deal in one stroke with many properties common to 1-space, 2-space, 3-space,

etc., that is, properties independent of the dimensionalty of the space.

statistical and quantum mechanics. ln quit.e common in quantum mechanics.

De}ilritWll 3.2. Let x
=

Higher-dimensional spaces arise q u ite naturally in such fields as relativity, and fact, even infinite-dimensional spaces are

Algebraic operations on n-dimensionai ponts are defi ned as follows:

(x1,
y

. . .

, x,.) andy

(y., . . . , j>.,) be in R". We define:

. . . x,.

a)

Equa/ity:

b) Sum:

if, and only if, x 1

= y.,
. .

y.

x + y = (x1 + Yi.

, x0

+ Y.).

e) Multiplication by reol numbers (scalars):

ax =

(axu..
X

ax,.)

(a real).

d) Difference:
y = O= e)

Zero vector or origin;

lnner pr<Xhlct or dot pr<J<hlct:

X + ( - l)y.
. .

(O,

O).

f)

x y

=:E XiYt.
-1

"

g) Norm or length:
lf:x:ll =
The norm "x NOTE.
-

(xx)112 = :E xi
11

( " )''i.
Then O.

Yll is called the d1'stance between x and y.

ln the term.inology of linear algebra, K" is an example of a linear space. Lei

Theore"' J.3. b) llaxH e) llx e) llx

+

x andy denote points in R".

Hxll = O if, and only if, X
=

we lrave:

a) JjxJI ;"<>: O, and

=

la! llxll for every real a.

=

Yll

llY

xll.
(Cauchy-Schwarz inequality). (trianglflnequality).

d) lxyl ll xll l!Yll

y[I

.:::.;;

llxll + llYll

Proof. Statements (a), (b) and (e) are immediate from the definition, and the
Cauchy-Schwarz inequality was proved n Tbeorem 1.23.

Statement

{e) follows

Def. 3.6

49

from (d) because llx + Yll2

=

k=I

f, (x + Yk)2 1 f,1 (xi + hky + Y!)

=

Hxll2 + 2xy + llYll1 s; Hxlli + 211xll llyll + llYll2

(llxll + llYID2

NOTE. Sometimes the triangle inequality is written in

tbe form

llx

zn

llx - Yll + llY - zll x by x - y and y by y z.

This follows from (e) by replacing

We

also have

lllxll - tlYlll llx - Yll-

Dejinit"' 3.4. The unit coordinate vector Dt. in lt" is tfle vectcr whose ponent is 1 and whose remaining components are zero. Thus,
u1
=

kth com

(1,
,

O,

. .

O),

U2 =

(O, 1, O, ... , O),

.. . ' u,.

(O,

O, . . .

, O, 1).
X1
==

lf

X =

u1,

(xi. x,. =

. . .

x.J lhen

u.,.

X'U1, X = X1U1 + ... + x.,u,. and X1 The vectors 01, . . . , u,. are also called bosis vectors.

3.3 OPEN BALLS AND OPEN SETS lN R" Let a be a given point

in R

and

let r
lfx

be

given positive r,

number.

The set of

an

points
is

in R." such that

li<

called

an open n-boll of radius

and cen ter a. We denote this set by B{) or

by B(a; r).
The ball B(a; and in 3.5

In R1 this is simply an open i-nterval

r)

R3 it is a spherical

consists of ali points whose distance from a is Jess than r. with ccnter at a. ln lt2 it is a circular disk,

solid with

center at a and radius r.

Defori.tion of an interior poiat. Let S be a subset of R, and assume that a E S. Then a is called an interior point of S if there is an open n-ball with center ata, ali of whose points helong to S.
ln other words, every interior point a of S can be surrounded by an n-ball B(a) S. The liel of ali interior points of S is called the interior of S and is denoted by nt S. Any sel containing a ball with center a is sometimes called a neighborhood of a. 3.6

Definition of tm open set. A set S in R" is ca/led open if ai/ its points are interior
A set S is open if and

points.
NOTE.

only if S

int S. (See Exercise 3.9.)

l'h.3.7 ED.mples. Jn R 1 the simplest type of nonempty open set is an open interva.I. The union of two or more open intervals is also open. A closed interva.I [a, h] is not an open set because the endpoints a and b are not interior points of the interval. Examples of open sets in the plane are: the interior of a disk; the cartesian product of two one-dimensional open intervals. The reader should be cautioned that an open interval in R1 is no longer ao open set when it is considered as a subset of the plane. ln fact, no subset of R' (except the empty set) cm be open in R2, because such a set cannot contain a 2.. rnin. ln R" the empty set is open (Why?) as is the who!e space R. Every open 11-ball

is an open set in

R". The cartesian

product
x x
.

(ai> b1)
an n-dimensional open b
= ,

(a ,., bJ

ofn one-dimensional open intervais

(bl hn) The next two theorems show how additonal open sets in R" can be constructed from given open set s.
Tll>rem 3.7. The union of any collection of open seis is an open set.

(a1> hi), . . , (a,., b,.) is an open set in :R8 called interval. We denote it by (a, b), where a (a1, . .. , a,J and
=

U""A. S least one of the sets in F, say x E A . Since A is open, there exists an open n-ball B(x) !".'.::: A . But A s;:: S, so B(x) s,: S and hence: x is an interior po nt of S. Since every point of S is an i nterior p<iint,
Assume Proof. Let F be a collection of open sets and let S denote their u ni on ,
x E

S.

Th en

x must belong

to at

S is open.

Tlleorem 3.8. The intersec!fon of a jinite co/lection of open sets is open.

x E S. (lf S is empty, Then x E Ak for every k 1, 2, . , m, and hence there is an open n-ball B(x; rk) s At. Let r be the smallest of the pos itive numbers r1, r2, , r,... Then x E B(x; r) ;;; S. That is, x is an interior point, so S is

Proof

Let S

there is nothing to prove.)

. .

l:'=i

Ak where each A.tis open. Assume

. .

open.

Thus we see that from given open sets, new open sets can be formed by taking arbitrary unions or finite ntersections. Arbitrary intersections, on the other hand, will not always lead to open sets. For exarnple, the intersection of all open lntervals of the form (-1/n, l /n). where n = l, 2, 3, , is th e set consisting of O alone.
. . .

3A THE STRUCTURE OF OPEN SETS IN R 1 and, remarkably enough, every nonempt y open set in R.1 can be obtaned in this way. 1 n R 1 the union of a countable collection of disjoint open intervals is an open set

This section is devoted to a proof of t his statement. First we introduce the concept of a component interval.

'lb. 3.11 J.9 I

De &nicluR oi' Opta Seis ln R 1

51

interval I

Dejillitio11 ofcomponent inlerMI. Let S be an open subset of R1 An open (which may be finite or infinite) is called a componmt fnterwil of S if s;; S and if there is no open interoa/ J #- 1 such that I J <;;;;: S.
ln other words, a component interval of S is not a proper subset of any o ther

open interval contained in

S.

T/u!orl!m 3.10. Every point of a nonempt.v open set S component

Prooj.

belongs to one and only one

open interval I with I S.

interval of S.
xE

Assume

S. Tben

is contained in some
"

There are many such intervals but the

lx

ponent interval.
=

(a(x), b(x)), where

a(x)
= oo

We leave it to the reader to verify that th is largest interval is inf {a

-

largest " of these will be the desired com

(a, x) s S},

b(x)

sup {b: (x, b) ; S}.

x.

is another component interval of

nition

J such that 1,, o;:; J ; S, so 1,, is a component interval of S containng

Here a(x) might be

and

b(x) might be + oo. Clearly, th ere is no open interval

open interval contained in S and containing both I"' and J,, .

containng x, then the union /"

u

lf J,,

of component

nt erva l , it follows that /

J"

an Hence, by the defi ! and I,. u J,. J", so

u
=

J" is

/;<

J,..

emp(v open set intervals of S.

Proof.
lf x
,

Theorem J.IJ (Representatio11 theoremfor open 1ets on tlle real fine). S in

R1 is

the union of a countab/e col/ection

Every non of disjoint cmponent

common lhen their union /"

both (" and J,. Hence /,,

of ali such in tervals lx is clearly S.

u u

e S, let i,. denote the compon en t interval or S containing x. The union

11 ly is an open interva l contained in S and containing lf two of them, lx and 11, have
u a

point in

I"

and /,.

l,

1:, so 1,,

11.

Therefore the

intervals (,, form a disjoint collection. It remains to show that they forma countable collection. Fo r this purpose, let {x 1 , x2, x3, } denot e the countable set of ratonal numbers. ln eac h com ponent interval l there will be in finitely many x0, but among these there will be exactl y one wi th smallest ndex n. We then define a function F by means of the equation F(/,,) n, if x. i s the rati onal number in I,. with smallest index n. This function F is oneto-one since F(l") F(l1) = n implies that I"' and 17 have x. in common and this implies !,,. I,. Therefore F establishes a one t o o ne corre s ponden c e between the i nterval s (, and a subset of the positive integers. Th i s
. . x = = = -

completes the proof.

Thi s

NOTE.

representation

intervals, then these intervals must be the component intervals of

immediate consequence

of Theorem 3.10.

of S is unique. ln fact; ff S js a uo ion or disjoin t open S. This is an

lf S is an open interval, then the representatfon contains only on e componeot interval narnel y S i tself. Therefore an open in ter va l in R1 cannot be expressed as
,

Elemnlts oi Point Set TC'IJl(lkw

Def. 3.12

the union of two nonempty disjoint open sets. saying n R"

This

that an open interval is connected. The will be discussed further in Secton 4.16. SETS
cloNd ret.

property is also described by

concept of

connectedness for sets

3.5 CLOSW J.12

Defillition o/ a
S

A set S in R" is

called closed !f its compfement

is open.

Examples. A closed interval [a, b J in R' is a closed set. The cartesian product

[a1, b1]

x x

[a., b0]
in R" called an n--dimensional c/asl!d

of n one-dimensional closed intervals is a irlteroal [a, b]. construct

closed set

The next theorem, a consequence of Theorems 3.7 and 3.8, shows how to

further closed sets from given ones.

Tlu!mem J.13. The union of a finite collection of closed seis is closed, and the intersection of an arbitrary col/ection of closed seis is closed.

A further relation between open and closed sets is described by the following
theorem.

closed. Prvof.

Theorem J.U.

lf A

is open and B

is closed, then
B
=

B 8),

is open and

A is

open sets, 3.6

We simply note that A

and that B

B n (R"

A), the intersection of two d osed sets.

(Rn

the ntersection of .lwo

ADHERENT POINTS. ACCUMULATION POINTS

be described
in terms of adherent poin ts and accumulation

Closed sets can also

points.

3.15
x

Definition ofa11 adlwreflt point. Let S be a subset of R", anJ x a point in R", not necessarily;,, S. Then x is said to be adherent to S if every n-ball B(:x) contains at least one point of S.
ExampM!s 1. If x E S, tben
Some
x

adhen:s to S for thc trivial reason that cvery n-ball is bounded above,

2. If Sisa subset of R which

from
x.

B(x) contai ns x. then sup S i:s adherent to S.

These are

points adhere to S because every bali B(x) contains points of S distinct called aumulaton points.
x E

Dejinition of an ar:cumu/aJion pobrt. lf S S Rn and accumulation point of S if every n-ball B(x) contains distinct from x.
3.16
1111

at leasr one

R", then x is called point of S

Dei'. 3.19

53

ln ot her words, x is an accumulation point of S if, and only if, x adheres to S {x}. If x
e

S but x is not an accumulation point of s. then x is called an

isolated pcfnt of S.

Examples l. The sCt of numbers of the form 1{11, rr

l, 2, 3, .
an

. .

, has O as an accumulation point.

2. The set of rational numbers has every n:al nurnber as an ao:.:umulaton point.

3. Every point of the closcd interval [a, b] is

bers in the open interval

(a, b).

accumulation point of the set of num-

Theou1n 1.17.

If x

is an accumulation point of S, then every

n-ball B(x)

contains

infinitely many pcints of S. Proof Assume the contrary; that is, suppose an 11-ball B(x) exists which contains

only a finite number ofponts of S distincl from

x, say a1, a2,

. .

,..

If r denotes

the smallest of the positive numbers

then B(x; r/2) will be

an n-ball abou t x which contains no points of S dist in ct

from x. This is a contradiction. This theorem implies, in particular, that a set cannot have an ac.cumulation point unless it contains infinitely many points to begin with. The converse, how ever, is not true in general. For ex ample, the set of integers {l, 2, 3, infinite sct with no accumulation points. infinite sets contained in some ln
a

an important l'Cliult known as the Bolzano-Weierstrass theorem.

J.7 CLOSED SETS AND ADHERENT POINTS

n-ball

!ate r

... }

is an

section we will show that

always have an accumulation point. This is

A closed set was defined to be the complement of an open set. The next theorem describes closcd sets in another way. Tlreorem 3.18.
points.

A set S in R" is closed if, and only if. t contains ali its adherent

x f S and obtain a contradicton. lf x f S then .x: E R - S and, s ince R - S is open, some n-ball B(x) lies in R" - S. Thus B(x) contans no points of
We assume S, contradicting the fact that x adheres to S. that To prove the converse, we assume S co n ta.i n s ali its adherent points and show

Proof Assume S is closed and let x be adherent to S. We wsh to prove that X E S.

Hence some bali B(:x) does not intersect S, so B(x) s

S is

closed.

Assume x

R..

is

open, and hence S is closed.

- S. Then x /; S, so x does not adhere to S. R" - S. Therefore R" S

of ali m/herent points of a

3 19 Defotition o/ clost1re. The sei closure of S and is denoted by S.

.

set S is

called

the

54

Elemeots or Point Set Topofogy

Tb. 3.20

shows that the opposite inclusion we have:

For any set

we have

S S snc e every point of S ad heres to S. Theo rem 3. l 8 S S holds fand only ir S is dosai. Therefon:

Theorem 3.20. A sei S is closed

if and only

if S

S. S is

J.21 Definitio11 of derfoed sei.

=

ca/led the derived sei of S and is denoted by S'.

The set of ali accumu/ation points of a set

Clearly, we have S S u S' for any set S. Hence Theorem 3.20 implies that is dosed if and only ifS' S. ln other words, we have:
A set S in R" is closed if, and only if, it contains ali its accumulation

points.

Tlreorem 3.12.

3.8 THE BOLZANO-WEJERSTRASS THEOREM J.23 within an n-ball

Dejittitioa o/ a bounded set. A set S in R'" is said to be bounded if it lies entirely B(a; r) for some r > O and some a in R'".

man:; points, then there is at least one point in Rw which is an accumulation point o/ S. it

Tlleorem 3.14 (BalZJUW-Weit!rstras). Jf a bounded set S in R" contains infinitely

Proof. To help fix the ideas we gi.ve the proof :first for R1 Since S is bounded, lies in some interval [-a, a]. At lea.st one ofthe subntervals [-a, O] or [O, a] contains an infinite subset of S. CaH one sucb subnterval [ai. b1]. Bisect [a1, b1] and obtain a subinterval [ah b2] cont.aining an infinite subset of S, and continue ths process. ln this way a countable collection of intervals is obtained, the nth interval [a., b,.] being of leng th h. - a/2-1 Cle arly, the sup of the left ndpoints b,. must be equal, say to x. [Why endponts and the infof the right e are th ey equal ?] The point x will be an accumulation point of S beca.use, if r is any positive number, the interval [a.,, bJ will be contained in B(x; r) as soon as n is large enough so that hw < r/2. The interval B(x; r) c:ontains a point of S distinct from x and hence x is an accumulaton point of S. This proves the theorem for R1. (Observe that the accumulatiori' point x may or may not belong to S.) Next we give a proof for R", n > t, by an ex tension of the ideas usai in treating R1. (The reader may tind it helpful to visualize the proof n. R 2 by referring to Fig. 3.1.) Since S is bounded, S lies in some n-ball 8(0; a), a > O, and therefore withn the n-dimensional interval /1 defined by the inequalites
=

-a
Here 11

xk

S a

(k

1, 2,

. .

11).

denotes the cartesian product 1 1 Ji = If ) x I1 l

set of points

1;n;

that is, the

one-dimensional

(xi. . . . , x,.), where x" E 1/1> and where each 1p is a interval -a :s;; xk :S a. Each interval JP) can be bisected to

111..3.24

-----------lr
-llir--r
- - ---

---\+
:>:
1

Ji7l _l_

_l_

Figure 3.1

t"--1 1

:..,_ __ P,ll 1
form

--r..2J_i 1 l 1

' l '
r

two subintervals Iil and

Ii. defined by the inequaltes

Next, we consider ali

where each k;
=

possible cartesian products of lhe form

such product is

1 or 2. . There are exactly 2" such products and, of course, each an n-dimensional interval. The union of these 2n intervals is t he original interv al J1, which contains S; and hence at least one ofthe 2" ntervals in (a) must contain infin1tely many points of S. One of these we denote by J2, whch can the n be expressed as J1
=

lf:J,

ll:J,

l,.<_ll,

(a)

J2l

Ji2)

J!2),

each /2) is one of the subintecvals of fl of leogth a. We now proceed with J2 as we did with J1, bsecting each interval 1p> and arriving at an n-dimen sional interval J3 containing ao infinite subset of S. If we continue the process, we obtain a countable collection of n-dimensional intervals J1, J2, J3, , where the mth interval J,,, has the property that it contains an infinite subsct of S and can be expressed in the form
where
.

Writing we have (k
=

1, 2,

, n).
. .

For each fixed k, the sup of all left endpoints ai"'\ (m 1, 2, ) , must therefore equal to the inf of all right endpoints b), (m = 1, 2, ... ), and thei r common value we denote by ' We now assert that the point t = (t1, t2; , ln) is an
=

be

S. To see this, take any n-ball .B(t; r). The point t, of of the intervals J1, J2, constructed above, and when m is such that a/2"'-2 < rj2, this neighborhood will nchlde J..,. But since J. contains infinitely many points of S, so will B(t; r), which proves tbat tis indeed an accumulation point of S.
course, belongs to each accumulation point of

3.9 THE CANTOR INTERSECilON THEOREM As an intersection such

applicaton of thcorcm. Let

the Bolzano-Weierstrass theorem we

prove

t he

Cantor

Tieotttn 1.15.

that:

{Q ..

Q2, ... } be a countable collection of nonempty sets in R

1, 2, 3, . . ).

(k

ii) Each set Q, is closed and Q1 !s bounded.

Then the intersection li' 1 that S is nonempty, Proof. Let S
=

Qk

is

c/osed and nonempty. S is dosai

because of Theorem 3.13.

x e S by verifying that x e Q.i. for each k. It will sufiice to Show that 11: is an accumuiation point o each Qb since they are all closed sets. But every neighborhood of :x contains infinitely many points of A. and since ali except {possibly) a finite number of the ponts of A belong to Q... this neighborhood also contains nfinite:ly many points of Q1 Therefore x is an accumulation point of
show tbat Q. and the

contained in the bounded

we exbibit a point x in S. We can assume lhat each Q1 con tains infinteiy many points; otherwise the proof is triviaJ. Now form a collection of disti.nct points A = {:xh x2, . . }, wbere x., e Q1 Since A is an infinite set
set

l:"=i

Qk.

Then

To show

Q1,

t bas an

aa:umulation point,

say Jt::. We' sball

theorem is proved.

. 3.10 1HE

LINDELF

COVDUNG THEOREM

Lindelf coverig theorem. in some

ln this section we introduce the concept of a cavering of a set and prove the The usefuloess of this concept wlt become apparent

of the la.ter wod.

3.26 Dejillitiott 41/' ""1tlrPlg. A collection F of sets is said to be a coveritrg of a given set S if S s;: UA.-1"" A. The. collection F is a/so said to cover S. If F is a

collection of open sets, 1.

then F is called an

open covering of S.

Eumples
The colfection o ali intervals of the form open covering of the interval O
< x <

l/n < x < 2/n, (n = 2, 3, 4, . . . ), s an 1. This is an example of a countabte covering.

2. The real line R1 is rovered by thecollection Qf al1 open intervals (a. b). This covering is not countable. However, it contains a countable covering of R1, namely, all intcr vals of the rorm (n, n + 2), where n nms through the integen:.

D.3.28 3. Lei S = {(x, y): x > O, y > O}. The colleciion F of aU circular disks with centers at (x, x) and wilh radius x, wbere x > O, is a covering of S. This covering is not countabie. However, it contains a countablewvering of S, namely, ali those dsks in which x is rational. (Sec Exercise 3.18.)

contains

The Lindelf covering thcorem states that every open a countable

subcollection which

also covers S. The

cove ri ng of a set S in a proof makes use of

the following preliminary result: Tlworem 3.17 Let G {A n A.h . . } denote the countable collection of ali n balls having rational radi and centers at ponts with rational coordinates. Assume x E R8 anti let S be an open set in R which contains x. Then at least one of the n-balls in G contains x and is contained in S. That is, we have

x E Al ;;; S

for some t

in G.

point y in S with rational coordinates that is "near" x and, using this point as nter. will then find a neighborhood in G which lies wthin B(x; r) and which contans
x.

Proof. The collection G is countable because oTheorem 2.27. If x E R" and if S is an open set containing x, then there is an 11-ball B(x; r} ;;; S. We shaU finda
Write

and

1, 2, .. .

l et y1

be a rational
, n.

number such

that

Ir..

- x1J

<

r/(4n) for each

Then

lly - x H
B(y; q) .,:;:: B(x; r) S.

S:

IY1 - X1I +

IY..

- x.I <

.,.

Next, let q be a rational number such that But 3.2 for the situatioo

(See Fig.

B(y; q) e in R2.)

G and hence the theorem is proved.

r/4 < q < r/2. Then x E B(y; q) and

TllJrem J..21 (Lill*liif ctnering tlleornl). Assume A !'.;;;; R .tUUl let F be an open rottrrg of A. Then there is a countable subco/lection of F which ablO covers A. having rational centers and rational radii. This set G will be used to hclp us extract

Proof.

Let G

{A a.

A 2,

} denote the countable collection of ali n-balls

a -eountable subcollection of F which covers A.

'Ili. 3..29 A. Then there is an

Assume
many such ample, the

collection of open scts which covers A. To get a countable subcollection of F . set A1<,.1 on e of the sets S of F which contained At<,,J This completes the proof.

A1;; corresponding to each S, but we choose only ne of thesc, for cx one of smallest index, say m = m(x). Then we have x E A,,,c,.> <;; S. The sct of ali n-balls A,.,..> obtaioed as x varies over all elements of A is a countable which covers A , wc simply correlate to each

3.27 there is an nball .1;; in G such that x

x E

open set S in F such that x e S. By Theorem e .1;; !:;;;; S. There are. of course, infinitcly

3.11

THE HEINE-BOREL COVERING THEOREM

The Lindelf covering theorem statcs that from any open coverng of an arbitrary set A in R we can extract a countab l e covering. The Heine-Borel theorem tel ls
covering to a finite covering. The proof theorem.

us that if,

in

add.ition,

we know that A is closed

aod bounded, we can reduce the makes use of the Cantor intersection

set

Tlleore,,. 1.19 (Hebre-&rel). Let F be an open covering of a closed and A ln R". Then a finile subcollecton o/ F 4lso covers A.
countable subcollection

bounded

Proof. A

3.28. Consider, for m l,

of F, say {11, /2, the finite union

s,,.
=

}, covers A, by Theorem

ll

..

1,..

This is open, since of m the

m > 1,

it is the union of open sets. We sh all show that for some value uni on S,,. covers A. For this purpose we consider the c:omplemeot R" - S,,,., which is closed. Define a countable collection of sets {Q1> Q1, } as follows: Q, A, and for
. =

Q .,
for

(R" -

S.,).

That is, Q.. consists ofthose points of A which li e outside of S,,..

If we can sh ow that o.orne '"'llue of m the set Q.., is empty, then we will have shown that for this m no point or" A lies outside S..,; in other words, we will have shown th il;t some S.,,
Observe the

covers A.

atso not empty. This means that there is some point in A which is in ali the sets Q..,, or, what is the same thing, outsde all the sets S..,. But this is impossible, since A s;; Uf'= 1 S". Therefore some Q.., must be empty, and this completes the proof.

following properties of the sets Q..,: Each set Q.. is closed, since closed set A and the closed set R" - S.,. The sets Q.. are decreasiog, since the S,,, are increasing; that is, Q.. + 1 ::; Q.,. The sets Q,.., being subsets of A, are all bounded. Therefore, ifoo sct Q., is empty, we can apply the Ca nt or iotersection theorem to conclude that the intersection nr 1 QI< is
it is the intersection of the

Th. 3.31 3.12 COMPACl'NESS IN

Coin R

59

R"
R" is closed
and bounded, then any open

covering of S can be r educed to a finite covering. lt is natural lo inquire whether

We have just seen that if a set S in

there rnight be s ets other than doseei and oounded sets w hich also have this property. Such sets will be callerl compact.
every open covering of S contains l1 finite subcover, that is,

3.30

DeftnitiDn of" compact set.

S.
Now we

also covers
compact.

ser S in R" is sa id to be compact if. and only if, afinite subcollection whicl1

The H eine--B orel

prove thc converse result.

theorem

states that every closed an d bounded set

in

R" is

Tlleorem 3.Jl. Let S he a subset of R".

Then the foffowing three statements are

equivalent:
a) S is compact.

b) S is closed and bounded.

e) Every nfinite subset implies (e) and that
statements.

of S has an accumulation point

i mplies

in S.

Proof

As noted above, (b) impfies (a).

(e)

lfwe prove tha t (a) implies (b), that (b) (b), l his will establish the equivalence of ali three

in S. The co\lection of nba lls B{p; k), k = 1, 2,

Next we prove that S is closed.

Assume (a) holds. We shall prove first that S is bounded.

...

, is

an

Choose

poin t p

open covering of

S.

By compactness a finite subcollection also covers S and hence S is bounded. accumulation point y of S s.uch that y lf, S. lfx E S, let '" = llx - yll/2. Each r.._ is positive snce y S and the collection { B(x; rJ : x E S} is a n open co verjng of S. By compactness, a finite number of these neighborhoods cover S, say S Let
r = 1

Suppose S is not closed .

Then there is an

U B(xl; rl).

..

the ball

rh . . . , r p Then it is easy to prove that B(y; r) has no points in common with any otne balls B(x1; r"). ln fact, if x B(y; r), then llx - yll < r ::;;; rk, and by the triangle ineq uality we have llY - xkll llY - xll + llx - Xtll so

denote the smallest of the ra d ii r1,

tlx - xlll
H e nce x

<:::

ll Y

x.11 - llx

Yll
n

2rt

llx - Yll

>

'k

y is an accumulation point of S. This contradiction shows tnat S is c\osed and hence (a) implies (b). an

it B(x.; r,1.).

Therefore

B(y; r)

S is empty, contradicting the fact that

Assume (b) holds . ln this case the proof of (e) fa immediate, because if Tis infinite snbset of S then Tis bounded (since S is bounded), and hence by the Bolzano-Weierstrass theorern T has an accumuiation point x, say. Now x is also

an accumulation point of S and hence x e S, since S is closed. Therefore (b) implies (e). Assume (e) holds. We shaJI prove (b). If S is unbounded, tben for every m > O thcre exists a poi nt x,,, in Swith Ux,,, 11 > m. The collection T "" {x 1 , x2, . . . } is an infinite subset of S and hence, by (e), T has an accumuJation point y in S. But for m > 1 + llyll we have

llx,,, - Y ll l!x.. 11 - liYll > m - yU

contradcting bounded.

>

1,

the fact that y is an accumulation

pont of T. This proves that

S is

we can

countable set of distinct points. say T

B(x ; l /k), where k 1, 2 , and obtain a = {x1, x2, }, contained in S, sucb that :x., e B(x; l /k). The point x is also an accumulation point of T. Since T is ao infi ni te subset of S, part (e) of the theorem tells us that T must have an accumula tion point in S. The theorem will then be proved if we show that x is the only
= . . . .

point of S. Since every neighborhood of x contains infinitely many points of S,

eonsider the neighborhoods

To complete the proofwe must show that S is closed. Let

x be an !lccumulation

accumulation point of T. To do this, suppose that y 'I x. Then by the triangle inequality we have

llY - xll :<;;: llY - xlll + ll:x., - xll < llY - x1 lf + l fk,
leads to
=

if E T.

!lfy - xjl < ll; r - x111 - This shows that x1 f. B(y ; r) when k <::: k0, if ! I Y - xll - Hence y cannot be an accumulation pont of T. This completes thc proof that (e) implies (b).
r

If ko- is taken so l arge that l fk < !HY - xll whenever k ;;:-: k0, the last inequality

3.13 METRIC SPACES

metric space.

The proofs ofsome of the theorems of this chapter depcnd only on a few properties of the distance between points and not on the fact that the points are in R". When these properties of distance are studied abstractly they lead to the conoept of a is a nonempty set M o f ob jects M to R (called tire metric o / the space) satisf ying thef ollowing f our propertiesf or ali poiflls x, y, z i 11 M:
a

J..J2 lh ji,,;tiorl o f lllidne &Pfl". A

(colled point:s) lOfP!ther wth
J.

functiorr d from M

metric space

d(x. x)

O.

2. d(x. y) 3. d(x, y)

> O
=

if x

F y.

d(y, x).

4. d(x, y) :i:;; d(x, z) + d(z, y).

1be nonnegative number d(x, y) is to be thought of as the distance from x to ln these tenns the ntuitive meaning of properties 1 through 4 is clear. Property 4 is called the trang/e inequality. y.

M and the metric d play a role Examples

1.

We sometimes denote a metric space by {M, d) to emphasize that both lhe set in the definition of a metric spa.ce.

M = R:"; d(x, y) = llx YI This is callcd tbe Euclideun metric. Whenever we refer to Euclidcan spa.c.:e K", it will be understood that the metric is the Euclidean metric unlcss anothcr metric is spccifically lllClti l oned.

2. M = e. the complex plane; d(21 . Z;,) = lz, 22 1 - As a metric space, e is indistin guisbable from Euclidean space R2 becawie it has the sarne points and lhe same metric.

3. M any nonempty set; (x, y) O f x = y, d(x. y} = 1 ir x # discrete metric, and (M, d) is called a discrete metric s pace.
=

y.

This is called lhe

S. M

4. If (M. d) is a metrk space and if S is any nonempty subset of M, then (S, d) is also a metric space with the sarne metric or, more precisely, with the restriction of d to S >< S W1 metric. This is somctimes called tbe relative metric: induced by d on S, a nd S is called a metric sub$pace of M. For cxampJe. the rational numbers Q with the metric d(x, y) = lx - YI form a mc:tric subsiw;e of R.

(y1 , y2).
smaller
=

R2 ; d(x, y)

The metric space (M, d) is not a

../(x1 - }'1)2-+ 4(x1 =p2)2,

xi
""

where

metric subspace of Eucldean

x =

(xH x2)

and y =

space R2

bccause the metric is diff erent.

6.. M 7. M
8. M

{(x,, xJ) : x
are

= {(xi> x2, xl) : + x + x = 1 }. the unit sphere io R-3; d(x, y) of the smallcr ar along the grea.t circlc joining the two points x and y. =
=

joining the two points

1 },

the unt
I

circle in R;i; d(x., y) and y on the unit circle.

the length of the

the length

R; d(x, y) R; d(I, y)

9. M

ma.x

lx1 - Y1 ! {lx1

Yi l

. . .

lx. - Y.I. , lx., - Y.I }.

3.14 POINT SET TOPOLOGY IN MEilUC SPACF.S The basic notions of point set topology can
space

be e:dended
r >

to an arbtrary mctric

(M, d). If a E M, the ball B(a; r) set of all x in M such that

with center

and radius

O is defined to be the

d(x, a) < r.

come from M. If S is a metric subspace of M, lhe bali Bs(.a ; r) is of S with t he bali B114(a r).
metric subspace

Sometimes we denote this ball by B1>1(a; r) to emphasze the fact that its points
l he intersection

ln Eucldean space R 1 the ball B(O; 1) is lhe open inteT\lal (

[O, 1 J the ball .BJ_O 1) is the half-open 3.27.)

interval

[O,

1 . l). 1 ).

ln the

mtric is

NOTE. The geometric appearance of a bali in R need not be "spherical"

not the

if the

Euclidean metric. (Sa: Exercise

lf S s; M, a point a in S is called an interior point of S if some ba}I BM(a; r ) les entirely i n S. The interior, nt S, is the se t o f interior pcints o f S. A set S is

62

FJemmts oi Potut Set Tl'.lfllllcy

Th. l.33

called open in M ifall its points are interior points; it is called closed in M if M is open in M.
.Eumples.

2. ln a discrete metric space M every subset S is open. ln fact, if x e S, the bali B(x ; !) oonssts entrely of points of S (si.na: it oontains only x), so S is open. Therefore every subset of M is also closed t 3. ln the metric subspace S [O. l ] of Euclidean space R1, evefY interval of the form [O, x) or (x, 1 ]. where O < x < 1 , 1s an open set in S. Tbese sets are nol open in Rt. not be open

1.

Evcry bali Bi.(a;

r) in a mctric space M is open in M,

Example

M and those in S.

in

3 shows that if S is a M.

The

metric

subspace

next theorem describes

of M the open sets in S need the relation between open sets in

Tlleorem 3.33. Let (S, d) be a metric subspace o f (M, d), d let X be a subset o f S. Then X is o pen in S if, and only if,
X = A f'\ S
f or some set

A which is open in M.
=

Bu(x; r) <;; A for so X is open in S. B3(x; rx)

Proo f. Asswne A is open n M and let X some r > O. Hence B5(x ; r)

B.H(x ; t) f'\ S
=

S.

If

:x E

X, then x E A so s;

Conversely, assume X s open in S. We will show that X A n S for some open sct A in M. For every x in X there is a baJI Bs(x; rx) contained in X. Now
=

BJl(x; rJ

S, so if we let A
=

eX

B"':(x ; rJ,

then A is open in M and it is easy to verify that A f'\ S = X.

S. Then Y is closed in S if, aiu:/ only if. Y in M.

Tlleonm 3.34. Let (S, d)

be

metric subs pace o f ( M, d) and let Y be a subset o f

=

'\

Sf or some sei B which

is closed

in M, then D = M - A where A is open S n (M - A) = S - A ; hence Y is closed n S. Conversely, if Y is closed in S, let X S - Y. Then X is open in S so X = A n S, where A is open in M and
Proo f. If Y
so =

in M

S, where B is closed
=

Y where B

=
=

(A

S)

(M

A)

S n B,

A is c1osed

M. This completes the proof.

lf S s;; M, a point x in M is called an adherent point of S if every ball BM(x ; r) contains at least one point of S. If x adheres to S - {.t'} then x is called an occumulation point of S. The closure S of S is the set of ali adherent points of s. and the derived set S' is the set ofall accumul ation points of S. Thus, S S u S'.
=

lb. 3.38

The following theorems are valid n every metric spru.:e (M, d) and are proved exactly as they were for Euclidean space Rw. ln the proofs, the Euclidean distance Ux - yll need only be replaced by the metric d(x, y).
TTU!orem 3.35.

a)

The

seclion o / a jinite colleclion o f open

b) The union of ajinte coJ/ection

union o / any collect.m o / open sets is open.

seis

is open, and

the nter

collection o f c/osed sets

o f closed sets is closed, and the intersection o / any is r:losed. and B is closed, then A - B is open and B A is

Tlteor11m J.J6. l f A is cfosed. Tlteorem 337.

b) S
d)
contains

open

For

any subset S of M the following statements are equivalent :

a) S is closed in M.

alf its adherent points.

e) S contains all its accurnulation points.

S.

Example. Let M = Q. the set of ratlonal numbers. with the Euclidean metric of R 1 Let S consist of all rational numbers in the open interva.l (a, b), where both a and b are
irrational. Then S is a closed subset of Q.

Our proofs of the Bolzano-Weierstras:s theorem, the Cantor intersection theorem, and the coveririg theorems of Llndel f and Heine-Bore! used not only the metric properties of Euclidean space R" but ah.o special proper ;ies of Rn not gen erally valid in an arbitrary metric :space (M, d). Further restriction:s on M are required to extend these theorems to metric spaces. One of these extensions is
out]ined in Exercise 3.34. The next section describes compru.:tness in
an

arbitrary metric space.

3.15 COMPACT SUBSETS OF A METRIC SPACE

Let (M, d) be a metric space and Jet S be a subset of M. A collection F of open subsets of M is said to be an open covering of S if S ;; U .,, A . A subset S o f M is calJed compact if every open covering of S contains a finite subcover. S is ca1led lwunded if S ,; B(a; r) for some r > O and some a in M.

T/reoreM 3.38.

Let S be a compact subset o f a metric space M.

Then:

i) S is rlosed and lwunded. ii) Every in finile subset o f S has an accumulation point in S.
Proof

To prove (i) we refer to the proof of Theorem 3.31 and use that part of the showed that (a) implies (b). The only change is that the Euclidean distam:e Hx - Yll is to be replaoed throughout by the metric d(x, y).
argument which

Th. l.39 To prove (ii) we a rgue by contradiction. Let T be an nfinite subset of S and assume that no point of S is an accumulation poiot of T, Then for each point x in S there is a ball B(x) which contains no point of T (if x ; T) or exactly one pont of T (x itself, if x E T). As x runs tbrougb S, the union of t hese balis B(x) is an open covering of S. Sina: S is compact, a fi n ite subcollection covers S and hence also covers T. But this is a contradiction because T is an infinite set and each bali contains at most one point of T. NOJ"E. ln Euclidean spa.ce R.", each of properties (i) and (ii) is equivalent to oom pactness (Theorem 3.31). ln a general metric space, property (ii) is equivalent to compactness (for a proof see Ref erence 3;4), but property (i) s oot . Exercise 3.42 gives an example of a metrc space M in wbich certain closed and bouoded subsets are not compact. lhormt 3.Jj. t X be

compact.

a closed subset / a compact metric space M. Then X is

finite number

Proof. Let F be an open covering of X, say X s;; U.,F A. We will show that a of lhe sets A cover X. Since X is closed its complement M - X is open, so F u {(M - X)} is an open covering of M. But M is compact, so tbis covering contains a finite subcover wbich we can assume includes M - X. There

fOre

i;;;

Al

V V

A"

(M - X).

delete the set M

This subcover also covers X and, since M - X contaios no points of x. we can - X from the subcover aod stillcover X. Thus X A 1 u u A"
so X is compact.

3.16 BOUNDARY OF A SET

lk filli,0011 3.40. Let S be a sul:iset o f a metrc space M, A poinl x n M is called a boumkuy point o f S if every bali B,.,(x; r) Cntains at least one point of S and at /etlSt one point o f M - S. The set o fali bmmdory points o fS ia called the boundary of s and is denoted by as.
The reader can easily verif y that

iJS
This formula

S"M-

S.

shows that iJS is closed in M.

= r.

El:alllple ln a, the boundaryofa bali B(a; r) is the set of ponts x sm:h that lx - I ln R 1, the boumlary of the set of rational numbers is ali of R1
Chap ter 4.

Further properties of metric spaces are developed in the Exercises and also io

EXERCISFS 0pen an11 dosed sets m R1 anr.1 n2

sei. 3.1 Prove that an open interval in R 1 is an open set and that a closed interval is a closed

3.l Determine all the ao::umuJation points ofthc following sets in R 1 and decide whether the sets are open or closed (or oeitber). a) Ali integers. b)

The interval (o, b ].

Ali numbers of the form

e)

l/n,

(n

l, 2,
=

3, . . . ).

d) Ali rational numbers. e) Ali numbers of tbe form 2 - + s-"'.

f) Ali numbers of the form

(- Ir

(1 /m).

J.J The sarne as Exercise

h) Ali numben of the form ( - 1)"/[1 +

g) AlJ numbers or the form (l/n) + Q/m),

a) Ali complex z such

b} Ali complex
z

(1/n)), 3.2 for the following aets in R2 :

that

1, 2., ) (m, n (m, n 1, 2, . . . ). (m, n = 1, 2., ) (n = l, 2, . . . ).

. = . . .

such that

lz l lz l

>

1.

!.

e ) Ali cornplex nwnbers o f l he fonn

d} Ali

points (x, y) such that x2

(l/n) + (i/m), 2 y < 1.

(m, n

1,

2. . . . ).

(x, y) such tha t x n All points (x, y) such that X

e) Ali points

>

O.

:!: o.

R.1 itself. Is a similar statement

3.4 ProVi.l that evCIY nonempty open set S n R1 oontains both rationa1 and irrational numbers. 3.5 Prove that the only sets in R 1 which are both open and dosed are the empty set and

true for R2 ?

3.6 Prove that every dosed set in R1 is the intersec:tion of a countable collection of open scts. 3.7 Prove that a nonempty, bounded ctosed set S in R 1 is ether a closed interval, or tbat S can be obtained from a closed interval by removing a rountable dioint collection of open intervals whose endpoiots beloag to S.

Open anil closed seis in R"

3.8 Prove
that open nbaJls and n-dimensiona.I open intervaJs are open sets

in R".

3.9 Prove tha.t the interior of a set in R." is open in R".

3.10 Ir S s;; R", prove that int S is the union of .:dl open subsets of a which are contained ia S. This is described by saying that int S is the largest open subset of S. 3.11 lf S and T are subsets of R.", prove that

(nt S) n (int

T)

nt (S 'I T),

and

(int

S) v (int T)

s int (S u

T).

Elements o( Point Set Topology 3.12 Let S' denote the derived
and S the closure of a set S in R". Prove that :

set

a)

S' is dosed in R.'' ; that i!!, (ST S'.

b) lf S s T, then S' s T'. d) (S)'

=

e)

(S

n'

S'

T'.

S'.

f) S is the intersection of ali closed subsets of R" oontainng S. That is, S is the
smallest closed set containing

e) S is closed n

R".

S.

f S is open.
NOTE.

3.13

Let S and T be subsets of R". Prove that

Sn

T s S n 'f and that S n T s S n T

The statemenls in Exercises 3.9 through 3.13 are true in any metric space.

3.14 A set S in RR is called convex if, for every par of points x and y n S and every real (} satsf ying O < O < J , we have Bx + ( 1 - O)y E S. Jnterpret this statement geometric ally (in R2 and R 3) and prove that:
a) Every
n- ball

in R" is convex.

b) Every n-dmensional open interval is c-0nvex.

e) The interior of a convex set is convex. d) The closure of a convex sc:t is convex. J.IS Let F be a collection of seis in R. and let s
a) If b)
x

each of the following statements, either give a proof or exhbit a counterexample.

UEF A

and T

nF A .

For

A in F. If x is ao accumulation poi nt of S, then x is an accumulation point of at least one

set A in F.

is

an

accumulation point of T. then x is an accumu1ation pont of each set

the set S of rational numbers in thc in terval (0, 1) cannot be expressed as the intc:n.ection of a countable collection of open sets. Hint. Write S = {x 1 , x2, }, assume s =- n:i 1 sk, where each sk is open, and i;onstruct a sequence {Q. } or closed intervals :such that Q0 1 s Qn s S,. and such that x.. i Q,.. Then use the Cantor tnter section thcorem to obtain a contradiction. 3.16

Prove that

3.17 If S s

R", prove that the collection of isolated points of S s

countable.

3.18 Prove that the set of open disks in the xy-plane with center at (x, x) and x > O, x rationa.l, is a countable coveri ng of the {(x, y) : x > O, >' > -0}. 3.19 The collection F o f open intervals of the
o pen

r.adius

finite subcollection of F covers (0, I).

covering of lhe open interval (O, l ) . Prove (without using Theorem 3.3 1 ) that

form {l/n, 2/n), where n

2, 3, . . . , is an

no

3.20 Give an example of a set S which is closed but not bounded and exhibit a countable open covering F such that no finite subsc:t of F covers S.
sucb that B(x) n S s countable. Prove that S is countable.

3.21 Given a set S in R" with the property that for every x in S there

is an

nball B(x)

3.22 Prove that a collection of disjoint open sets in R" is neeessarily countable. Give an example of a collection of dis joint closed sets which is not rountable.

67 3.l3 Assume that S s ir. A point x in R" is said to te a rondetion point of S iC evecy 11-baJl B(x) has the property that B(x) n S is not countable. Prove that if S is nc t count

able, then there exists a poot x in S such that x is a condensation point of S.

l.24 Assume
condensation points of S. PrQVe that;

that S s R and assume that S is not

T is countahle,
is a special
case
=

countable. Let T denote the set of

a) S

e) T is a dosed set,

b)
of (b).

S '1 T is nol countable,

d) T contains no fao1ated points.

Note that Exercise 3.23

A sei in R" is called per fect if S S', that is, if S is a closed set which contains no isolated points. Prove that every uncountable closed set F in R" can be expressed in the form F = A v B, where A is perfect and B is countable {Con.tor-Bendixon theorem). Hint. Use Exercise 3.24. Metric SillCES 3.26

3.25

both open and closed.

ln any metric space (M, d), prove that the enipty set 0 and the whote space M are

3.Z.7 Consider the following two metrics in R" :

d1(x, y)
appearance indicated :

1 iJr:

max

lx,

y,I,

d2(x, y)

L lx1 C:;;;;: I

Y1I
the geometric

ln each of the foltowing metric spaces prove that the ball .8(a ; r) has

a) lo (R2, d1), a S<)uare with sides parallel to the coordinate axes.

b) ln (R2, d1.), a squaJC with dagonals parallel lo lhe axes.

e) A cube in (R3, d1).

d) An octahedron in (R3, d ).
J.28 l.et be the metrics of F.xercise 3.27 and let ll x - Yll denote the usual Euclidean metnc. Prove the following inequalities for ali x and y in R" :

d1 and d2

d1(X, y)

l x - Yll
a

d2(x, y)

and

d.i(x, y) d(x, y) . d(x, y)

..,,1;llx - Y ll

m:J.(x, y).

3.29 If (M, d) is

metric space, define d'(x, y)

=

l +

Prove that d' is also a melric for M. Note that O ::;;

d'(x, y)

<

1 for ali

x,

y in M.
M is the

3.30 Prove that evcry finite subset of a metric space is closed.

3.31
set

B(a;

ln a metric space (M, d) the closed bali of radius. r > O about a point a in
r)
=

{x : d(x, a)

s r }.

a) Prove that B(a; r) is a closed set. b) Give an example of a metric space in which B(a; r) is not the closure of the open bali B(a; r).

3.32 ln a metric space M, if subsets satisfy A

A is said to be t:klU# in S. For example, the set Q of rational n umbers is dense in R. If A is dense in S and if S is derllll:' in T, prove that A is dense in T.

Ss

A, where is the closure of A, theo

numben is a counuible i.k!nse subset. Prove

subset A which is dmse in M. For ell.l!Il1ple, R is scparablc because thc set Q of rational

3.33 Refer to Exen:ise 3.32. A metric sp:u;:e M is said

to bc separab/e if there is a countubk

3.34 Refer to Exercise 3.33. Prove that the Lindelf covering theorem (Theorem 3.28)

that every Euclidean space Rk is separable.

s
A
n

is vaJid in any separable metric space.

3.35 Refer to Exercise 3.32. lf A is dense in S and if B is open in S, prove that B

Hilft.

B.

&ercise 3.1 3:

3.36 Ref er to Exen:ise 3.32. U cach of A and that A A

B is dense

B is dense

in S and if B is open in S, prove

in S.

3.l7 Given two metric spaces (S1 , d1 ) and (S2, d2), a metrc p for the Cartesian produ.ct S 1 x S2 can be constructed from d1 and d2 in many ways. For example, if x (xi. x2) and y = (Yr. y,) are in S1 x S1 Ji:t x. y) = d,(xi. yi) + d2(x2, y2). Prove that p is a metric for S1 x S2 and construct fwtbcr examples.
COlllfll'Cf; !111.bsets of a metric space

Prove each of the following statements concerning subsets s. T of M.

an

arbitrary metrK: space (M,

d)

and

3.38 Assume S s T s M. Then S is compact in (M. d) if, and only i, S is compact in the metric subspace ( T, J). 3.39

Ir S is closed and

T is oompact.

theo S n

Tis oompact.

3.40 The intenection of an arbitnuy col1cction of oompact subsc:tx of M is aimpact. 3.41 The union of a finite number of compact subscts of M is complll,:I.
3.42 Consider tbe metric lll)lKe Q or rational numbers with tbe Eudidcan metric of R. Let S oonsist of ali rational numbcn in the open into:val (a, b), wlleR= a and b an: irra tional. Then S is a dosed and boundcd subset of Q wh.idt is not compact..

Millcdlueoulli

pnlllCl'ties of 8le illkriar ... .

lf A and B denote arbitnuy subscts of a metric sp;a.ce M, prove that : 3.43 i nt A

=

3.44 int (M

M - M - A. - A ) M - .
=

3.45 int (int A)

3.4ti a) int (() 1 A1) e) Give

an

n:.1 (int Ai). whete each Ai s M. b) int <l.t"F A) S l,,..,, (int A), if F is an i.nfinite colh!ctioo of s.ubsels of M.
=

int A.

example

JA7 a)

b) Give an examplc of a finite colk:ciioo F in whdl )1.13.lity does not hold in (a). 3.48 a) int (ilA)
=

UAEF (int A)

where eqwdity does not hokl in (b).

s int

cuA .. r A).

0 if A is open or if A is- closed in M.

b) Give an el!.ample n which i nt

(8A)

""'

M.

3.49 If int A

int B

t and if A is closcd in M, then int (A

=

u u

B)
=

0.

3.50 Give an example in whicb int A

int B

0 but int (A

B)

M.

351 A

r. 1l

M-

3.52 Ir

()

l{.M - A). 0, tbeo (A u B) = A V B.

A and A
=

SUGGESTED REFERENCES FOR FURTHER STUDY

Boas, R. P., A Primn a/ Ria/ Fimetion.r. Carus Monograph No. 1 3. Wiley, New Yod:. 1960. 3.2 Gleuon.. A., Flll'lttlfta/. llb1 J of AlfOiy.rU. Addison-Wesley, Readog. 1966. 3.3 JC.aplansky, 1., Set Theory lllfll Metric - Allyo and Bacon, Boston, 1972. 3.4 Sim.moos, G. F.. lrtln'Jtllt:lit to Tupology aMl Modem Analym. McGraw-Hill , New
3.1 York, 1963.