CHAPR 2

21 IODUCON
SOME BASIC NOTIONS
OF SET TEORY
l dM i ay branch of mathematics it is hclpful to U te noWLion and
terminolog of st teory. T subjetJ which was deveod by Boole and Cantor
in te later pr of the 19th cntury, has had a pIfoQd ieon te develop
ment of mts . t 2 cntnry. lt h unfcd my semingly disoo
n ideas and hs hlp ruc many mathematicl cncpts to their 1ogic1
foundations in an Clegt and systemati way.
We saJJ not attempt a systematic tt of the theor of s but sha11
cnfne ous to a disussion of $me of the more bs concpts. Te reder
who wisbe to explore tc subje further 4 consult the rfercnces at the end of
this chapter.
A cl of objets viewe a a sngle entity will b referre to B U sei.
The objes i t clleion wil l b clle elements or memr s of the s and they
wil b sid to belong to or to b containet in the st. Te st in tum, wi11 b sid
to contan or to b c ofit e)ements. For the most part shll b jnter
et in sts of mtc objet; that is s of nubr, pint, f unctions,
cre C. However, sjn much of te theory of sts dos not depnd on tc
MM of t individual objets in te co11etion, gin a gt ecnomy of
thought by disusing s who el may b objets of any tind. It is bus
of this quity of generatity that lhe thery of sts has had such a strong etect io
furg tbe development of mathematics.
2 NOTAUONS
Sets will 1sually b denoted by cpitl letters :
A+ B C, . . @ X, Y, Z,
and e/eenu by lowCr= letter O b, C - . . g Wg y. 2. We write 3 E S to mean

J is an elemen.t of s;" or "x blong to S." lf 7 dos not blong to S, we wrte
A j S. We sometimes designate sts by displayjng thc elements in braces; for
eple, the st of positive even nteers less than 1 O is denoted by {2, 4, 6, 8}.
If S is the colleion of all W which stisfy a proprty P, w
.
e indicte this briefy by
writing S ^ {x: x satisfes P}.
From a gveri st we cn form new Mts_ calle subsets of tbe gven set. For
example, the s cnsistng of ali positive integers less thao lO whib are divisible
by 4, namely {4, 8}. is-a subt of t s of O i lest 10. l generl,
we s
y
tht a s A is a subst of B, and wt A B whenever ever eleeot
of A also blongs to B. The stateme.t A s; B dos not re out t pssibility
that B 6 A. l f C hav bth A e B ad B s if, ad only if, and B have
the % elemnts. ln this U shall cl the s and B eual and w wt
^ B. If ad B not eu, we wrtc - B. If B b # B teo
W sy that is a propr sbset of B.
It i cnvcnient to cnsder te psibilit of a st which ontns no el
whtever; th .st i cale t empty #t and ae to cl it a subt of e
st. T re may fd it hepful t piur M s a a bx cntining ci
obets, it element. The empt
y
s is ten W ept bx. We denote te ep
s by th sybl 0.
: ORF PA
Supps we ba a st eonsisting of two elements a and b; tht is, the st {a, b).
By our definition of equality this st is the se as the st { b, a}, sinc no question
of order is involve. However, it is also nsr to nsdCr st of two elements
in which order is important. For example. 1n alytic gr of the plne, th
coordinates (x, y) of point rt & ordred pr of nub. The pint (3, 4)
is derent fom the point (4 1), whereas the t {3: 4} is the sm a the st {4, 3}.
Whn we wish to consider a st of two elements a and b bing ordred, we sball
enclos te element in ps: (a, b ). Ten a is clle the frt elemnt and
b the snd. lt is pssible to gv B purely st-thomic dcfniton of te cncpt
of an 0rdered pir of objects (a, b). One such defnition is the f ollowing:
Ilti 2.1. (a b) " {{a}, {a, b}}.
Tis defnton state that (a, b) is a st containing two elements, {a} and
{a, h}. Using this defnition, we cn proN the following therm:
Tlorm 2.2. (a, b) (e, d) a only i a P ad b P d.
T theorm shows that Defnition 2. l is a .. Mnable' defnition of an
ordere pair, in the M tbt le objec M has ben distinguishe from the obje
b. Te poof of Theorem 2.2 wU b UH instructive exercis for the reader. (See
Exercjs 2.1.)
24 CRTI PRODUC OF 1O SE
Dejita 1.J. Given two set. A and B, the set of all tdred pairs (a b) such that
O = A Q b t B is called tht crte3ian product of A ad B and i denoted by A X B.
Ep
lf R dote the st of aU rl numbr, te R ? R is th st of aH cmple
numb.
.2. RLATINS AND FClOS
Lt A a y dCnote real numb so that t ordere pair (x> y) C b thougt of
as representng the retguf U roordinates of a poit in the .y-pla:ne ( a com .
p1ex number). We frue:tly encounter such expresions as
xy P l, 7 + y2 P 1, x y2 s 1. A y.
(
a
)
Eacb of these expressions defnes U ortain s of ordere pairs (Y, y) of real
numbrst namety, th set of ali pirs (x, y) for which te expression i satsed.
Su & s of o.dered pairs is called a ple relatfn. The crding st of
points plotted in tb.e xy-plane is clled the graph of the rla. tion. T gphs of
th relations described in (a) dC shown in Fig. 21.

^ *
The concpt of relation b formulated quite generally b t the objects
x and y in the pairs {X: y) nee not be numbrs but m be objet of any kind.
Don 2.4 . Any st of ordred pairs is called O relation_
If S is a re1atkn, the s of all elements 7 that. ocur d frst membrs of pairs
(x y) in S is. caled the d o S, denot by (S). The set of send members
y i c t range of S, denote by B(S).
The .rt example shown in Fig. 2.1 s d spcial kind of relation known B5 d
fnction.
/jton 2. A function F i a C o/ er p4irs (x, y)$ H W0 of w he
thE samefrst niemer. That i. i(x, y) E F a (x, z) E P, t y Z
The defnitin offunction requite that for ev x ia the doma.in of F thet is
exactly onC y such that (x, y) < F. 1t is customary to eall y te value cf F at x and
to write
y P F(x)
instead of (x y) = F U indicate that the pair (x, y) is in te s F.
As an altemative to descdbing & function F by specifying the pairs it contains,
.it m usually preferable to describe the domain of F a.d hCn. for ech 7 in the
<omain, to describ how the function value F(x) is obtaincd. ln tis connetio.nj
we bave the foUowing theorem whose proof is left as an exercise for the reader.
l.2'
Threm 2N. Twofunctions F and Gare eqal if a cnly i
a) f{F) (G)
(F and G hve the JHC domn). c
b) F(x) * G(x) for ery in f(F).
2.6 FURTER TERMINOLOG CONCERNING FNCONS
When the domain !(F is subset of . then F is caHed a func.tion of OH real
v, f F(F) is d subset of C tbe cmplex number sysret then F s cl ed a
fictin of comlex variable.
lf (F is subset of a cartesian product A Y Bf theu F is caUe. a ftfan
of twa variables. Iu this \do we denote the function vaiue by F(a; b) instead of
F((a, b)). A functi.n of two real variables is one wbose domain is a
-
subst of
R * R.
If S is U subset of !(F)j V say that F' is dd UH S. In ts ase, the S
of F(:) such that L S s called lhe imtJe of S u1uier F a.nd is den.oted by F). lf
Tis a.ny s which oontaiM F(S), then F is also caUed a mapping from 8 to T.
This is often denoted by vnitig
F: . S
"
T.
If F(S T) the mapping is said to b onto T. A ma
p
ping of Sinto itself is some
tin1es cUed a traneormat.ion.
Considerj for example; the f unction of a cmnplex variable defned hy the equa
tion F(z) z2 Tis fnnction mapsever sector S -f the form O < ag (z)
0 5 't/2 of t complex zplane onto a sr F(S describd by the inequalities
O arg [ f'z)] " 2a. (See 'Fig. 2.2)
F
2.2
If two funcions F and G sadsfy the inclusion relation G f F C sy tat G
is U restriction of For that . s an exlensi<n of G. ln particu1art if Sisa :ubset of
(,F) and ( is dCfnCd by the equation
G(x) F(x)
for aH in s
then we caU ; the retriction of F to S. The f unction G consists of thos pars
(x, F(x)) such that > L S. It dom.in is S and it range is F(S),
3 D.1.7
2.7 ONET FNCONS A
lj 2.7 Let F bt fnctin tjd S. We my F i 0NfO~0NC S i
ad only i for e x a y i S,
Fx) = F(y) iplies x = y.
Ts is the se as sying that a funon which is onet0ne on S assigns
dstc functio values to disc membrs of S. Suc functlons a cle
ijectie. Tbey & imprtant bcus as we shall pItly ty
ivses. However, bfore stat the denition of the inver of B funton: it is
convenient to introuc a more genel notion. tht of th cn1 of B riation.
"
Do2.8. Givn O relti S, t HW relation S dened by
S = {(a, b) : (b, a) S}
i clled the cerse o/ S.
Tu an ordend pr (a, b) blonp t S if. and only i, le p (b, a), with
elements inte.d, blongs to S. When S is a pl relat t smply
tbat te gaph of S is the refetion of the gaph of S wt rpt to th lioe
y = x. ln thc rlation defe by 2 y1 the convers relton is defne by y < x.
1J.9. Suppose that t relation F i a .[cti. Co1idr the conuerse
M m
relton F, which my or ma not b a ftion. If F i a/so Uftiont then F is
calld t irs of F a is dot by F-
1

Figure 2.3(a) illustrtes an exampl of a fncon Ffor which Fis nota function.
ln Fig. 2.3(b) bt F and its cnver a functions.
T next t tells us that a f unction which is one-to-one U its domo
aw&ys h an invers.
(a)
'

F
(b)
4
z

#
4
f
I
8

,

1
#
#

,F
D.11
w
Tre 1.10.
lf the fto" Fia one-toone on its domain, then F is alo afuncton.
Prof Tosbowthatlisafunction, wemustshowthtif(x, y) E Fad (x, z) % F.,
w
t y = z. But (x, y) < F M that (y, x) e F; tht is, F(y). Smlaly,

(x, z) e F HD tbat x = Fz). Tu F(y) " F(z) and, sinc we ar assuming
tht F is oone, tis implie y Z. Henc, F is a function.
M Te C argnt shows tht f F is onc-to-one on a subset S of !(F,
te the rrcon of F to S ha U invers.
28 CMO FNCONS
&jl1 2.11. Give two ftions F at G sch tho a(F (G, we C form
O NW function, the oompsite G " F of G and F, defed folows: for every W in
the dmain o/ F, (G ` (x) " G[F(x)].
Sinc O(F) (G1 the elemeot F(x) is in te domn of G and therfore it
makes sns to cns G[F(x)]. ln general., it is not tru tht G F = F G.
ln fac, F ^ G .y b meningless unless the range of G is cntine

in t dom
of F. Howevcr, the assoiative law,
a]ways holds wher each side ofthe euton hs U mening. (Verifcton will
b an intereting exerise for the re. See Exerise 2.4.)
2.9 SEO
Among the important examples of functions ar thos defned on subts of the
integers.
Dl 1.12. B a fnite sequence <f" CfD we sha/J undrstand a function F
whose domain is the si of numbes { 1, + . . , n}.
Te Iange of F is the st {F(l) F(2), F(3), ... , F(n)}, customariJy wrtten
{FJ, F2 F3, _ F"}. Te clements of the rnge aTe cle tems of t squenc
and, of cour, they may b arbitrar objects of any kind.
Dtjtio1 2.13. By U infnite seqence Wt shal meon Qfuncton F whose dofin
is the st { 1, 2, 3, . .. } of ai positie integers. The range of F that is, the set
{F(I), F(2), F(3), .. . }, is also write1 {F1, F2, F3, . . }. and the function vlue F,
is caled the nth term <f the seqence.
For brevity, wc shaU ocasionaJly us the notation {F.} to denOte the infnite
suenc whos nth term is F
Let P {s1} b infnite sue, and let k b a function whos doma.n is
the st of positive integcrs and whose rang is a subset of the positive integers.
3 D 24
Asue tht k is "order-prr, tht i, asume tht
k(m) * k(n), i m * N.
Then the compsite f uncon P k s defne for a its n 1, and for ever
such n w hve
(. " k)(n) * _g_.
Such a cmpst fun is sai d to b a suseqen of 6. Again, for brevity,
oftn M tc notton {s1c,,l or {i.,J to denote the subsquenc of {s } whos
n t i __.
E.
Lt = {l/n} and let k b d by k(n) " . T. p > k {l/}.
2 + 10 Sl (UOU ST
li1.14. T 8 A m B N cJed similr, or equinumerO, m we write
A B, i ad only i thee exit3 a one-tone /ction F wJos dmi i th mf A
a who. rae t/ .t B.
We also sy tht F estblshes W oMto-one core$pondce btwen the st
A and B. Clearly, ever st A is sima to itslf (take F to b the 'identity functon
for whch F(x) = x for al 3 in .). Fureo, if A B ten B " , bcus
if F is a oone function which me A similar to B, then F-
1
wil make B
similr to A. Also, if A . and if B,. C. then A C. (he pof is Ien to
te r .)
2.11 F A IFI S
A s S is clle fnite and is sd to contain n elements if
S {I 2, . . . , n} .
The inteer n is clled te card1al mr of S. It i O easy exeris to prove
that if { J , 2, - + + , n) { 1, 2, ..- , m} then m = D Terf , the cinal
numbr of a fnitc ML is wcll defncd. The empty st is also consider fnite. lts
cardinal numb i defe to b O.
Sts which are not fnite are cled infnite sets. T chief diference btween
the two is that U infnite st must b similar to bOC propr sub of itslf,
whereas fnite st dnnot b similar to any propr subt of itslf. (Se Exerjs
2. l 3.) For example, the st Z + of aJ psitive integrs is smlar to the propr subst
{2, 4, 8, l 6, - - - } consisting of powers of 2. T one-to-on fncton F whch
make them similar is defne by F(x) " 2 for eh in Z +.
D.27
2.1 CVAL A UCUA SE
A st S is sd to b coutaly iite f it is euiMus with t st o al
positiv ntegcrs; tht i, i
s {1, 2, 3, + . }.
ln this there is a fun f which etblise a onetne corpndenc
btwen the psitive integers and the elt of S; henc the s S M b ds
pl folow:
s = (/(l)t/(2),/(3), .. - }.
Often we use subsripts ad dt/(k) b Ug (or by a s notation) a we
write S {ah a2, a3, }. The important thing here is that the correse
enable us to M t positive integer as labls" for the ele of S. A count
ably infinite st is sad to bave crdinal numbr o (rd: aleph nought).
D 2.JS. A st S i caJe Ctale if it i eiher fite Of cotaly ifnte.
A st which i not rntal ' called ucoutable.
The wons dnumeFable and noerable are smt us i plac of
countable and unctntable.
1t 2.16. Evry subset of W conta/e sei is coutale.
Pof L S b the gven countable st and U A S. lf A is fnite, t
nothing to pove, W W cn asume that A i infite (wbic M S is also in
finite). Let {s,} b infnite suc of distinc t such tht
S {st> s2> }
Dfe a funetion CO the psitive int a& foJlows
Lt k(l) b te smallest posWve integer W sub tht s. e A. Assuming that
k(l). k(2), = . , k(n l) have be dne, Jet k(n) b te smlt pitive
int M ` k(n 1) such that s11 A. Then k is orer . prring m D H
implies k(m) > k(n). Fo rm the compsite function B k. The domain of k is
t st of pitive integers ad th range of 5 k is A. Fn k is one
to-one, since
s[k(n)] * a[k(m)].
implies
which mples k(n) " k(m), ad ths implies N O. Tis p thc tbr.
2.13 UCOUTA OF

TH R NUME SYS
Te next theorm .hows that there are infnte sts which ar not countblc
Tl 2.17. Th set of al real numers is uncmtal.
4 T 111
Pof lt sufcs to show that t st of 3 sts O 3 1 i unountable.
H the r numbr in tis iot we cutble2 t would b su
= {..} whos tcrs would cnstitute the wbol intcral. We shall show tht ts
is pssible by cnstructing, in the ioteral, a r numbr which is nota t
of this sum. Wrt e W U innit deal:
wher ech H__is O, l y # , or 9. Consdr tb rel numbr y which h t dem
.
CXpDSOD
where
Vg = {1
2,
if N I,
if M ^ 1.
T no term of the suoc {s.} C b eu to y, sin y dfe fom s
1
in t
fr deim plac, difers from _ in t snd dm pJc . . = , fom g in
the n de pl. (A sitution lke _ " 0.199a . . ad y = 0.200. . .
cnnot oc ur hre bus of te way t U_ ar chosn.) Si O < y < 1 te
trm is prv.
Te 2.18. t z+ dnte th aet of al psitive itegers. The the crtsi
pact z- 7 z+ U cralt.
Prof Dfn M ff Z + F Z + & follows:
if(m, n) L z+ 7 z+.
Then f is oneto-one on Z + Z + ad the range of f is a sub of Z +.
2.14 SET AEB
Gvn to st A1 ad A2 we defne a new s, called th union of A _ and .A2,
denoted by A _ A 2 follows:
lo11J9. Ti ui .1 V A2 i ti ml o/ thos eJeme,ts whkh belon
either to A _ Of O A or to both.
Tis is te se as syng that A L A cnsists of t element which long
to at lest one of the st A A Sinc there is no queston of order in in
t dfito, t union 1 A2 is the S A' \ A1; t is, st a.d ition is
comutative. The denition is aso phs in such B wy that st adition is
asative:
D. 2.22 41
Te defoition of unon can b extended to any fnite or infnitc clJection of
sts:
Djl t11.20. lf F is an arbtray collection of sets. then the uion of aJ the sets
in F is Mfnet 0 b thl set (/ th1se elements which bng to at Jeat one o/ the sets
in F, Ond is denoted by
U
A
.
W4
If F is a foite cion of sts, F " {A1, , ,A.}, we write

U
A = U A4 = A j L
A2 L ` ' ' \ A
A8f AI
If F is & countable cllecto, F ^ {A __ Al, ... }, we write
Do2.21. lf F i an abitary col/ection of sets, th iton of ai ts in
F is defned to be the st of those elements whih belong to e one of the seis in F
and i denoted by
The intersection of two sts A _ and A2 is denotc by A1 f A2 and consists
of thos elements common to both sts. lf A _ and A hve no elets in common,
te F is the empty st and g and ar sid to b disjoit. lf F is B
fnite collection (as above), we write

( A = A1 = A1 f A _ l ' ' ! A . g
. }
and if F is & cuntable clletion, we write
M
A = A1 = Ai f A2 l ` ` `
AF k1
If the sts in the collection have no elements in common, their interstion is the
empty st. Our dcfnitions of union and irterction apply, of WM even when
F is not countable. Bause of the way we havc defned unoas and intcrsions,
thc cmmuttive ad assoiative lw a automaticaJly stisfed.
Djl 2.22. T he complement of A te/ativ to B. denoted by B - A, is defne d
to b the set
B - A
=
{x: x B, hut 7 }.
Nole that B - (B - A) " A whenever A s B. Also note that B - A " B if
B, A i empty.
T notions of union, interstion, and complement are illustrated in Fig. 2.4.
T.u
A uB B-A
Fge 2.4
1heorem 2.23. Let F be M colection of CJ. Then for ony sei B, WC have
and
B
U A (B A),
W WG
B - ( A U (B A)
Ae G
Prof Lt S " UAEF A, T " :fteP (B A). lf x e B Ss then 7 E Bf but
J t S Henc, it is not true that 7 blongs to at least one A n F; terefore 7
belongs to U A in F. Henc' for every A in F, 7 = B A. But this implies
7 1 so tbat B S s T. Reversing the steps, we obtain T B s. and this
proves that B S " T. To prove the sond statement use & simi1ar argu.ment.
2.15 COUNTABLE COLLECiONS OF COUNTABl.E SETS
Delti 2 11. /f F is O collectilm of tl3 such that ery two distin.et sets in F Off
disjofnt, then F is said lo be a colection of disjoint set.r
Theotem 2.25, If F is a countable collectfon of dis}oint sets, say F
{
A
]9
2, . } '
such that each sei A. is countoble, then tle ulion U:1 A, is also countable.
ProQf l.et A, {a1.t __y
a
3,,, . }, 1, 2, " ^ , and let S " Ur=1 A1#
Then every element X of S is in U least one -f the sets n F and hence 7 " U_ for
som: pair of integers (m: n). Tbe pair (m, n) is uniquely determined by A since
F is a collection of disjoint sets. Hene the functionf dened by /(x) (1n" n) i
A

=,n+
A < S> has domain S. The range f (S) is a suhset Of Z Y Z ( where Z +
is the set of positive integers) and hence is ountable. Butf is one-to-one and there
f ore S j(S), wbich means that S is als ountable.
Tem 1.26. If F {A j A2, . . } Is a tOtmtable collection of sets, lei
G {81, B1, }i where B1 A1 a,for n . l,
n-1
Bn =Ah
A
1.
*
T G i Q cofection Qf dijoint sets3 and H luwe
P
Each st Bn is constructed SO that it has OO efements. iu comn1on with the
earHer sets B1, Bi, ... , B,_ _. Hence G is a collecton of disjoint sets. Lct
A U:: _ Al and B ^ ur, _ e We shaH show that A " J. Fir:t of a1t jf
x A, then A E Ak for MV k. lf H is the smaHest such k" then A" but
f uz: A.h whirh means tbat 7 L B., and therefore A B. Hence A f B.
Cnve:s1y, if 7 < 8, thn A t Bn for sme T and therefore 7 t An for this bCT.
Tus A A and tbs prove that B
A.
Usi.og Theorems 2.25 a:nd 2.26, we immediately obtain
Theort1n 2.27. If F is U counta!e colection of countable sets, t/um the union of a1
" in F is also 0 e<>ntable 3et.
Examp1e 1. The set Q of aU rtional numbr is count:ble set.
Po Let An denote t s of a11 positive ratk numbers havng denominator 7.
Te S of '11 positive rational numbrs is equal to u: _ /_. From this it f ltows that
Q is countable. since edl An is countable.
Exam l. T st S o. iUterYa with .ational endpinls is countable M.
Pr(j Lt {x 1 . . } dote the set of r.ionl numbr and lt ._ b th st of aH
nteals whose left endPoint i ._ nd whose right endpoint is rationaL Ten Mg is
countable and
'<
U t=
A
k.
EXERCISE
l.l P Them 2.2. Rlnt. {a,. b) (t\ d) means {{a}1 (a, b}} {{c}3 {e. d}}'
Now amal to tbe dctnition of s euHy.
2.2 Let S b T0la\ion .and let S) b it domjn. The ltio S is said to b
) re/e. if 9(S) imptie {a a) E S.
i) symmtric if (a, b) S impHe (1 a) S,
iii) transitive jf (a, b) S and (b. e) = S implie (a. e) S.
A rlation wbi is symretrk, rive, and transitive s caUed AU e1ce re/aJfo.
Deterne whih of th l\4 i ps by S, if S is th st of aH pi real
numbrs (x y} suh chat
a) A y, b) M ^ }, e) 7 ^
l..i.
d) @" _ _ @ l.
e) ~ }
< 01
f) + ) -
2 3 The foUowing functions F and G ar defnd for aU rl . hy the euations gin.
In eh LM wher th compite fnction G ` F CD b f on, give the doin o
G ` F anda frmula (or formulas) for (G ` F)x).
a) F(x) l ,
-G{x)= / 2.
b) F(x) A 5, G(x) !x!Jx, if J - O. G(O) t.
e) F(x) ^
\'2x. f O $ x t.
G{x) ^ {0xz,
if O A l
1 otherise1 , otheris.
R S B No o St T
Find F(x) if G(x) and G[F(.)] gv f:
d) G(x) * G[F(x)] ^ W - 3x2 + 3x - J.
e) G(x) 3 = A, G{F(x)] W - 3x + ..
2.4 Given thre functions F G, H, what ntrictjons mut b placd on their domi
DL that the f ollowing four compsite functjons CP b de?
Go F Ho G, W (G F, (H G) " F.
Assuming that H ' (G ` F) and (H G) " F <n b dened pove the assoatjve Jaw:
H ( G
O F) ( H G) ^ F
2.5 Prov the foUowing settheoretic identiti for unon ad intertion:
a) A (B \ C) (A \ B) V C, A (B l C) (A f

.) C.
b) A (8 \ C) (A n B) v (A l C).
e) (A \ B) / (A C) W V (B f C).
d) (A \ B) f (B L C) f (C V .) ^ {A f .) (A f C) L (B f C).
"
e) A n (B - C) (A l B} - (Ar. C).
f) (A - C) I (B C) (A l B) - C
g) {A - B) B A if, and only if, B A.
26 Let f: S * T b function. Ir A and B are arbjtrary $Ubsts of S, prv that
/(
A
' B) f(
A)
v /(B)
and
/
(A I B) ' f(A) f(B).
Generalize to arbitrar nion$ and intcrsctions.
2.7 Letf: S-. Tb fuion. lf Y e T.we dote by 1-1(Y) the largest subset of S
whch f mp inro Y. Tht is,

/-1(Y) {x: . E S and/(x) V Y}.

The set 1-1( Y) is al1ed the inverse imuge of Y undr f Prov thc following for arbitrary
substs X of S and Y of T
a) X s 1-1 [(X)], b} /[/-1(Y)] ` Y,
) 1-1 [Y, ^ Y2)

f-J(Yt) '/-1(Y2),
d) 1-1(Y1 Y2) 1-1(>1) n/-1(Y2),
e) 1-1cT- Y) " s - 1-1(Y).
f) Generaliz (e) and (d) 1O arbitrary unions and intenctjons.
2.8 Refer U Exerdse 2.7. Pove that f[-1(Y)] " Y for every subst Yof T f, and
only if, T /(S).
2.9 Let / ~ S T b B f unction. Pr\e that the following S8EUDS ar euivalent.
a} f is onetone on S.
b) f(A / B) /(A) ff(B) for ali subsets A, B of S.
e) 1-1 [(A)] " for evcr subt A of S.
d) For ali disjoint subts A a:nd B of s. the imag_(A) and f(B) a disjoint.
e) For ali subts and B of S With B A, we have
/(A
B
) /(A) /(B
}.
2.10 Pove that if A B ad B C, then A C.
2.ll If {1 , 2, . - . , n} ` {1, 2, . . - , m}, OY thMt ^ M
2.12 If S is an infnt st, prov that S contains cuntably nfnjtc subt. Hint. Cbos
eleDent a1 in S and considcr S {a
1
}.
2.13 Pove \ha ever infnite s S contains M propr subt similar to S.
2. 14 If A is a cuntable st Bnd B B unountable st, pro- that B

A is similar to B.
l.tS A ral nHbr is clle acif it s a T o albnic equation /(x) " O.
where f(x) @ a1x a is a plynonrJ with integr cf ients. Pov
that the M of ali plynomials with inter fiets i countable and duc that the
st of algebraic nub i al countble.
2.16 Let S b B 6nite st consisti ng of ets and let Tb the clletion of all subts
of S. Show tht Tis Bfni te st and fnd the nubr of elcmnts in T
2.17 Let R denote tc st of re numb and let S denote the st of aU ral-valu fuoc
tions who domain is R. Show that S and R ar not uinumrus. Hit. Assum
S R and 1 f b a onto funio such that /(R) " S. l a e R. let @_ " f(a) b
the rel-valued function in S whi ch crpnds to th rel numb W. Now dfe h by
the euation 1.c) = Ux(x) if R, and show that h f S.
2.18 Let S b the CoUtion of all suencs whos ter ar the integ O and 1 . Show
that S is unc1ntable.
2.19 Show that th following sts W countable:
a) the st of cir in th -o pl plane having ratiomd rdif end cnter wth
rational coinate.
b) any clleUon ot djsjint iR1els of pitiv lengh.
22 Let f b a rl *valu fnction dfne r: ev 7 in the interal O g g 1 ,
Suppo there is M pitiv numbr M having th following propty: for B@choic of
a fite numbr of pints W_ W_ , "-, in the interal O " W < 1 g the UM
i
/
(x d

/(x.)I < M.
Let S b th st or tho > in O : 1 for whih/(x) # O. P tha S is countable.
1 Find the fa11ac jn th foHowjng proof" that the st of ali intervals of positiv
leng.th is cuntable.
Lt {xl> x2, } denote th countablc M of rational numbrs and let b any
interval of pitive length. T 1 cntains infnitcly DBD_ rationaJ points 7 but among
th_thr will b OC Wih JM!test i . Dn a fntiOn Fb HU5ofthe euatioH
F(/) Wg jf 7 is the rational numbr with smallet jndex .n thc interval /. Tis function
etabtishe a one-to-one correpnd btwe n the s of all intervats and a subt of thc
positive inteers. Hec the st of ali interls is cuntable.
2.22 Let S deHote the collectfon of aH ubts of a g"en :t T. Letf: S .. R b a real
v- dlu fncton defned on S. The fnction/is clled ad v if /(A ~ B) = /(
A
) f(B)
whnever A and B jdisjoint subsets of T. lf f is addiljve prove that for any two substs
A and B W bve
/(A V B) " /(A) /(B - A)
ad /(A B) f (A) /(B} - /(A B).
1 Ref to Exr 2.22. Asu f is additiv Md asum also that th following
rton hoJd for to picul subs W ad
B
of T;
f(A
V
B}
"
/(A/ + /(B/ - /(A')/(B')
f(A B) = /(A)/(B). /(A) /(B) # f<n.
wb A' " T - A. B' * T - . P t t rlations dtenine f (n. ad OU
pute t vu of
t<n.
SGE RC FR FT SY
l.1 B. R. P A Pr o/R FUtom. C Moogp No. 13. Wil, N
York l9.
2.2 Fr, A + Abt St ', 3r e. NorHold, Amtda 195.
23 Gl. A., FInta o/Abta, Anys. Addisn-Wec, Redil 196
2.4 Ha P. R., NaiDSt T. Va Nod. NYor, 19. .
Z.S Kae, E, T o/St. F. BihJ, traosltor. Dv. Ne Yor, 195.
2.6 Kapl, 1., &t To an Merc Sps. Aly and Bc, Bston, 19.
2.7 Rota, B., ad Kbn G. T., T 1ory ofSts an Trafnte Nurs.
Eli, Ne Yoi 19.