Worksheets

Elementary School Arithmetic Worksheets
Dayalbagh Elementary School Math Teachers guided by Nam P. Bhatia Department of Mathematics University of Maryland Baltimore County (UMBC) Baltimore, Maryland, U.S.A. Visiting Teacher, Day Boarding School Dayalbagh, Agra, India March 1, 2013
Acknowledgment
The author is most grateful and most humbly acknowledges the motivation, encouragement and advice provided by Professor Prem Saran Satsangi Sahab, the chairman of the Education Advisory Committee, Dayalbagh. It was at his urging during my visit to Dayalbagh in the summer of the year 2004 that I got associated with the Day Boarding School in Dayalbagh. His remark that our students lack proper understanding of the fundamentals (or foundations) of mathematics has since motivated my association and work at the Day Boarding School. The Day Boarding School in Dayalbagh caters to students in grades VIXII. My initial work, naturally therefore, concentrated on the development of foundational materials and workshops on the foundations of school mathematics suitable for these levels. The notes prepared by me for the ongoing summer mathematics workshops at the Day Boarding School were published by the Dayalbagh Educational Institute (deemed university) in 2010 in book form with the title Foundations of School Mathematics. This book has three chapters, namely, 1. Sets and Counting, 2. Geometry and Measurement, and 3. The Real Numbers and the Number Line. This book provides the basis for the ongoing mathematics workshops for grades VI-XII. Further ongoing work for Grades VIXII is motivated by the exhortation of Professor Prem Saran Satsangi Sahab made on the report of the workshops submitted on July 3, 2007: I hope the participating math-teachers would produce small text books that focus on the most powerful and generative ideas with emphasis on concepts and fundamentals presented in a careful sequence, as opposed to bulky text books cramped with forgettable details. During these summer workshops, it became clear that the incoming students in grade VI were not ready for the foundational material as exposed in the above noted book and summer workshops. Moreover, the medium of instruction in our schools being Hindi made it dicult for the students to comprehend the material, particularly at grade levels VI-IX. Though progress has been and is being made with the help of some Hindi translations, but it is slow. Furthermore, we realize that most current text books cater to the syllabi but do not provide the insights and understanding of the foundations which the great teachers, mathematicians, and successful practitioners of mathematics use to do their i
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
work. We only know that successful practice of any art or science requires and is based on a deep intuitive understanding of the foundations. Such an understanding of the fundamentals of mathematics is crucial in applications and for problem solving skills. This is acquired through contact with teachers and through self eort and reection on the subject. Most of the existing textbooks commonly used in our schools and colleges are of little or no help in this. Attempts were made to develop material for the grade VI students attending the summer workshops to cover the elementary school mathematics material with insights in the foundations. Notes prepared for this purpose titled Number Systems and Arithmetic were rst used in summer workshops in 2011. It soon became apparent that curriculum changes at the elementary school level will be more eective. So a proposal was made to conduct workshops for elementary school teachers where the elementary school math material is covered with foundations. These workshops were carried out at the Distance Education Center during February 6-11, 2012. The notes prepared for grade VI with the title Number Systems and Arithmetic provided the material for these workshops. Teacher meetings were arranged(this included the Day Boarding School Math teachers and the elementary school math teachers) to exchange ideas as to how the content of these notes may be used in classroom activity. Another Dayalbagh Primary School Mathematics Teachers Workshop was arranged in the period July 25- August 2, 2012. This workshop focused on teacher presentations of the methodology and content of mathematics. Finally, the books being used at present were critically examined on methodology and content. Follow up primary school math teachers meetings brought about the proposal that WORKSHEETS for each of the grades I-V be prepared in Hindi for use in elementary school math teaching. Encouragement and support of the REI Managing Committee in the above eorts is gratefully acknowledged. N.P. Bhatia February 15, 2013.
Preface
Mathematics education in Elementary Schools mainly deals with counting and measuring, the basic activity by which we keep track of our possessions and advance our perception of the universe we all live in or are conscious of during our wakeful condition. The activity of counting and measuring is carried out primarily through the use of numbers called the natural numbers and the fractions. The main goal of Primary School Mathematics education is to bring home to the students effectively the meaning of these numbers and the basic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division on them through their use in counting and measuring. Measuring involves geometric shapes and their size. Visualizations is recognized as the most eective means to develop and teach the number systems and the arithmetic operations on them. The current texts use visualization for this purpose but they do not bring out even the meaning of the notation in use. We use visualization extensively to bring out the key properties of arithmetic operations which are usually neglected in current texts. These worksheets are designed to help students in elementary schools not only to acquire the necessary skills in carrying out eciently the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division but to develop an intuitive understanding of the number systems and the operations within those number systems that provide the language for expressing the results of counting and measuring. Most children, before joining an elementary school, get their rst lesson in counting from the mother. This lesson essentially begins when the mother makes the child learn the number one associated with a single object, and ends with the learning of the rst ten counting numbers one, two, three, four, ve, six, seven, eight, nine, and ten. Here the number one is the count of any collection of objects that contains a single object, be it a ball, an apple, or a tree, or any other single object or item imaginable. The number ten is the count of the ngers on both hands. This issue of the worksheets is for grade I. It will be followed by worksheets for grades II - V. The worksheets are not a replacement of prescribed texts and do not change the syllabi for these grades. N.P. Bhatia February 15, 2013.
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PREFACE
Contents
Acknowledgment Preface 1 Class 1 Worksheets 1.1 Worksheet 1: Getting ready to count. The rst numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.2 Line displays for counting . . . . . . . . 1.1.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.4 The succession of numbers . . . . . . . . 1.1.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Worksheet 2: Counting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.1 Finding the count of a given collection . 1.2.2 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Worksheet 3: Counting pairs and triples, etc . . 1.3.1 Forming and counting pairs . . . . . . . 1.3.2 Forming and counting triples . . . . . . 1.4 Worksheet 4: The rst twenty ve numbers and 1.4.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 Addition and Subtraction . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5.1 Addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5.2 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5.3 Subtraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i iii 1 twelve counting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . counting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 2 3 3 3 4 5 6 8 8 9 10 10 13 13 15 15 16 17 17 18 19 20 21 22 24
2 Class 2 Worksheets 2.1 Worksheet 1: The succession of counting numbers . . . . . 2.1.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Worksheet 2: Line displays and position number . . . . . . 2.2.1 Examples and Exercises: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Worksheet 3: Straight Counting. The count of a collection. 2.3.1 Examples of Straight Counting . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.2 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
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vi 2.3.3
CONTENTS A Most Important Observation about counting and the Count of a Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Worksheet 4: Addition and Subtraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.1 The concept of an empty collection and its count . . . . . 2.4.2 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Worksheet 5: Using Straight Counting to Add or Subtract . . . . 2.5.1 Adding or Subtracting 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.2 Adding any number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.3 Addition Exercises: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.4 Subtracting any number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.5 Subtraction Exercises; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Worksheet 5: The Order among numbers: Meaning of <, >, = . 2.6.1 Using the symbols =, >, and < . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6.2 The order among Whole Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Worksheet 6: Counting in Groups and The Place Value Notation 2.7.1 Exercises: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7.2 Place value for two digit numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7.3 Adding two digit numbers using place value . . . . . . . . 2.7.4 Addition Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7.5 Subtraction using place value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7.6 exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7.7 Place values in three digit numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7.9 Adding more than two numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7.10 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Worksheet 7: Selling Almonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Worksheet 8: Multiplication and Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.9.1 Visualizing Multiplication and its Properties: . . . . . . . 2.9.2 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.9.3 Visualizing Division and its Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.9.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.9.5 Products and Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.9.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Worksheet 10. Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.10.1 The measuring scale or Ruler. The Number Line: . . . . . 2.10.2 Principles of measurements of lengths . . . . . . . . . . . 2.10.3 Exercises: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Worksheet 11. Area Measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.11.1 Examples and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Worksheet 12. Fractions and fractional measures . . . . . . . . . 2.12.1 How are fractions used to represent parts of a whole . . . Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.13.1 POINTS: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.13.2 PLANES: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8 2.9
2.10
2.11 2.12 2.13
24 25 25 28 29 30 30 31 32 33 33 34 34 34 35 35 36 37 37 38 38 39 39 40 40 42 42 45 46 47 48 50 50 50 51 51 52 53 53 53 55 57 57 57 58
CONTENTS 2.13.3 SPACE: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.13.4 Curves and Paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.13.5 Simple open and Simple closed Curves . . . . . 2.13.6 A characteristic property of lines and segments 2.14 Plane Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.14.1 Equality of Curves in a Plane: . . . . . . . . . 2.15 Shapes of some surfaces and solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
vii 58 58 59 60 60 63 65
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CONTENTS
Chapter 1
Class 1 Worksheets
1.1 Worksheet 1: Getting ready to count. The rst twelve counting numbers
One 1 two 2 three 3 four 4 ve 5 B, C, ,,, .,
The rst ve counting numbers in words and numerals are
Just as English words are written using the English alphabet A, numbers are written using the numerals 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,
Thus BOOT is an English word, and 123 is a number. The count of the English alphabet is twenty six or the number 26, while there are ten numerals which have the same count ten as the number of ngers on both hands of a person. Using numerals the number ten is written as 10. The rst twelve counting numbers, written in words, and their corresponding number forms are: one 1 two 2 three 3 four 4 ve 5 six 6 seven 7 eight 8 nine 9 ten 10 eleven 11 twelve 12
Note that the rst nine numbers are single digit numbers, whereas the number ten, i.e., 10 is a two digit number as it uses the numerals 1 and 0. The numbers 11 and 12 are also two digit numbers.
1.1.1
Exercises
1. Complete the succession of the rst ten counting numbers in the following table by providing the missing word and or the missing number form. 1
2 one 1 ... 2 three ...
CHAPTER 1. CLASS 1 WORKSHEETS four 4 ve ... ... 6 ... ... eight 8 ... 9 ten 10
2. Complete the succession of the rst twelve counting numbers in the following table one ... ... 2 three ... four 4 ve ... ... 6 ... ... eight 8 ... 9 ten 10 eleven ... ... 12
1.1.2
Line displays for counting
The exhibit below is a collection of some of the English alphabets. P A Q S B C R It is sometimes convenient to display the objects (here some English alphabets) in a given collection along a line. A display of objects along a line (here English alphabets) in the above picture is: A P Q R S B C
Such a display of objects in a collection is called a line display. Another line display of the objects in the same collection is P A Q S R C B
This shows that there are many many possible line displays of the objects in a given collection. A correct line display contains each object in the collection exactly once. Thus N A A M and M A A N are correct line displays of the collection containing the English letters A, N, A, M . But the line display N A M or the line display N A A A M is not a correct line display. Can you see why? English words are formed using line displays of some of the English alphabet. Similarly, numbers are line displays of numerals. For example DADA is a word, whereas 1212 is a number.
1.1. WORKSHEET 1: GETTING READY TO COUNT. THE FIRST TWELVE COUNTING NUMBERS3
1.1.3
Exercises
1. Exhibit the alphabet in the picture below in all possible line displays. A D D
Answer: The various line displays are: ADD, DAD, and DDA. Each line display is an English word. Here ADD and DAD are familiar words. The word DDA is not a very familiar word, but it is a word. 2. Write all words using the letters in the word M AD. 3. Write all the numbers where each of the numerals 1 and 2 is used exactly once. Answer: 12 and 21. The number 12 is called twelve. The number 21 is called twenty one. 4. Write all the numbers using each of the numerals 1, 2, 3, where each numeral is used exactly once. 5. Write all numbers that can be obtained by a line display of the numbers 1, 2, 1. 6. Write all numbers using each of the numerals 5, 7, 2, exactly once.
1.1.4
The succession of numbers
In the succession of the counting numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12
the number 1 is called the rst counting number. 2 the second counting number, and so on. Thus 9 is the ninth, 10 the tenth, 11 the eleventh, and 12 the twelve th counting number. In a given line display of objects like that of the English alphabet below A P Q R S B C
we say that A is the rst alphabet in the display, S is the fth alphabet in the display, etc. . And in a number like 567, 5 is the rst numeral, 6 the second numeral, and 7 the third numeral.
1.1.5
Exercises
1. Identify the third and seventh alphabet in the line display below. A P Q R S B C
CHAPTER 1. CLASS 1 WORKSHEETS 2. Identify the third, seventh, and eighth numeral in the number 75757575. 3. The objects in the line display below are very special curves.
The rst curve in the display is called a circle, the second is called a square, the third a triangle, the fourth an ellipse, and the fth a rhombus. Question: Draw and name the fourth curve in the above line display of curves. Answer:
It is an ellipse. 4. Identify and display the rst, second, third, and fth curves in the display above of special curves. What are their names?
1.2
Worksheet 2: Counting
Counting means assigning a unique number to a given collection. The number assigned is called the count of the collection. The assigning of a unique number to a given collection is done by pairing objects in the given collection with the successive numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, etc.. For example the count of the collection of special curves line displayed below is 5, and 5 is also the count of the alphabet in the next line display. The next line display of successive numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 shows the pairing as pointed out by the in-between up-down arrows. Thus the letter A is paired with the rst number 1 and so also the rst curve (the circle) above, is paired with 1. The last number 5 in the pairing gives the count of the collection of curves, as well as that of the collection of the alphabet.
1.2. WORKSHEET 2: COUNTING
1.2.1
Finding the count of a given collection
It is not necessary to line display the objects in a collection for pairing with successive numbers. This may be done in any suitable way. In the display below of objects (here some English alphabets) each object (i.e., alphabet) is paired (identied, labeled, or tagged) with the successive counting numbers shown in the bracket after the alphabet. The pairing begins with the rst counting number 1 and ends with the number 7. P (1) A(2) Q(3) S (4) B (5) C (6) R((7) In this pairing, the successive numbers 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 have been used, and each object (here alphabet) is paired with a dierent number than that of the other. The number 7 being the last number with which the last object is paired, is the count of the collection. The pairing could be displayed in line display format as follows P (1) A(2) Q(3) S (4) B (5) C (6) R(7)
A dierent pairing as given below in line display format is A(1) P (2) Q(3) R(4) S (5) B (6) C (7)
It gives the same count, namely 7, for the collection. One should note that any line display of the objects gives a pairing with counting numbers as described above and any such pairing gives the same count for the given collection. In the example above the count is 7. Note further that the above collection of alphabets can be line displayed and counted in ve
CHAPTER 1. CLASS 1 WORKSHEETS
thousand eighty two dierent ways and each will give the same count 7 for the collection. This count of possible line displays is a big number which is written as 5082. You will learn such bigger numbers later. However, remember that the count of the alphabets displayed above is the number seven written 7 but the line displays are many, and the count of all possible line displays is a very large number.
1.2.2
Exercises
O O T.
1. Count the alphabets in the word B
2. Exhibit all possible line displays of the alphabets in the word B O O T . What is the count of the alphabets in each display? How many displays are there? Answer: The possible line displays are display 1: display 2: display 3: display 4: display 5: display 6: display 7: display 8: display 9: display 10: display 11: display 12: B B B T T T O O O O O O O O T O O B B O T T O B O T O O B O O T B O B T T O O B O O T B O B T O
In each display the count of alphabets is Four, i.e, the number 4. The count of all possible displays is twelve, i.e. 12. Here the count of the collection of alphabets is 4, but the count of the collection of all possible displays is 12. 3. Count the curves in the line display
4. Count the triangles in the line display
1.2. WORKSHEET 2: COUNTING 5. Count the numbers in the display 5 4 1 2 8 3 9 6 7 10
6. Count the dots in the display
7. Count the dots in the display
8. Count the alphabets used in the word BISCU IT . 9. How many As are in the name D A Y A L B A G H
10. How many letters are there in the word DISP LAY M AT H ? 11. There are ten apples in a basket. In the picture below six of the apples in the basket are line displayed where each letter A represents an apple. The display of the six apples ends with a vertical bar | followed by a dotted line. How many apples from the basket are not displayed? Display the remaining apples from the basket (use one A for each remaining apple) on the dotted line.
|................
12. It is important to realize that dierent collections can have the same count. For example the collection of As and the collection of B s that are line displayed below have the same count. A B A B A B A B A B A B A B
What is the count of each collection? Write the answer as a word and as a number. Word Answer: ........ . Number Answer: ....... .
1.3
1.3.1
Worksheet 3: Counting pairs and triples, etc

Forming and counting pairs
Any two items in a collection form a pair. For example, given a bag of almonds, we may remove two almonds from the bag and give it to somebody or put them aside. Then remove another two from the bag to give them to another person. If we keep removing two almonds at a time then how many persons may get two almonds each from the bag. Clearly, the answer depends on how many almonds were in the bag to start with. For example if there were three almonds in the bag to start with, then after the rst removal of two almonds we will be left with only one almond in the bag and no other person can get two almonds from the bag. To see the answer for a given collection, it is convenient to line display the items as shown below for the case of the nine big dots (line displayed below):
The picture below shows the grouping in pairs (two big dots in each group), where each pair picked is boxed.
Note that there are four pairs of big dots in the collection of nine big dots and one big dots remains without pairing. So, we can say that there are four pairs of dots and one unpaired dot in a collection of nine dots. 1. Display six big dots in a line display. How many pairs of big dots can be formed? Is there an unpaired dot left? 2. How many Bananas are line displayed in the picture below:
1.3. WORKSHEET 3: COUNTING PAIRS AND TRIPLES, ETC
How many pairs of Bananas can you form? How many are left without pairing? 3. How many pairs of apples can be obtained from a collection of twelve apples? Are any apples left after all possible pairs are formed? 4. How many pairs of apples can be obtained from a collection of eleven apples? Are any apples left after all possible pairs are formed?
1.3.2
Forming and counting triples
Just as one can form pairs of objects from a given collection, one may obtain triples of objects (i.e., sub-collections each containing three objects) from a given collection. The following picture shows that one can form three triples out of a collection of nine big dots.
The following picture shows that one can form three triples out of a collection of eleven big dots and two remain as not part of a triple.
In the above examples the big dots represent objects. One may use and practice using any objects like balls, sticks, apples, birds, toys, etc.. 1. There are four birds sitting on a branch of a tree. How many pairs of birds are there on the branch? Are any birds left without pairing? 2. You have ve coins in your pocket. How many pairs of coins you have? 3. You see twelve apples in a basket. How many pairs of apples are there? 4. You have ten almonds in a bag. How many of your friends can get three almonds each? How many almonds you will have left? 5. You have eleven pistachios in a bag. You distribute three pistachios each to your friends. Hoe many friends get three pistachios? How many are left for you? 6. You have twelve pistachios in a bag. You give three pistachios each to each of your friends. How many of your friends get three pistachios each? What is left for you? If you give three pistachios each to three of your friends, how many will be left for you?
10
Counting in groups of ten is the basis for the number notation. So let us practice counting by tens and relating it to the numbers ten, eleven and twelve. If you have twelve objects, then you may form one group of ten and will be left with two objects. In the number symbol 12 for the number twelve, the numeral 1 on the left indicates that you have 1 group of ten. The numeral 2 on the right indicates that you have, besides the one group of ten, two single objects among the twelve objects. Similarly, the symbol 11 for the number eleven, shows one group of ten and one single object. The symbol 10 for the number ten, shows one group of ten and no (i.e., zero) single objects. This is depicted below in the line displays of twelve, eleven, and ten objects below.
Note that the singles box on the right in the last display is empty and the 0 in the singles place on the right in the notation 10 represents no singles.
1.4
Worksheet 4: The rst twenty ve numbers and counting
The succession of natural numbers that one uses for counting continues indenitely, i.e., each number is followed by another without there being a last number. Here we practice counting with the rst twenty ve numbers. The spoken word as written is followed by its numeric version expressed in round brackets below: one (1), two (2), three (3), four (4), ve (5), six (6), seven (7), eight (8), nine (9) ten (10), eleven (11), twelve (12), thirteen (13, fourteen (14). fteen (15), sixteen (16), seventeen (17), eighteen (18), nineteen (19), twenty (20), twenty-one (21), twenty-two (22), twenty-three (23), twenty-four (24), twenty-ve (25),
1.4.1
Exercises
1. Write the numerical form of each given number below: thirteen ... fteen 15 seventeen ... eighteen ... twenty-three ...
2. Write the word form of each number below:
1.4. WORKSHEET 4: THE FIRST TWENTY FIVE NUMBERS AND COUNTING11 ... 12 ... 15 thirteen 13 ... 21 ... 24
3. Write the missing word or numerical form of the numbers below: ... 12 seven ... ten ... ... 22 ... 20
4. Count the number of alphabet in the line display below:
Answer: Word: ................... . Number: ....... . 5. Supply the missing successive numbers in the line display of the rst twenty ve successive numbers:
10
...................15
16
17
18
...............24
....
6. Display the numbers 1 to 10 in successive pairs by boxing successive pairs. Count the successive pairs you have boxed! 1, 2 3, 4 5, 6 7, 8 9, 10
Answer: The number count of successive pairs boxed is 5. 7. Display the numbers 1 to 20 in successive pairs by boxing successive pairs of numbers. Count the successive pairs you have boxed! 8. Display the numbers 1 to 15 in successive pairs by boxing successive pairs of numbers. Leave any numbers that cannot be paired unboxed! Count the successive pairs you have boxed! What is the count of the unboxed numbers? 1, 2 3, 4 5, 6 7, 8 9, 10 11, 12 13, 14 15
Answer: The count of boxed pairs is 7. There is one number left unboxed. 9. Line display the numbers 1 to 24 in successive pairs by boxing successive two numbers.Count the successive pairs you have boxed! 10. Display the numbers 1 to 21 in successive pairs by boxing successive pairs of numbers. Leave any numbers that cannot be paired unboxed! Count the successive pairs you have boxed! What is the count of the unboxed numbers? Answer:............................................................................ .
12
11. Line display the numbers 1 to 25. Box successive groups of ve numbers. How many groups of ve numbers are there? Are any numbers left unboxed? Answer: There are ...... groups of ve numbers. There are ...... unboxed numbers. 12. Line display the successive numbers 1 to 25. Box successive groups of four numbers. How many groups of four numbers are there? Are any numbers left unboxed? Answer: There are ...... groups of four numbers. There are ...... unboxed numbers. 13. Line display the numbers 1 to 25. Box successive groups of three numbers. How many groups of three numbers are there? Are any numbers left unboxed? Answer: There are ...... groups of three numbers. There are ...... unboxed numbers. 14. The display below shows six big dots.
Three more big dots are added after the vertical bar as shown below.
How many big dots are there now? Answer: There are nine big dots now. 15. You see 7 birds sitting on an electric wire. Two more birds y in to sit on the same wire besides the others. How many birds are there now? Answer: ........ . 16. You have thirteen rupee coins. Your Mom gives you two more. How many rupee coins you have now? Answer: ........ . 17. You have 17 almonds in a bag. You put another ve almonds in the same bag. How many almonds are there in the bag? Answer: ........ . 18. The display below shows eight big dots.
1.5. ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION You box three of them as shown below
13
How many are left unboxed? Answer: Five are unboxed. 19. You see 6 birds sitting on a tree branch. Three y away. How many are left on the tree branch. Answer: ........ . 20. You have 13 rupees. You deposit all in your Bank account. How many rupees are left with you. Answer: ........ . 21. You have 23 almonds in a bag. You take out and eat ve almonds from the bag. How many almonds are left in the bag? Answer: ........ . 22. If you have thirteen chairs in a room and you bring in one more chair in the room, then how many chairs are there in the room altogether now? Answer: Word Form: ........ . Number Form: ....... 23. If you have thirteen chairs in the room and you remove one chair from the room, then how many chairs are left in the room? Answer: Word Form: ........ . Number Form:....... .
1.5
1.5.1
Addition and Subtraction

Addition
Given two collections of objects we may put them together(combine them) and make a single collection. The counts of the two separate collections and the count of the single collection obtained from them are related. For example we have two apples on one tray and three apples on a second tray. We put all these apples on a single tray to obtain ve apples on a single tray. The relationship between the three counts 2, 3, and 5 in this situation is expressed in the statement 2 + 3 = 5 or also as 3 + 2 = 5. The symbol + signies addition and we read the statement as two plus three equals ve or as three plus two equals ve. We also conclude from this that 2 + 3 = 3 + 2 as both the numbers 2 + 3 and 3 + 2 stand for the same number 5. We have learned that numbers represent counts of collections. We therefore relate and understand the arithmetic through counting. For example consider a collection of two dots and another of three dots. We may line display them for counting as follows:
14
or as
The next picture shows that the two collections have been combined to obtain a single collection of ve dots
The rst line display contains two dots. And then to its right we display the collection of three dots. This kind of line display identies the process of adding the three dot collection to the two dot collection. Symbolically it is written as 2 + 3. The second display indicates the process of adding the two dot collection to the three dot collection. That is why the two dot collection is displayed to the right of the three dot collection. The last display shows the collection obtained by adding the second collection to the rst. It produces the same display in either case. Now we straight count the combined collection in the last display and see that it has a count of ve. This is then written as 2 + 3 = 5 for the rst display and as 3 + 2 = 5 for the second display. We read the rst statement as two plus three equals ve and the second as three plus two equals ve. Since both counts when added result in the same number 5, we learn that 2+3 = 3+2. The last statement expresses a property of addition. This property is named as the commutative property as it is true for the counts of any two collections, irrespective of their individual counts. Thus, 3 + 7 = 7 + 3, 13 + 12 = 12 + 13, etc.. In general this property is described symbolically by m + n = n + m, where m and n identify the counts of the two collections and m + n as well as n + m the count of the combined collection depending on how the two collections are line displayed for counting. We emphasize that counts are numbers and the counts do not depend on the nature of objects in a collection. Thus for display and understanding we may identify the objects in a collection in any suitable convenient way. For example if we are counting almonds or apples we may use the letter A to identify each object. The letter O may be used for any object. Thus the following two pictures using the letter O instead of a dot represent the process of adding the number 3 to the number 2 to obtain the sum 2 + 3 = 5. O and O O O O O O O O O
When the counts are small numbers, we can mentally picture the process and come up with the count of the combined collection. We may use our ngers
1.5. ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION
15
or parts of ngers to aid in the addition process. Line displays help in understanding the process and in counting. When the counting process is clear, the line displays are no more resorted in counting. The basic underlying process is straight counting as described in section 1.2 on counting. Addition and subtraction are done using straight counting. For large numbers, however, the process becomes cumbersome and we use the place value system. But the underlying process remains straight counting.
1.5.2
Exercises
1. Pictorially show that 3 + 1 = 1 + 3 = 4. 2. Pictorially show that 12 + 1 = 13. 3. Mentally calculate 21 + 1 = ...., 21 + 2 = ....., 21 + 3 = ......, 21 + 4 = ..... 4. Mentally nd 1 + 15 = ...., 2 + 15 = ...., 3 + 15 = ....., 4 + 15 = ...... 5. Calculate 15 + 6 = ...., 15 + 7 = ...., 15 + 9 = ...... 6. Find 13 + 12 = ...., 13 + 10 = ....
1.5.3
Subtraction
Given a collection of objects we may remove some objects from the collection. For example we have seven apples and we eat two of them so that we are left with only ve apples. Note that the count of the apples in the beginning was 7. The count of the apples that were eaten is 2 and the count of the remaining apples is 5. The relationship between these three numbers is expressed in the form 7 2 = 5. The symbol identies subtraction (or removal). We read the statement 7 2 = 5 as Seven minus two is ve or as seven take away two is ve. We may picture this as follows:
Here the rst line display has seven dots showing the seven apples we had originally. The second display has the two dots replaced by circles showing the two apples that were eaten and the ve dots that are left. It should be kept in mind that when we remove all objects from a given collection we will be left with no remaining objects, that means that the remaining collection has no objects in it or the remaining collection is empty. The numeral 0 is used to express the count of an empty collection. The subtraction in this case takes the form, for example 3 3 = 0 for the case of a collection having count 3. The line display for a collection of seven objects will appear as
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Here the empty box on the left shows that no dots are left and the box on the right shows the seven dots that have been removed by picturing them as circles.
1.5.4
Exercises
1. Find the answer using line displays as above: (a) 3 1 = ..... 4 2 = ...., 9 5 = ..... 10 3 = ....., (b) 13 5 = ....., 17 10 = ....... (c) 20 13 = ...... 2. Find the answer by mentally picturing line display of objects or using your ngers. (a) 5 2 = ....., 7 3 = ....., 10 6 = ...... (b) 12 2 = ....., 15 3 = ....., 16 6 = ...... (c) 21 1 = ....., 22 3 = ....... 3. 3 3 = ...., 12 12 = ....., 24 24 = ......
Chapter 2
Class 2 Worksheets
2.1 Worksheet 1: The succession of counting numbers
The succession of counting numbers begins with the number 1 (one) and is followed by the successive numbers 2 (two), 3 (three, 4 (four), 5 (ve, etc. . It continues without a break, each number followed by another, without end. You have learned the numbers up to the number 100 (one hundred). It is not possible to write all the numbers, but we will learn to write the number that follows any given number. The succession of the rst hundred counting numbers is given below: 1 11 21 31 41 51 61 71 81 91 2 12 22 32 42 52 62 72 82 92 3 13 23 33 43 53 63 73 83 93 4 14 24 34 44 54 64 74 84 94 5 15 25 35 45 55 65 75 85 95 6 16 26 36 46 56 66 76 86 96 7 17 27 37 47 57 67 77 87 97 8 18 28 38 48 58 68 78 88 98 9 19 29 39 49 59 69 79 89 99
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Note that numbers are written using the ten numerals
0(zero),
1(one),
2(two),
3(three),
4(f our),
5(f ive),
6(six),
7(seven),
8(eight),
9(nine)
These numerals are the alphabet of the numbers just as the English letters a, b, c, ... , are the alphabet used for English words. 17
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It is important to keep in mind the order in which the succession of numbers is written. Note that the rst line in the table above contains all the counting numbers written using a single numeral. They begin with 1 and end with 9. It is followed by numbers that are written with two numerals. They begin with the number 10 (ten) and end with the number 99 (ninety nine). The number that follows the number 99 is 100 (one hundred) and it uses the three numerals 1, 0, and 0, in that order. 100 is the rst number that uses three numerals. Although not exhibited in the table, the number that follows is 101 (one hundred one). The succession of numbers written with three numerals begins with the number 100 and ends with 999 (nine hundred ninety nine). Thereafter comes the successive numbers that use four numerals. These begin with 1000 (one thousand) and end with 9999 (nine thousant ninety nine). Observe that for each number there is a number that comes just after it. The number that comes just after a number is called its successor. Note for example that 78 comes just after 77 and so 78 is the successor of 77. Similarly, 8 is the successor of 7, and 100 is the successor of 99. Also observe that 1 comes just before 2, and 76 is just before 77. A number that comes just before a number is called its predecessor. So, 1 is the predecessor of 2, and 76 is the predecessor of 77, and 99 is the predecessor of 100. 1 has no predecessor as there is no counting number that comes before 1. We see that every number has a successor, and every number except 1 has a predessor.
2.1.1
Exercises
1. Complete the succession of counting numbers in the last two line of the table 1 11 21 31 41 51 61 71 81 2 12 22 32 42 52 62 72 82 3 13 23 33 43 53 63 73 83 4 14 24 34 44 54 64 74 84 5 15 25 35 45 55 65 75 85 95 6 16 26 36 46 56 66 76 86 7 17 27 37 47 57 67 77 87 8 18 28 38 48 58 68 78 88 9 19 29 39 49 59 69 79 89 99
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
2. Write the beginning and ending numbers in the succession of numbers that use ve numerals. Answer: The beginning number is 1 . The ending number is 9. . . . . . . .
2.2. WORKSHEET 2: LINE DISPLAYS AND POSITION NUMBER
19
3. Write the successor and predecessor of each given number in the following table predecessor ... ... ... ... given number 31 20 55 7 successor ... ... ... ...
4. Write the successor and predecessor of each given number in the table that follows. predecessor ... ... ... ... ... ... given number 99 100 999 1000 10000 9999 successor ... ... ... ... ... ...
2.2
Worksheet 2: Line displays and position number
When children are made to stand in line (i.e., are made to line-up) they are said to be standing in a position that is identied by a number which identies the position of the child in the line. Consider the ve children standing in line below:
MILAN rst 1
CYRUS second 2
MAULI third 3
NRYN fourth 4
AGAM fth 5
Moving from left to right, MILAN is in rst position, CYRUS in second, MAULI in third, NRYN in fourth, and AGAM in fth position. We may also identify these positions by the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 as is shown in the line up. In the above line-up the number 5 identies the position of AGAM in the line-up. What number identies the position of MUALI? Answer:.... . Arranging or placing objects or persons along a line is called a line-display of the objects or persons. The line-up of children above is a typical example. Some more examples are:
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2.2.1
Examples and Exercises:
1. Below is another line-up of the same children
AGAM rst 1
NRYN second 2
MAULI third 3
CYRUS fourth 4
MILAN fth 5
Write down the position of each child in word and number: Answer: AGAM: rst .... . NRYN: ..... 2. Mauli: ..... . ... . Cyrus: fourth ... . MILAN: ...... 5. 2. Below is a line display of the numerals used to write numbers. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Question: Which numeral is in the rst position? Answer: The numeral 0. Which numeral is in the third position? Answer: The numeral 2. What number identies the position of the numeral 7? Answer: .... . 3. English words are line displays of some English letters. The word D U M is a line display of the letters D, M, and U. In what position is the letter M in the word D U M? Answer: M is in the third position. What number identies the position of the letter M in the word D U M? Answer: the number 3. What number identies the position of the letter U. Answer:.... . 4. Look at the word D A Y A L B A G H
What number species the position of the rst A? Answer: 2. We can also say that the rst A is in second position. What number species the position of the third A? Answer: ... . 5. Below is a line display of a few dots. The numbers below each dot identify the position of each dot in the display.
The following is a line display of some big dots:
2.3. WORKSHEET 3: STRAIGHT COUNTING. THE COUNT OF A COLLECTION.21
4 Write the numerical position of each dot below the dot! 6. Counting numbers are line displays of numerals. The position numbers of each numeral used in the number 4107303271 are noted below 4 1 1 2 0 3 7 4 3 5 0 6 3 7 2 8 7 9 1 10
In what position is the rst 0 (zero)? Answer: 3, or also third position. In what position is the second 0 (zero)? Answer: 6 or in sixth position. In what position is the rst 3 (three)? Write the Answer: ......... . In what position is the second 3 (three)? Write the answer: ..... . For practice you may arrange any items in a line display and assign position numbers to each object.
2.3
Worksheet 3: Straight Counting. The count of a collection.
For any collection of objects, like apples in a basket, almonds in a bag, persons in a family, planets of the sun, stars in the Milky Way, the hair on ones head, the count of a collection is a number that is assigned to it. For example, we say that the count of the ngers on one hand is 5 (ve), or that the number of ngers on both hands is 10 (ten). The number 5 (ve) or 10 (ten) is the count we have assigned to the ngers of one hand, respectively two hands. Every collection has a unique number assigned to it as the count of the collection. It is like giving a special name to a child by which the child is known. The count does not depend on the nature of the objects. To start with, think of any single object. Be it an apple, a child, a chair, an almond, or a rupee coin in ones pocket, the count of each of these collections is the number 1 (one). Simply stated, the count of a collection containing a single object is 1 (one). Whenever a collection contains many objects, the method of pairing or labeling the objects with successive numbers starting with the number 1 is used to assign a number as the count of the collection. The process of pairing or labeling is typically called as counting. The process ends with the assignment of a number, called the count of the collection. A typical example is counting apples in a basket, or almonds in a bag, or balls in a box, or rupee coins in ones pocket. To count the apples in a basket, we start by picking an apple from the basket and mentally pairing it with the number 1. This is the rst picked apple. We put the rst picked apple aside (outside the basket) and pick another apple from the basket and mentally pair it with the number 2 (the successor of 1). We
22
then put this second picked apple aside and pick another from the basket and mentally pair it with the number 3 (again the successor of 2). The process of picking and pairing with successive numbers continues until the last apple has been picked and paired with a number that is the successor of the previously used number for pairing, so the basket of apples is now empty, i.e. has no more apples left. If the last number used for pairing is 7 then the count of apples is 7. If it is 35, then the count is 35. Several examples of pairing and assigning the count follow
2.3.1
Examples of Straight Counting
1. Line displays of objects in a collection are helpful in counting. The picture below shows certain big dots arranged on a line (you may think of the dots as apples or almonds or any other objects in a collection whose count is to be found out). The numbers below each dot is the number with which that dot is paired. It is customary to start be pairing the object on the left on the line with the number 1.
See that the numbers used in pairing are the successive counting numbers beginning with 1 and ending with 8. The process of pairing starts by pairing the rst dot on the left with the number 1. Thereafter, each adjacent dot is paired with the successor of the last number with which the previous dot was paired. The last number used in this pairing is 8 and this number is the count of the collection of dots in the display. The number 8 is the assigned count of the collection of dots. 2. Consider counting the number of letters used in an English word. As an example consider the word Dayalbagh. To answer the question How many letters are used in the word Dayalbagh ?, we write the successive numbers beginning with 1 below each letter as shown below: D 1 A 2 Y 3 A 4 L 5 B 6 A 7 G 8
The last counting number used in this pairing is 8. This number 8 is the count of the collection of letters in the word DAYALBAGH. 3. It is not necessary to line display the objects in a collection as long as the pairing of objects in the collection with successive numbers beginning with 1 is clearly shown. This was the case in picking apples from a basket and pairing each pick with a successive number starting with 1. An example of pairing which does not use a line display is
2.3. WORKSHEET 3: STRAIGHT COUNTING. THE COUNT OF A COLLECTION.23 P (1) A(2) Q(3) S (4) B (5) C (6) R((7) Here we nd the count of the letters on a Board or in a picture. Starting with any one of the letters which is paired with the number 1 shown in a bracket after the chosen letter, we continue picking letters and pairing them with successive numbers 2, 3, etc., until all the letters have been paired with a number. The last number used in the pairing is the number 7 and it is the (assigned) count of the collection of letters. For nding a count of a collection, we pair each object in the collection with successive numbers starting with 1. The last number used in the pairing is the count of the collection. It is important to note that the count of a collection of successive numbers that begin with 1 and ends with a specied number is that specied number. The ending number in this situation is the assigned count of the collection of successive numbers that begins with 1. This is shown in the table below for ending numbers up to 12 (twelve): collection 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 count 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
6 6 6 6 6 6 6
7 7 7 7 7 7
8 8 8 8 8
9 9 9 9
10 10 10
11 11
12
4. If a collection of successive numbers starts with any other number dierent from 1 its count has to be found in the manner above indicated. For example the count of successive numbers beginning with 7 and ending with 16 is seen to be 10 as seen from the pairing 7 1 8 2 9 3 10 4 11 5 12 6 13 7 14 8 15 9 16 10
24
The important thing to remember is that the count of a collection of numbers that contains all the successive numbers beginning with 1 and ending with a specic number, is that specic number. And the count of the collection whose objects are paired with these one to one is the count of those successive numbers.
2.3.2
Exercises
1. What is the count of the successive numbers beginning with 1 and ending with 100. 2. Find the count of successive numbers beginning with 90 and ending with 99. 3. How many successive numbers are there that begin with 35 and end with 50? 4. Take a bag full of marbles and count them. What is their count? Write your answer as a word and as a number! 5. Count the number of chairs in the class room! Give your answer in the word form and also as a number. 6. How many walls are there in the class room? Answer:...... . 7. How many houses are there on the street or lane where you live? Answer: ...... . 8. How many words are there on page 20 of your Book? Answer: ....... . 9. How many pages are there in your Math Book? 10. How many legs does a Donkey have? 11. How many letters are there in the word M AT HEM AT ICS ? number.
2.3.3
A Most Important Observation about counting and the Count of a Collection
Note that counting is done by picking objects in a collection and pairing each successive picked object with a successive number. The rst object picked in the process is paired with the number 1. The count is the number with which the last picked object is paired. Line displays are helpful in counting but are not necessary to carry out the pairing process. That the process assigns a unique number as the count of a collection becomes evident when line displays are used for counting. For example for counting the objects in the collection that contains the letters A, B , and C , we note all the possible line displays of these letters given below:
2.4. WORKSHEET 4: ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION A A B B C C 1 B C A C A B 2 C B C A B A 3
25
Here the last line that contains the successive numbers 1, 2, and 3, shows the pairing and the fact that the count of the collection is 3 for each line display. It shows that dierent line displays give the same count, namely, the number 3 for the count of the collection. Question: How many line displays are there for the collection of letters A, B , and C ? Your Answer: .... . But, most importantly, each line display gives the same count for the collection. Thus to nd the count of a collection using a line display, we need use only one of several possible line displays.
2.3.4
Exercises
Find the count of each collection below by using a line display of items in the collection. 1. The collection containing the numbers: 21 and 12. 2. The collection containing the symbols: , 0, and 0. 3. The collection containing: an apple, a pair, and a banana. 4. The collection containing: three apples, and two bananas. 5. Display all possible line displays in each of the above exercises! What is the count of the line displays in each exercise?
2.4
Worksheet 4: Addition and Subtraction
Common everyday problems point to the underlying concepts of Addition and of Subtraction of numbers. Addition conceptualizes the process of putting or placing (i.e. adding) more objects in a collection. Subtraction conceptualizes the process of removing or taking out (i.e. subtracting) some objects from a collection. Consider the two processes on examples: The Process of Addition: There is a basket containing some apples and we place some more apples into that basket. Question: What is the count of apples in the basket after we have placed in some more apples in the basket? Addition answers this question. Straight counting is used to nd the answer. The Process of Subtraction: There is a basket containing some apples and we remove some apples from that basket. Question: What is the count of
26
apples in the basket after we have removed some apples from that basket? Subtraction answers this question. Straight counting is used to nd the answer. The examples that follow explain the underlying notation for addition and subtraction. Notation for Addition: A basket has 5 apples. We put (place or add) 3 more apples in this basket. The symbol 5 + 3 is used and it identies the count of apples in the basket after we have added the 3 apples in the basket. The symbol is simply read as ve plus three or as 3 added to 5. The problem of nding the number represented by the symbol 5 + 3 is solved by straight counting to get the answer 8. This means that 5 + 3 = 8. A pictorial illustration of the process of addition using dots (think of each dot as representing an apple) is as follows:
The picture represents two baskets of apples. The basket on the left has two apples (represented by two dots). The basket on the right has three apples in it. We move (i.e. add) the apples from the basket on the right to the basket on the left. The result is represented by the picture
Note that the left basket has ve apples (Why?) and the right basket is empty (Why?). The count of the apples in the left basket (after the move) is 5. Now note that both symbols 2 + 3 and 5 represent the count of the apples in the left basket after completing the process of moving apples from the right basket to the left basket. This shows that the sum 2 + 3 number is the same as the number 5 and we write 2 + 3 = 5. This says that the result of adding 3 to 2 is 5. We may indeed want to move the apples in the left basket (that has two apples) to the basket on the right (that has three apples). In this case we will use the symbol 3 + 2 to represent the count of apples after the move, since we now are adding two apples to the basket that already has three apples. The resulting picture will be
The result of moving (adding) two apples in the left basket to the three apples in the right basket is now represented by the symbol 3 + 2. This results in the right basket having ve apples and so we write 3 + 2 = 5. Note that the left basket is now empty. For the visualization of the number 2 + 3, and the result of addition along with the resulting notation, we may start with the display of objects in a collection whose count is expressed as a sum of two numbers: Consider the objects of a collection whose count is 2 + 3 and it indicates that the collection is obtained by adding a collection of 3 objects to a collection of 2 objects. We may line display the objects in the following form (without showing the boxes).
2.4. WORKSHEET 4: ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION
27
or they may be displayed in two rows in the form
The rst display suggests visualizing addition in the form + which suggests writing addition in the form 2+3=5 The second display suggests visualizing addition in the form =
+ = which suggests writing addition in the form 2 3 5 2 3 5
+ =
or
Combining collections of objects and the resulting relationship between the counts has motivated the concept of addition of numbers. The result of adding the two numbers 2 and 3 can be expressed in the form 2 + 3 = 5 or 3 + 2 = 5. Since both sums equal the same number 5, we conclude that the sums are equal, i.e., 3 + 2 = 2 + 3. This conclusion is a property of the operation of addition. It is called the commutative property as it holds for all numbers. It is expressed symbolically by writing m + n = n + m, where m and n stand for any given numbers. Thus without nding the actual count of the combined collection we can say that 5 + 6 = 6 + 5, 123 + 7 = 7 + 123, etc., N otationf orSubtraction: A basket has 5 apples. We remove (subtract) 2 apples from this basket. The symbol 5 2 is used and it identies the count of apples in the basket after removing 2 apples from the basket. The symbol is simply read as ve minus two or as 2 subtracted from 5. The problem of nding the number represented by the symbol 5 2 is solved by straight counting to get the answer 3. This means that 5 2 = 3.
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2.4.1
The concept of an empty collection and its count
When we think of a collection we think of certain objects. Thus Almonds in a bag, Chairs in a room, children in a class, Bananas in a bunch, are all examples of collections. The count of a collection refers to the objects only. The bag, the room, the class, and the bunch in the above examples were containers of those objects that were counted. Indeed, if the same objects were placed in a dierent container, the count will be the same. Now consider the concept of subtraction and the notation used for it. Subtraction identies the count of a collection after removal of some objects from a given collection. Thus 3 1 identies the count of a collection after one object has been removed from the collection that had three objects before removal. If we had removed all three objects, we clearly can identify the result by the symbol 3 3. However, now we have an empty container and no number (count) to identify the symbol 3 3 as a number. To rectify this situation, one introduces the notion of an empty collection: An empty collection is a container with no objects in it. Now note that we have used the numeral 0 like an alphabet to write numbers. The un-ending succession of numbers used for counting starts with the number 1 but does not contain 0 as a number for counting. We have conceptualized an empty collection as a container without any objects in it. We now assign the numeral 0 as a count of an empty collection and from now on we call 0 as a number just like the numerals 1, 2, 3, etc are numbers. It allows us to answer questions like 3 3 =?, 234 234 =?, etc., by writing 3 3 = 0, 234 234 = 0, etc. We will see later the numeral 0 has a deep meaning in the notation that we use for numbers. Each of the ten numerals in a number has a place in that number that will identify a value called the place value. Since the system uses ten numerals we call it as Base ten number system. By conceiving 0 as a number we have extended the succession of the counting numbers to the un-ending succession of numbers displayed below
The extended succession of numbers 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 1 11 21 31 41 51 61 71 81 91 . 2 12 22 32 42 52 62 72 82 92 . 3 13 23 33 43 53 63 73 83 93 . 4 14 24 34 44 54 64 74 84 94 . 5 15 25 35 45 55 65 75 85 95 . 6 16 26 36 46 56 66 76 86 96 . 7 17 27 37 47 57 67 77 87 97 . 8 18 28 38 48 58 68 78 88 98 . 9 19 29 39 49 59 69 79 89 99 .
2.4. WORKSHEET 4: ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION
29
We call this as the succession of whole numbers. Here the successor of the number 0 is the number 1 and 0 + 1 = 1 and 1 + 0 = 1. The table that follows is called the addition table. It identies all the sums like 3 + 5, 7 + 5, 0 + 0, etc,. To see that 2 + 5 = 7, we look at the underlined 2 in the left most column, and the underlined 5 in the top row. The answer 7 appears at the junction of the row containing the underlined 2 and the column containing the underlined 5. ADDITION TABLE + 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 2 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 4 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 5 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 6 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 7 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 8 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 9 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
The table contains answers to one hundred sums. Students should establish all these sums by the method of straight counting. They should clearly conceptualize the correctness of sums like 0 + 0 = 0, 2 + 0 = 0 + 2 = 2 using the concept of an empty collection and its count.
2.4.2
Exercises
Use the method of straight counting to establish the sums using pictorial illustrations. 1. 5 + 7 = ...?, 2 + 2 = ...?, 1 + 0 = ...? 2. Verify the correctness of your answer from the addition table. 3. 5 2 = ...?, 9 5 = ...?, 7 7 = ...?. 4. 67 + 1 = ...?, 100 + 1 = ...?, 769 + 1 = ...?. 5. 786 + 2 = ...?, 788 + 2 = ...?, 788 + 4 = ...?. 6. 2 + 786 = ...?, 2 + 788 = ...?, 4 + 788 = ...?.
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2.5
Worksheet 5: Using Straight Counting to Add or Subtract
A child has two coins in one pocket and three in the other pocket. How many coins does the child possess? If the question is put to the child, he may start with the count of the coins in one pocket, say the count three, and continue to straight count by recalling the next two successive numbers four and ve that come after three, and pronounce that he has ve coins. Or alternately, the child starts with the count two of the coins in one pocket and continue to straight count by recalling the next three successive numbers three, four, and ve to triumphantly say that he has ve coins. The child has indeed mastered the art of straight counting and the process of addition of two numbers using straight counting.
2.5.1
Adding or Subtracting 1
Adding 1 to a number is motivated by adding a single item to a given collection. Subtracting 1 from a number is motivated by removing a single item from a nonempty collection. The count of the collection after adding a single item is obtained by adding 1 to the count of the collection before the addition. For example, if the count of a collection is 4 and we add a single item to it, then the count after addition is 4 + 1. And if we start with a count of 22 and add one item then the count after addition is 22 + 1. Straight counting tells us that 4 + 1 = 5, and 22 + 1 = 23. We recognize now that 5 is the successor of 4, and 23 is the successor of 22. This points to a universal rule, namely, Adding 1 to a number gives its successor. Thus 4 + 1 = 5, 234 + 1 = 235, etc.. The process of adding a single item to a collection (this means adding 1 to a number) whose count is given may be displayed as shown in the two examples below: + 4 5 and + 234 * 235
Similarly, consider removing a single item from a non empty collection. Straight counting gives the predecessor in this case. This points to the universal rule for subtracting 1 from a non zero number (remember that we can not remeove any item from an empty collection), namely Subtracting 1 from a non zero number gives its predecessor. The process of of subtracting a single item from a collection (this means subtracting 1 from a number) whose count is given may be displayed as shown in the two examples below: 4 3 and 4 234 233
Note that 3 is the predecessor of 4, and 233 is the predecessor of 234.
2.5. WORKSHEET 5: USING STRAIGHT COUNTING TO ADD OR SUBTRACT31
2.5.2
Adding any number
In the example of the child at the beginning, we notice that for answering 3 + 2 =?, the child loudly says four, ve and states the answer as 5. He has thus pronounced the two successive numbers that come after 3 to answer the question. We may illustrate this as + 3 4 5
The illustration in fact answers the two questions 3 + 1 =? and 3 + 2 =?. It says that 3 + 1 = 4, and 3 + 2 = 5. The two steps can be combined to write 3 + 2 = (3 + 1) + 1 = 4 + 1 = 5. This means that to add 2 we actually add 1 twice. Since 2 = 1 + 1, we can write 3 + 2 = 3 + (1 + 1). Which allows us to conclude that (3 + 1) + 1 = 3 + (1 + 1). Similarly, in answering 2 + 3 =?, the child loudly says three, four, ve to conclude 2 + 3 = 5. He thus pronounces the three successive numbers that come after two to get the answer 5. This is illestrated below + 2 3 4 5
In this illustration we are adding three objects represented by three stars in the rst row to the two objects whose count 2 is noted as the rst number in the second row. The second row continues after the seperating vertical line with the successive numbers 3, 4, and 5 that come after 2. Under the rst star is the number 3 showing that when we add one object to the given two the count becomes 3, ,i.e., 2 + 1 = 3. Then adding the second star (that means adding teo stars) the count becomes 4, meaning 2 + 2 = 4. Finally adding the third star we get 2 + 3 = 5. This illustration answers the three questions 2 + 1 = 3, 2 + 2 = 4, and 2 + 3 = 5 to conclude 2 + 3 = 5. The steps also indicate that the child adds 1 three times to the number 2 to get the result 2 + 3 = 5. Such illustrations can be used to see the truth of many statements. Some examples are 1. 2 + 3 = 5. Illustration + 2 2. 2 + 2 = 4. Illustration + 2 3. 2 + 1 = 3, + 2 3 3 4 3 4 5
32 4. 237 + 3 = 240. Illustration + 237
238
239
240
5. 4 + 75 = 79. Since 4 + 75 = 75 + 4 by the commutative property, we illustrate 75 + 4 = 79. + 75 76 77 78 79
6. 2 + 3 = 3 + 2. This is correct as both sums equal the samr number 5 as seen from the two illustrations + 2 3 4 5 and + 3 4 5
As another example consider nding the sum 4 + 3 =?, we may illustrate as below to conclude 4 + 3 = 7. + 4 To nd the sum 3 + 4 we may display + 3 4 5 6 7 5 6 7
and conclude that 3 + 4 = 7. Note the four stars in the rst row. They represent adding four object to three. For addition we write the succession of Successors of the given number. The knowledge that adding 1 to any number gives its successor, can be used to nd the sum of any two numbers. Thus to add 2 to any number, we think of adding two items to a collection, one item at a time. Thus to nd 5 + 2 we write 5 + 2 = (5 + 1) + 1. This allows us to conclude 5 + 2 = (5 + 1) + 1 = 6 + 1 = 7. Similarly, 230 + 2 = (230 + 1) + 1 = 231 + 1 = 232. Extending the above idea, adding 3 to a number is obtained by adding three items to a collection, one item at a time. Thus to nd the sum 5 + 3 we write 5 + 3 = ((5 + 1) + 1) + 1 = (6 + 1) + 1 = 7 + 1 = 8.
2.5.3
Addition Exercises:
(a) 5 + 3 = ... ? 5 + 4 = ... ? 5 + 5 = ...... ? 5 + 6 = ...... ? (b) 15 + 3 = ...... ? 15 + 4 = ...... ? 15 + 5 = ...... ? 15 + 6 = ...... ? (c) 75 + 3 = ...... ? 75 + 4 = ...... ? 75 + 5 = ...... ? 75 + 6 = ...... ? (d) 95 + 3 = ...... ? 95 + 4 = ...... ? 95 + 5 = ......... ? 95 + 6 = ......... ?
1. Adding singles
2.5. WORKSHEET 5: USING STRAIGHT COUNTING TO ADD OR SUBTRACT33 2. Adding tens (a) 3 + 10 = ...... ? 3 + 20 = ...... ? 3 + 30 = ...... ? 3 + 70 = ...... ? (b) 14 + 10 = ...... ? 14 + 20 = ...... ? 14 + 30 = ...... ? 14 + 80 = ...... ? 3. More Adding (a) 14 + 15 = ...... ? 14 + 16 = ...... ? 14 + 17 = ...... ?19 + 15 = ...... ? (b) 75 + 39 = ......... ?
2.5.4
Subtracting any number
We have already noted that subtracting the number 1 gives the predecessor, for example, to answer 3 1 =?, and 34 1 =?, we simply write the predecessor of 3, and 34, respectively. This gives the answer 3 1 = 2, and 34 1 = 33. Subtraction conceptualizes the removal of objects from a given collection. For example, answering the question 32 =?] or 372 =? is conceived as removing two objects from a collection whose count is 3, respectively, 37. The resulting count after removal is the answer. The answer can be obtained by removing one object at a time until two objects are removed. This may be displayed in a similar way to that adopted for addition. The illustration below displays the subtraction in the two cases 3 2 1 and 37 36 35
Note that in the rst example we have 3 1 = 2 , which is the result of removing one object from a collection of count 3, and 3 2 = 1 as the result of removing two objects. Similarly, the second example shows 37 1 = 36 and 37 2 = 35. For subtraction we write the succession of predescessors of the given number. We must always keep in mind that just as we cannot remove any items from an empty container, we cannot subtract any number from 0. Moreover we cannot subtract a number that follows the given number in the succession of numbers. This means that expressions like 3 5, 121 124 are meaningless. We will learn later that by extending the number system we can subtract any number from a given number, just as we can add any number to a given number.
2.5.5
Subtraction Exercises;
1. Substacting single numbers (a) 3 1 = ....? 7 3 = .....? 8 4 = .....?? (b) 6 0 = .....? 0 0 = .....? 2 3 = .......?. (c) 154 = ......? 155 = ......? 156 = ......? 137 = ......? 178 = ......?
34
CHAPTER 2. CLASS 2 WORKSHEETS (d) 25 4 = ......? 25 6 = ......? 81 7 = ......? 2. Subtracting any number. (a) 16 11 = ......? 16 10 = ......?. (b) 17 18 = ......?
2.6
Worksheet 5: The Order among numbers: Meaning of <, >, =
The symbols <, >, and = are used in a manner to give meaning to the expressions like less than, smaller than, greater than, bigger than, equal to that we use in our every day language to express a form of comparison of two objects. So far we have used numbers to express counts. The intuitive idea of a collection having more objects than another collection is made precise by using these symbols. Ram has 10 rupees and Shyam has 8. Who has more money? Many of you will answer that Ram has more money. And this is just the right answer. You could also say that Ram has more than Shyam or that Shyam has less than Ram. All these statements mean only that a count of 10 is greater than a count of 8. We simply say that 10 is greater than 8 or that 8 is less than 10. The same is conveyed in symbols by writing 10 > 8 or by writing 8 < 10.
2.6.1
Using the symbols =, >, and <
a = b simply means that the letters a and b are used for or represent the same object. Thus a = 3 simply says that the letter a stands for the number 3. In particular, since the numbers 2 and 3 are not the same we cannot write 2 = 3. When there is a need to emphasize that letters a and b represent dierent objects we express it by writing a = b. Thus 2 = 3 simply asserts that the numbers 2 and 3 are not the same or are dierent. Given two numbers m and n, we write m > n whenever the number m comes after the number n in the succession of numbers. We read the statement m > n as m is greater than n. Thus 5 > 3, and 75 > 69. The expression m > n means the same as the expression n < m. This means that the number m comes after the number n in the succession of whole numbers. It is read as n is less than m. Thus 3 < 5 and 69 < 75. The order among successive whole numbers is expressed as follows
2.6.2
The order among Whole Numbers

0 < 1 < 2 < 3 < . . . < 9 < 10 < . . . < m < . . . < n < . . .
In such a write-up the three dots between numbers represent the successive numbers between the number on the left of the dots and the number on the
2.7. WORKSHEET 6: COUNTING IN GROUPS AND THE PLACE VALUE NOTATION35 right of the dots. Thus the rst occuring three dots stand for < 7 <8 4 < 5 <6 The next occurring three dots stand for all the successive numbers that come after 10 but that are before the number m. Question: What do the three dots between the number m and the number n signify? Question: What do the three dots after the number n signify?
2.6.3
Exercises
1. Indicate the order among the pairs of numbers 0....5, 10....7 23....32 32....23 3....303 303....3 2. Arrange the numbers 7, 9, 2 in ascending order! Answer: 2, 7, 9. Note that 2 < 7 < 9. 3. Arrange the numbers 12, 25, , 1 in ascending order! Answer: ................ . 4. Arrange the numbers 0, 5, 3, 4, 1, 2 in ascending order! Answer: ................... . 5. Arrange the numbers 8, 9, 3 in descending order! Answer: 9, 8, 3. Note that 9 > 8 > 3. 6. Arrange the numbers 35, 25, 45, 15, 55 in descending order. ............... . Answer:
2.7
Worksheet 6: Counting in Groups and The Place Value Notation
Imagine that you have a box full of almonds and you want to sell them. You will make a prot if you make bags where each bag contains ten almonds and you sell each bag of almonds for rupees ve. So you start making bags of almonds, each bag containing ten almonds. For selling the almonds you display them in two boxes. The box on the left contain the bags containing ten almonds each that you have made and the one on the right contains any left over unbaged loose almonds. You have made as many bags as possible, each containing tem almonds. After bagging you may be left with some loose almonds, but their number will not be more than nine (Why?). In the picture below, the number 1 in the left box indicates that the left box contains one bag of almonds (remember that each bag has ten almonds in it), and the number 3 in the box on the right indicates that the right box contains three loose unbaged almonds.
36
Question: How many bags of almonds are in the left box? Answer: 1 bag. How many almonds in the left box? Answer: 1 bag = 10 almonds. How many almonds in the right box? Answer: 3 almonds. How many almonds in both boxes? Answer: 10 + 3 = 13 almonds.
2.7.1
Exercises:
Answer the following questions by looking at the displaysthat follow the question: 1. Question: How many bags of almonds are in the left box? Answer: ..... bag. How many almonds in the left box? Answer: ... bags = ..... almonds. How many almonds in the right box? Answer: ..... . How many almonds in both boxes? Answer: .... + .... = ..... almonds. 1 0
2. Question: How many bags of almonds are in the left box? Answer: ..... bag. How many almonds in the left box? Answer: ..... bags = ..... almonds. How many almonds in the right box? Answer: ..... . How many in both boxes? Answer: .... + .... = ..... almonds. 1 4
2.7. WORKSHEET 6: COUNTING IN GROUPS AND THE PLACE VALUE NOTATION37 5. Question: How many bags of almonds are in the left box? Answer: ..... bag. How many almonds in the left box? Answer: ..... bags = ..... almonds. How many almonds in the right box? Answer: ..... . How many in both boxes? Answer: .... + .... = ..... almonds.
2.7.2
Place value for two digit numbers
We saw in the examples and exercises that a two digit number like 32 expresses the count of almonds in 3 bags of almonds together with 2 loose unbaged almonds which was expressed in the form 3 2
This shows that the number 32 is the sum 30 + 2, since each bag contains 10 almonds. Thus in working with numbers, we must keep this property of numbers in mind. This means that the rst numeral 2 on the right of 32 stands for the number 2 or two singles, and the next numeral 3 stands for the number 30 or three tens. In this way each numeral in a number has a place value, the value or number it stands for. While doing addition and subtraction we can add singles to singles and tens to tens to get the result. This is done on examples below:
2.7.3
Adding two digit numbers using place value
Adding means combining two collections to get a single collection. Consider adding the two collection 3 2 and 2 5
We may exhibit the addition and the answer in the form 3 2 + 2 5 = 5 7
Where the result of adding tens is the number 5, since 3 + 2 = 5, and the result of adding singles is the number 7, since 2 + 5 = 7. Keeping in mind the place values we write this in the form 32 + 25 = 57, Another common form to express addition is
38
CHAPTER 2. CLASS 2 WORKSHEETS 3 2 5 2 5 7
Here the numbers in the singles place are added to get the sum of singles, namely 2+5 = 7, and the numbers in the tens place are added to get the number of tens, namely 3 + 2 = 5. The result is exhibited in the bottom line. Observe that in adding we use place values until the operation is complete. And we only need to add one digit numbers no matter how large the numbers may be. This is an advantage over straight counting (Why is it an advantage?).
2.7.4
Addition Exercises
Use place values of numerals in a number to nd the following sums: A. 12 + 17 = ....... ?, 54 + 45 = ...... ? 79 + 20 = ...... ? B. 13 23 .... 17 31 .... 52 07 .... 89 10 ....
2.7.5
Subtraction using place value
Subtraction means removing objects from a collection. So consider removing 25 objects from a collection that has 67 objects. The process of removing can be depicted in the form where we remove 2 bags from the tens box and 5 singles from the singles box to get the result. Remember that the count 25 consists of 2 tens and 5 singles. 6 7 2 5 = 4 2
This result is written as 67 25 = 42. Or one may use the form 67 25 42
The result is obtained by subtracting the numeral in singles place from the numeral in singles place and subtracting the numeral in tens place from the numeral in tens place.
2.7. WORKSHEET 6: COUNTING IN GROUPS AND THE PLACE VALUE NOTATION39
2.7.6
A.
exercises
25 12 = ....., 53 31 = ....., 79 22 = ....., 55 15 = ......, 12 2 = ...... B. 23 23 .... 47 31 .... 59 07 .... 89 10 ....
2.7.7
Place values in three digit numbers
While counting a large collection in groups of tens, the number of tens may be ten or more. For example in counting almonds it will mean that we have ten or more bags each containing ten almonds. In this case we again bag ten bags of almonds in a bigbag. Each bigbag will contain ten small bags, so that a bigbag will contain 100 almonds. Let us say the counting stops with 3 bigbags, 4 small bags, and 5 loose almonds. We may depict the result in three boxes as follows: Display of 345 almonds 3 4 5
Here the box on the right contains 5 loose unbaged almonds. The next box contains 4 bags of almonds each containing 10 almonds, and the next box to its left contains 3 bigbags of almonds each containing ten bags each containing 10 almonds or 100 almonds altogether. So the total count of almonds is 300 + 40 + 5 = 345 almonds. Thus we see that in the number 345, the numeral 5 on the right represents the number 5 (5 singles), the next numeral 4 represents four tens or a count of 40, and the next numeral 3 to its left represents three hundreds or a count of 300. See that We have indeed 300 + 40 + 5 = 345. Combining two collections into a single collection can be done by adding singles to single, tens to tens, and hundreds to hundreds to get the count of the combined collection. The following example illustrates this 3 4 5 + 4 3 1 = 7 7 6
The addition and result is exhibited in one of the following two forms: A. 345 + 431 = 776 B.
40
CHAPTER 2. CLASS 2 WORKSHEETS 3 4 7 4 3 7 5 1 6
Similarly, subtraction can be carried out by subtracting singles from singles, tens from tens and hundreds from hundreds. As an example consider 7 4 5 4 3 1 = 3 1 4
The subtraction and result is exhibited in one of the following two forms: A. 745 431 = 314 B. 7 4 3 4 3 1 5 1 4
2.7.8
A.
Exercises
123 + 321 = ......?, 567 + 2 = ......?, 320 + 129 = ......?, 708 + 191 = ......?. B. + C. 323 122 = ......?, 567 2 = ......?, 320 120 = ......?, 758 425 = ......?. D. 3 2 ... 7 0 ... 6 5 ... 5 5 ... 7 1 ... 2 0 ... 5 ... 3 2 ... 9 3 ... 2 2 ... 8 0 ... 5 4 ... ! 3 ... 1 0 ... 1 5 ... + 3 5 ... 7 1 ... 2 7 ... 5 + ... 0 9 ... 9 0 ... + 2 3 ... 8 0 ... 5 4 ...
2.7.9
Adding more than two numbers
Consider that you have three baskets of apples and you transfer the the apples in the baskets in to a box. Question: How do we exhibit the process and nd the count of apples in the box. If the counts of apples in the three baskets are, say, 4, 5, and 6, then we may express the count of apples in the box by any of the six symbols 4 + 5 + 6, 4 + 6 + 5, 5 + 6 + 4, 5 + 4 + 6, 6 + 4 + 5, 6 + 5 + 4.
2.7. WORKSHEET 6: COUNTING IN GROUPS AND THE PLACE VALUE NOTATION41 We expect each of these symbols to represent the same count. But we want to be sure of that. First, however, we must carry out the addition. Since we only have learned to add two numbers at a time, we would like to use this knowledge to carry out the addition of three numbers. So we write, say the sum 4 + 5 + 6 in the form (4 + 5) + 6. The brackets in form (4 + 5) + 6 tell us to add rst the rst two numbers 4 and 5, and then to add the third number 6 to the sum of the rst two. In this fashion we calculate 4 + 5 + 6 = (4 + 5) + 6 = 9 + 6 = 15. . The method certainly works because we add only two numbers at a time throughout the process. Note that this gives meaning to the symbol 4 + 5 + 6. We could also carry out the calculation by rst adding the last two numbers. So we calculate 4 + 5 + 6 = 4 + (5 + 6) = 4 + 11 = 15. Both calculations tell us that the count of apples in the box is the number 15. This is as expected. The important observation is that each of two expressions (4 + 5) + 6 and 4 + (5 + 6) allows us to calculate the required count and they both give us the same number. This is an important property of addition and we call it the Associative Property of Addition. For any three numbers m, n, p it is stated in the form (m + n) + p = m + (n + p) The associative ptroperty of addition is the second important property of addition. The rst was the Commutative Property of addition of any two numbers m and n, namely, m+n=n+m The commutative together with the associative property of addition ensure that all the six symbolic expressions at the beginning of this section represent the same number. Indeed as we expect. The calculation can be made by any of the two ways of calculation that were used above to calculate the sum 4+5+6. The method also tells us how to calculate sums containing more than three numbers. For example to calculate the number expressed by the symbol 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 we do the calculation as follows 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 = ((4 + 5) + 6) + 7 = (9 + 6) + 7 = 15 + 7 = 22. +
42
2.7.10
Exercises
1. Find the indicated sums (a) 5 + 6 + 7 = (5 + 6) + 7 = ..... + 7 = ....... (b) 5 + 6 + 7 = 5 + (6 + 7) = 5 + ..... = ....... (c) 7 + 6 + 5 = (7 + 6) + 5 = ...... + 5 = ...... (d) 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = (1 + 2) + (3 + 4) = ..... + ..... = ...... (e) 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = ((1 + 2) + 3) + 4 = (.... + 3) + 4 = ..... + 4 = ....... (f) 3+3+3+3+3 = ((3+3)+(3+3))+3 = (....+.....)+3 = ......+3 = ........ (g) 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 = ((4 + 4) + (4 + 4)) + (4 + 4) = (8 + ....) + ..... = ...... + ...... = ....... 2. 12 + 21 + 33 = (..... + .....) + ..... = ....... + ...... = ........ 3. 10 + 11 + 12 + 13 = (..... + .....) + (..... + .....) = ...... + ..... = .........
2.8
Worksheet 7: Selling Almonds
In this section we learned to count in groups of ten. We made bags each containing ten almonds, and bgbags each containing one hundred almonds. We wanted to make a prot by selling each bag of ten almonds for rupees ve. Let us x the price for each bigbag containing one hundred almonds. Since thre are ten bags of almonds in each bigbag and each bag sells for ve rupees, the price of the bigbag will be 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5. You can certainly nd the answer be straight counting. An easier way is to group the sum (since we only add two numbers at a time) and see that the sum is (5 + 5) + (5 + 5) + (5 + 5) + (5 + 5) + (5 + 5) = 10 + 10 + 10 + 10 + 10 = 50 This calculation says that we must sell each bigbag for rupees fty. Now you have baged the almonds you had in bags containung ten almonds and bigbags contain one hundred almonds and you also have some loose unbaged almods. You will sell each bigbag of almonds for rupees fty, each bag of almonds for rupees ve, and you decide to sell each loose almond for rupee one. You now display them to sell and your display is Display of almonds 3 4 5 Money in box 0 rupees
Think that after you sell some almonds to a customer, the display of almonds will change. So with each customer we shall see how much money we get and the display for the next customer. So let us start selling.
2.8. WORKSHEET 7: SELLING ALMONDS
43
1. If you sold all your almonds to the rst customer that comes, then you will get 150 for the bigbig bags, 20 for the bags, and 5 for loose almonds for a total of 150 + 20 + 5 = 175 rupees. This is your expected sale proceeds. The actual process of sales goes as follows. 2. The rst customer: Can I have three almonds please? You: Certainly. You pick three almonds from the loose almonds box and you hand them to the customer and ask for rupees three (each loose almond sells for rupee one). The customer pays you three rupees. You put the money in your money box. The display of almonds and the money in your money box after the rst customer is Display of almonds 3 4 2 Money in box 3 rupees
Justify The change in the display after the rst customer! Now you attend the next customer. 3. The second customer: Can I have two bags of almonds please? You: Certainly. You pick two bags of almonds from the box containing bags and you hand them to the customer and ask for rupees ten (each bag of almond sells for ve rupee ). The customer pays you ten rupees. You put the money in your money box. The display of almonds and the money in your money box after the second customer is Display of almonds 3 2 2 Money in box 13 rupees
Justify The change in the display after the second customer! Now you attend the next customer. 4. The third customer: Can I have three bags of almonds please? You: Certainly. You think since you do not have three bags in the bags box. So you actually take one bigbig bag from the bigbig bags box (it contains ten bags) and you give the customer three bags out of it and put the remaining seven bags in the bags box. Now you ask the customer for fteen rupees (the price of three bags). The customer pays you fteen rupees. You put the money in your money box. The display of almonds and the money in your money box after the third customer is Display of almonds 2 9 2 Money in box 28 rupees
44
CHAPTER 2. CLASS 2 WORKSHEETS Justify The change in the display after the third customer! Now you attend the next customer. 5. The fourth customer: Can I have one bag of almonds and three almonds for my three kids lease? You: Certainly. You think since you do not have three loose almonds in the loose almonds box. So you take one bag from the bags box (it contains ten almonds) and you give the customer three almonds for the kids and put the remaining loose almonds in the loose almonds box. Then you take another bag from the bags box to give the customer a bag that he asked. Now you ask the customer for eight rupees (the price of one bag and three loose almonds). The customer pays you eight rupees. You thank the customer and put the money in your money box. The display of almonds and the money in your money box after the fourth customer is Display of almonds 2 7 9 Money in box 36 rupees
Justify The change in the display after the fourth customer! Now you attend the next customer. 6. The fth customer: Can I have one bigbag bag of almonds and three almonds for my three kids lease? You: Certainly. You give the customer three loose almonds for the kids rst and then a bigbig bag and ask for fty three rupees. The customer gives you the money and you put it in the money box to be ready for the next customer. The display of almonds and the money in your money box after the fth customer is Display of almonds 1 7 6 Money in box 89 rupees
Justify The change in the display after the fth customer! Now you attend the next customer. 7. The sixth customer: Can I have one bigbag bag of almonds and three almonds for my three kids please? You: Certainly. You give the customer three loose almonds for the kids rst and then a bigbig bag and ask for fty three rupees. The customer gives you the money and you put it in the money box to be ready for the next customer. The display of almonds and the money in your money box after the sixth customer is Display of almonds 0 7 3 Money in box 142 rupees
2.9. WORKSHEET 8: MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION
45
Justify The change in the display after the sixth customer! Now you attend the next customer. 8. The seventh customer: Can I have one bigbag bag of almonds please? You: Sorry, I do not have them anymore, but I will get more tomorrow. Customer: O.K., but can I have some almonds? You: Certainly, I can sell you all that I have. Customer: Well that will be O.K. for now. So you hand himm the seven bags and three loose almonds and ask for ................... rupees. The customer gives you the price and you put it in the money box. Fill in the The display of almonds and the money in your money box after the seventh customer! Justify the numbers you ll! Display of almonds ... .... .... Money in box 180 rupees
How much money you have in your money box? Answer:........ . How much money would you have if you had sold all your almonds to the rst customer? Answer:........ . Why is your actual money more than your expected money. Justify the dierence!
2.9
Worksheet 8: Multiplication and Division
Addition and subtraction provide the basis for the two operations that are called multiplication and division. Multiplication: It conceptualizes the process of repeated addition. Division: It conceptualizes the process of repeated subtraction. Examples of repeated addition are 3 + 3 + 3, 5 + 5 + 5 + 5, 75 + 75 + 75. Consider the two processes on examples: The Process of Multiplication and its notation: Boxes of apples are stored in warehouses before they are brought to the market for sale to the fruit sellers. A warehouse may have up to a thousand boxes of apples. Let us say that each box of apples contains, say 75 apples. The warehouse has, say, 237 boxes of apples . A fruit seller buys 3 boxes of apples from the wholesale market. Question: How many apples did the fruit seller buy? Answer: 75+75+75. How many apples are there in all the boxes in the warehouse? Answer:75+75+ +75, where the three dots are used to indicate that the number 75 is erpeated 237 times in the eum 75 + 75 + + 75 We have learned to add more than two numbers, but the calculation takes time when the sum contains many many numbers to add. Try nding the above
46
noted sum. So we need to nd quicker ways to nd the number represented by the sum, i.e., to calculate such sums. The notion of multiplication helps here. Using multiplication notation the sum 75 + 75 + 75 is written as 3 75 which reads three times seventy ve. Simply stated 3 75 = 75 + 75 + 75. Similarly, 75 + 75 + + 75 = 237 75. The two symbolic expressions stand for the same number. The expression is read 237 times 75 and means that the number 75 is to be added 237 times. Repeated sums when written in multiplication notation are called products. Exercises: Write the numbers expressed in the multiplication notation as sums: 1. 3 9 = ... + ... + .... 2. 6 11 = + + + + .... + ..... 3. Calculate 3 9. Answer: 3 9 = (9 + 9) + 9 = 18 + 9 = 27. 4. Find the product 6 11. The Process of Division and its Notation: A basket contains, say 35, apples. We repeatedly remove (take out) 6 apples from the basket, until the basket is left with less than 6 apples, at which time we cannot remove 6 apples and the process stops. Question: How many times the process was repeated and what is the count of apples left after the process stops? Division answers this question. We note that 35 5 6 = 3. Since 5 6 = 6 + 6 + 6 + 6 + 6, we note that we must take out 6 apples from the basket ve times when the process stops to leave three apples. The answer is written in the form 35 = 5 6 + 3 or in the 3 form 35 6 = 5 + 6. The visualization with line displays were helpful in straight counting (for nding the count of a collection) and for comprehending the process and the fundamental properties of addition and subtraction. For example, visualizing the operation of addition using collections allowed us to see the two fundamental properties of addition, namely, the commutative property and the associative property of addition. Then we learned that group counting in groups of 10 is helpful in understanding the notation used for numbers and provides a dierent method for addition and subtraction (that uses place value) than straight counting. The next section introduces rectangular displays of objects in a collections which are helpful in understanding the notation and properties of multiplication.
2.9.1
Visualizing Multiplication and its Properties:
We start with the display of objects in a collection whose count is expressed in the form of a product: For example the number 3 4 stands for the repeated sum 4 + 4 + 4 . The objects in a collection whose count is 3 4 may be displayed as below * * * * * * * * * * * *
47
The same objects can also be displayed in the another form as below, where the objects in each of the three rows are displayed in three columns * * * * * * * * * * * *
This tells us that the count of objects is the same in each display. We conclude form this that 3 4 = 4 3 a property of multiplication called the commutative property. Actual counting of objects in any of the displays shows that the count of objects in each display is 12.Thus actual counting conrms the same. Visual means can also be used to nd the counts. For example, we may rearrange the objects in any of these displays in the form * * or the form * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
The rst display has one row of 10 objects and a row of 2 objects to give a count of 12. The second display has one column of 10 objects and a column of 2 objects for a count of 12. This provides a good visual means for nding the number 3 4 or 4 3. Such rearrangement of objects in a display can be used to calculate the number represented by a product of two numbers.
2.9.2
Exercises
1. Use any means to calculate:
9 9,
8 9,
7 9,
6 9,
5 9,
4 9,
3 9,
2 9,
1 9,
09
48
CHAPTER 2. CLASS 2 WORKSHEETS 2. The table that follows is called the multiplication table. It identies all the products like 3 5, 7 5, 0 0, etc,. To see that 2 5 = 12, we look at the underlined 2 in the left most column, and the underlined 5 in the top row. The answer 10 appears at the junction of the row containing the underlined 2 and the column containing the underlined 5. MULTIPLICATION TABLE 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 3 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 4 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 6 0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 7 0 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 8 0 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 9 0 9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81
Use any means to verify entries in the multiplication table given above.
2.9.3
Visualizing Division and its Notation
Division is repeated subtraction. Imagine that you have a bag of almonds. You repeatedly take out two almonds at a time (perhaps to distribute to people working in the elds). You can continue to take out and give two almonds to a eld worker as long as there are two or more almonds left in the bag. The process of taking out and giving two almonds will stop when you are left with less than two almonds in the bag. Question: Why will the process stop? Answer: Becuse you can not take out two almonds now(the bag is left with less than two almonds). Somebody may ask: How many times you took out two almonds from the bag, and how many almonds were left in the bag? You can answer this question if you were counting the number of eld workers who got two almonds each. If the count of almonds in the bag is known you may repeatedly subtract the number 2 from the count of almonds in the bag until the result of repeated subtraction is 0 oe 1(the two numbers less than 2). That is when the process stops. Dividing, say 9 by 2, means nding the maximum number of times you can subtract 2 from 9 and to know what number is lefyt after subtraction process is complete. This may be visualized as follows: Start with a line display of 9 objects, as for example * * * * * * * * *
49
Now form groups of 2 objects each. This can be done by putting a vertical bar after every two successir eobjrcts, starting from the right or left as shown below * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
Each display shows that you can subtract 2 from 9 four times and will be left with one object. The result may be written in one of two forms A. 9 2 = 4 with remainder 1 9 B. 2 =4+ 1 2 C. 9 4 2 = 1 D. 9 = 4 2 + 1. The repeated subtraction can be shown as 2 9 2 7 2 5 2 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 4 Step 1 2 3 4
The right column shows the number of times the number 2 has been subtracted in the marked step. The 1 at the bottom of the second column is the remainder after the fourth step. The 4 at the bottom of the third column is the sum of the entries in the third column. Each entry showing the number of times 2 was subtracted. At each step we may subtract 2 any number of times as long as subtracation can be carried over. This can help reduce the number of steps in which the nal result is obtained. For example, the result may be obtained in two steps as shown below 2 9 4 5 4 1 2 2 4 Step 1 2
or even in one step as shown below 2 9 8 1 4 4 Step 1
50
CHAPTER 2. CLASS 2 WORKSHEETS The next example shows the division of 25 by 7. It calculates 25 7. 7 25 21 4 3 3 Step 1
The calculation shows that 25 7 = 3 with remainder 4.
2.9.4
Exercises
1. Calculate 10 2, 2. Find 17 3, 18 3, 19 3, 20 3, 21 3 10 3, 10 4, 10 5
3. 12 = 3 4. What is 12 3 = ......?, What is 12 4 = ......? 4. Explain why the expression 3 0 has no meaning.
2.9.5
Products and Factors
The process of division, i.e. repeated subtraction shows that for any division problem the remainder is always less than the number with which we divide. It is sometimes 0. In fact, Whenever a number can be written as a product of two numbers, the numbers in the product are called factors of the given number. Thus since, for example, 12 = 3 4, the numbers 3 and 4 are factors of the number 12. Note that the remainder is 0 in 12 3, as well as in 12 4, where 12 is divided by one of its factors, i.e., 3 or 4. In fact this is always the case in any division by a factor. One can easily see from the denition of a product that division by a factor has remainder 0. It is therefore customary to say that a number is divisible by another number, whenever the remainder in division is the number 0, or equivalently, the divisor is a factor of the given number. In such cases we symply express the result of division without specifying the remainder. Thus we write 12 3 = 4, and 12 4 = 3. We also write 12 3 = 4 and 12 = 3. 4
2.9.6
Exercises
1. Which numbers among 2, 3, 4, 5, 1, 15 are factors of the number 15. Explain why? 2. Verify that 17 3 = 51. Then answer the questions .....?. Is 51 1 = 51 true? Explain your answer.
15 3
= ......?, 51 17 =
3. Verify that 36 = 66 = 49 = 218 = 136. Then answer: 366 = .....?, 36 9 = ......?, 36 18 = .....?
2.10. WORKSHEET 10. MEASUREMENTS
51
2.10
Worksheet 10. Measurements
Besides counting, the other major activity that helps explore the world around us is that of measuring. Measuring is done using a scale. We measure lengths or distances using a measuring tape. To measure heaviness of an object we use weights. Then there are liquid measures, which tell us how much space is taken by a liquid like water, milk, etc. There are measures of areas and volumes, etc. The common feature of all types of measures is that they are stated by assigning a number and a unit of measure.
2.10.1
The measuring scale or Ruler. The Number Line:
Shown below are a six inch ruler and a ten centimeter ruler. In the inch ruler the rst one inch segment is shown divided into eight equal parts. In the centemeter ruler the rst one centemeter segment is shown divided unto ten equal parts and the remaining one centemeter segments are shown divided into two equal parts. A 6 inch ruler
A 10 centimeter ruler 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Note that the rst one inch segment in the inch ruler is between the points marked with the numbers 0 and 1. The length of this rst one inch segment is one inch. Similarly, the rst one centemeter segment in the centemeter ruler is between the points marked 0 and 1. Its length is one centemeter. Inches and centimeters are only two of the commonly used units of measure. One may indeed designate any length as a unit length and make a scale or ruler that uses the chosen length as a unit of measure. For this one starts with a line and choses two points marked with the numbers 0 and 1. The segment between 0 and 1 is assigned the measure 1 unit and is called the chosen unit segment. Then one choses other points on the line and marks them with the successive numbers 2, 3, 4, 5, . . .. The scheme of chosing a point and marking (or labeling) it with a number yields a unique point for each number and is described later. The line marked with the successive numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . appears as follows and we call it a number line: The Number Line 0 1 2 3
52
The choice of points marked 0 and 1 is arbitrary. The segment between the points 0 and 1 is called the chosen unit segment. This segment is the chosen unit of maeasure (like the inch or the centemeter). After this choice the point marked 2 is chosen so that 1 is between 2 and 0, and the segment between 1 and 2 equals (has legth equal to) the segment between 0 and 1,. The remaining points 3, 4, 5, . . . are chosen, thereafter, to ensure that each is brtween its successor and predecessor, and the seqment between the point and its predesessor equals the segment between 0 and 1, that is has length one unit.
2.10.2
Principles of measurements of lengths
1. To measure a segment P Q as shown below P Q
one alligns the end point P with 0 on the ruler and reads the mark on the ruler with which Q gets alligned. This reading gives length of the segment as a number of the units (inches or centimeters). Thus the segment has length of 3 centimeters as seen from the picture below: Measuring with a 10 centimeter ruler P 0 1 2 Q 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2. Addition and Subtraction of segments. ADDITION: Consider the picture of a segment AB and a point C between A and B as shown below: A C B
Here, the segment AB is called the sum of the segments AC and BC , and we write AB = AC + BC . Moreover, the symbol |AB | is used to express the length of the segment AB and we also write |AB | = |AC | + |CB |. Thus the length of the segment P Q, as measured earlier is written |P Q| = 3 cm. SUBTRACTION: In the same picture as above, the segment AC is seen as being obtained by removing (subtracting) the segment CB from the segment |AB , and we write AC = AB CB . We also write |AC | = |AB | |CB |.
2.11. WORKSHEET 11. AREA MEASURE
53
2.10.3
Exercises:
1. How many one inch segments are there in a six inch ruler? Answer:...... . 2. How many one centemeter segments are there in a ten centemeter ruler? Answer:..... . 3. What is the length of the segment P Q in the picture in section 2.10.2. 4. Measeure (nd length of) the segment AB below in centimeters. Answer:....... . Now measure it in inches. Answer: ..... . A B
5. Measure the lengths of the segments P Q, P R, RQ in the picture below in centimeters. P R Q
Answer the following questions. (a) |P Q| = ..... cms, |P R| = ..... ... , |RQ| = .... cms. (b) |P R| + |RQ| = .... + .... = .....cms. (c) |P Q| |RQ| = .... .... = .....cms. (d) |RQ| + |P R| = .... + .... = .....cms. (e) |P Q| |RQ| = .... .... = .....cms.
2.11
Worksheet 11. Area Measure
To measure an area we rst establish a unit area. For this the accepted unit area is the area of a square whose sides are all of one unit length like the one below with side length equal to 1 cm: 1 cm2 area
2.11.1
Examples and Exercises
First consider the example of a rectangle with adjecent sides of length 2 cm and 3 cm as shown below:
54
CHAPTER 2. CLASS 2 WORKSHEETS Rectangle with sides 2 cm and 3 cm
This rectangle can be divided into 6 unit squares (the unit being the centimeter square). This is shown below: Rectangle divided into six unit squares 2 1
By counting the number of unit squares into which the rectangle is divided we see that the area of this rextangle is 6 square centimeters which is written as 6 cm2 . 1. Measure the sides of the three squares below in centimeters, divide into unit squares and nd their areas.
Answer: Area of square A = 4 cm2 , Area of square B = 9 ..... . Area of square C = .... cm2 . 2. Measure the sides of the three rectangles, divide into unit squares and nd their areas.
2.12. WORKSHEET 12. FRACTIONS AND FRACTIONAL MEASURES 55
Answer: Area of rectangle A = .... .... . Area of rectangle B = ..... ..... . Area of rectangle C = ..... ..... . 3. Measure the sides of each of the simple closed curves, divide into unit squares and nd the enclosed areas.
Answer: Area enclosed by curve A = 6 cm2 . Area enclosed by curve B = ..... .... . Area within curve C = .... .... .
2.12
Worksheet 12. Fractions and fractional measures
In measuring parts of a whole we frequently use numbers that are called FRACTIONS. This is the case with all types of measures, whether of length, or area, or volume, or weight, or power, or energy, in fact anything measurable. We consider some cases to learn how fractional measures, and numbers that are called fractions, arise in practice. Consider some examples. 1. Cut a one meter length of string in two pieces. What is the length of each of the pieces? You can see intuitively that none of the numbers 1, 2, 3, . . . can be used to represent the length of each piece. More generally,
56
CHAPTER 2. CLASS 2 WORKSHEETS 2. Consider any segment and label its end points as A and B . Any point C on this segment divides the segment AB in to two segments AC and CB as shown below: A C B
Here indeed by the accepted rules for addition of lengths, we have |AB | = |AC | + |CB | and |AC | = |AB | |CB | (see 2.10.2). So that if for example, |AB | = 1 unit, then none of the numbers 1, 2, 3, . . . can be used to represent the lengths |AC | and |CB |. In other words we need new numbers to represent such lengths. 3. We may indeed divide a given segment into any number of equal parts. The next ve pictures below show a unit segment (end points 0 and 1) divided into two, three, four, ve, and six equal parts, respectively. 0 0 0 0 0 Here the numbers 1 1 2 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 5 , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 2 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 are fractions which identify the dividing points on each segment. In general any number written in the form m n , where m and n represent counting numbers of our choice is called a fraction. 4. To see how fractions are used to indicate parts of areas, consider dividing a unit square into four equal parts. This is done in the three pictures below:
1 6 1 5 2 6 1 4 2 5 3 6 1 3 2 4 3 5 4 6 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6
1 1 1 1 1
OBSERVE: The black area in each square is
1 4
unit squares.
2.13. GEOMETRY
57
Here the unit square on the left is divided into four equal squares. Each of 1 unit squares. The unit square on the right these four squares has area 4 is divided into four equal triangles. Each of these four equal triangles has area 1 4 unit squares.
2.12.1
How are fractions used to represent parts of a whole
Whenever we divide something into two equal parts, i.e., a legth into two equal lengths, an area into two equal areas, a volume into two equal volumes, a weight 1 (one half) of the into two equal weights, etc., we simply say that each part is 2 original. When the unit segment between 0 and 1 is divided into two equal parts, the dividing point marked by the fraction 1 2 is such that the segment between 0 and 1 1 equals the segment between and 1. 2 2
2.13
Geometry
The basic items in geometry are points, curves, lines, planes, surfaces, and space. These are not dened (in spite of many books containing their so called denitions). These are intuitively understood from physical obsvations. They are thus abstractions of the perception left in our brain from certain physical examples or observations. Some observations that help in the intuitive understanding are given below.
2.13.1
POINTS:
On a clear night the stars on the background of the sky are perceived as so many shiny dots. In the map of a country the location of cities is indicated by dots on the map. The idea of a point is represented by a dot. Points represent location in space, on a given curve or line or surface. Thus curves, lines, planes, surfaces, and space are collections of points. Indeed points cannot be seen (though we tend to forget this). Points are represented by dots and named using capital letters. For example we have named below four points represented by four dots using letters A, B , C , D next to the dots: C D
58
2.13.2
PLANES:
The idea of a plane is obtained by observing the surface of a calm lake, the top of a table, the chalk board, or any smooth at surface like the oor or the wall of a room. One must keep in mind that any physical object can only represent a part of a geometric plane, because planes extend indenitely. Table top and geometric plane
2.13.3
SPACE:
We think of space as a collection of all points. No physical representation gives any reasonable idea of space, though we think of space as the interior of the room we may be in. Each particle of air in the room representing a point in space. The room is indeed limited by oor, ceiling and walls, whereas space has no such limitation.
2.13.4
Curves and Paths
A piece of string, a rubber band, a path in a jungle, a path around a lake, a river as seen from the window of a high ying airplane, running track in a school playground, all suggest the idea of a curve. Thus the drawing or sketch obtained by moving a pen (or pencil) on a piece of paper provides a representation of a physical curve. An air plane moving through space moves on a curve in space. The following are examples of curves:
Curves have the inportant property that while moving along the curve one can move through most points on the curve in one direction or its opposite direction. The use of the word most suggests that there may be exceptional points on a curve. A simple type of exceptional point is an end point. An end point of a curve is a point such that one can only move to the point or from the
2.13. GEOMETRY
59
point but not through the point. Here are some examples of curves with two end points (dots represent end points).
A Path or a track is part of a curve with the property that one may move along the path from one point to another in one direction or in the opposite direction. Thus a child going to school from home covers the path (home to school) in one direction and covers (or retraces) the same path (school to home) in the opposite direction. Here the path (home to school) is part of the curve that represents all roads in the neighborhood in which the home and school are located. We shall use the word path for a curve or part of a curve along which one may move from one point to another without reversing direction and passing each point of the path exactly once. On a curve or path we shall indicate the direction of movement (when necessary) by means of an arrow. Thus the following gures show a curve with a direction of motion indicated by an arrow.
A street map of a town or city showing all the streets is a general example of a curve that has many exceptional points, namely the crossings of streets. The totality of all streets being the curve.
2.13.5
Simple open and Simple closed Curves
An open curve is distinguished by the property that for any two points A and B on the curve, there is only one way or path to move from A to B without retracing any part of the path or moving through any point of the path more than once. It is called simple, if the only exceptional points (if any) are end points. Thus paths are simple open curves. Some more examples of simple open curves are A Line A B Segment with end points A and B A Ray with end point A
A Angle with vertex A
Angle with vertex A
60
A line, a segment, a ray, or an angle are basic common examples of simple open curves. Two other examples of simple open curves with end points A and B are: B B
2.13.6
A characteristic property of lines and segments
It is important to observe that for any two points A and B , there is exactly one segment with end points A and B , but many many simple open curves with end points A and B . Moreover, there is only one line that contains the two points, although there may be many many si mple open curves (with or without end points) that contain the two points. In other words two given points determine a unique segment with the two given points as end points and also a unique line that contains the two points. Observe also that a line has no end points.These properties may be thought of as intuitively clear. They are accepted as true in School Geometry (also called Euclidean Geometry), and are part of a collection of accepted rules (also called axioms) of Euclidean Geometry. The following are some general examples of curves (exceptional points that are not end points are marked by a dot):
A path is said to represent a simple closed curve if one can travel (or walk) along the path and get back to the starting point without retracing any part of the path or going through any point on the path more than once. The most common examples of such paths are a path around a lake or the oval shaped running track in a school playground. The following are examples of simple closed corves:
2.14
Plane Curves
In School Geometry one mainly studies curves that lie in a plane. This means that all points on the curve are in a xed plane. All curves that are drawn on a chalk board or piece of paper are plane curves in the plane of the chalk board or the paper.
2.14. PLANE CURVES
61
Most common examples that are studied are of simple closed curves in a plane. Many are made of segments like the following 1. TRIANGLES:Triangles are the most common and also perhaps most important examples of simple closed curves. A triangle is formed by three points, each of which is called a vertex of the triangle. It has three sides and three angles. Each side of a triangle is a segment with two of the vertices as end points. Any two sides with a common vertex represent an angle of the triangle. The triangle below has vertices A, B , and C as marked
C Side with end points A and C
The angle at vertex B is marked. The side marked is the segment with end points A and C . As an exercise, identify all three sides and angles of this triangle. Some other examples of triangles are
Every triangle is necessarily a plane curve. This is so, as three points which are not on the same line determine a plane, i.e., only one plane can contain three points that are not on a line. A line and a point that is not on the line also determine a unique plane. This means that only one plane can contain a line and a point that is not on that line. Other noteworthy simple closed curves in a plane that are of great interest and importance are, a square, a rectangle, a circle, and an ellipse. Their shapes are shown below 2. A SQUARE:
62
CHAPTER 2. CLASS 2 WORKSHEETS A Square
3. MORE SQUARES:
4. A RECTANGLE: A Rectangle
5. MORE RECTANGLES:
6. A CIRCLE: A Circle
7. MORE CIRCLES:
2.14. PLANE CURVES
63
8. AN ELLIPSE: An Ellipse
9. MORE ELLIPSES:
A deeper study of these forms and disinguishing them from other forms and shapes the concept of equality of segments and angles as well as the notion of a right angle is used (this does not require measurements of segments and angles). if
2.14.1
Equality of Curves in a Plane:
We call two planer curves as being the same or equal if the trace of one ts exactly the other. As examples consider a segment and an angle and their
64
traces shown below. The traces are shown as a dashed segment and dashed angle. The traces are drawn on a thin (or tracing) paper placed over the curve. The curve is visible through the thin paper placed over it and one draws an exact copy of the curve on the thin paper with a pen or pencil. A Segment Trace of segment A B B
The picture below shows an angle and the trace of the same angle.
Trace of Angle
Angle
To assertain if two curves are equal (this means that one is an exact copy of the other), one makes a trace of one of the curves and then sees if the trace ts the other curve exactly. If it does, then the two curves are equal (or same), otherwise they are un-equal. As examples consider the segment with end points A and B shown above and its trace. Three possible situations arise when we try to place and t the trace with three segments shown below with end points C and D. Case 1 C Segment Trace of segment A Case 2 C Segment Trace of segment A Case 3 C Segment Trace of segment A D B D B D B
Only in Case 2 the trace of segment with end points A and B ts exactly the segment with end points C and D. In this case the two segments are equal. In Case 1 and Case 3 the trace does not t the segment with end points C and D. In these two case, the two segments are not equal.
2.15. SHAPES OF SOME SURFACES AND SOLIDS
65
2.15
Shapes of some surfaces and solids
1. A Sphere: A Ball or Sphere
2. A Cube A Cube
3. A BRICK or Rectangular Parallelopiped A Brick
4. A RIGHT CIRCULAR CYLINDER A Cylinder
5. A RIGHT CIRCULAR CONE
66
CHAPTER 2. CLASS 2 WORKSHEETS A Cone
6. A PYRAMID A Pyramid
7. A PRISM A PRISM

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Elementary School Arithmetic Worksheets

2.11 2.12 2.13

The rst ve counting numbers in words and numerals are

2 one 1 ... 2 three ...

Line displays for counting

The succession of numbers

In the succession of the counting numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12

1.2. WORKSHEET 2: COUNTING

Finding the count of a given collection

CHAPTER 1. CLASS 1 WORKSHEETS

1. Count the alphabets in the word B

4. Count the triangles in the line display

1.2. WORKSHEET 2: COUNTING 5. Count the numbers in the display 5 4 1 2 8 3 9 6 7 10

6. Count the dots in the display

7. Count the dots in the display

CHAPTER 1. CLASS 1 WORKSHEETS

Worksheet 3: Counting pairs and triples, etc

1.3. WORKSHEET 3: COUNTING PAIRS AND TRIPLES, ETC

Forming and counting triples

CHAPTER 1. CLASS 1 WORKSHEETS

Worksheet 4: The rst twenty ve numbers and counting

2. Write the word form of each number below:

4. Count the number of alphabet in the line display below:

CHAPTER 1. CLASS 1 WORKSHEETS

Addition and Subtraction

CHAPTER 1. CLASS 1 WORKSHEETS

1.5. ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION

CHAPTER 1. CLASS 1 WORKSHEETS

Note that numbers are written using the ten numerals

CHAPTER 2. CLASS 2 WORKSHEETS

2.2. WORKSHEET 2: LINE DISPLAYS AND POSITION NUMBER

Worksheet 2: Line displays and position number

CHAPTER 2. CLASS 2 WORKSHEETS

Examples and Exercises:

1. Below is another line-up of the same children

The following is a line display of some big dots:

2.3. WORKSHEET 3: STRAIGHT COUNTING. THE COUNT OF A COLLECTION.21

Worksheet 3: Straight Counting. The count of a collection.

CHAPTER 2. CLASS 2 WORKSHEETS

Examples of Straight Counting

CHAPTER 2. CLASS 2 WORKSHEETS

A Most Important Observation about counting and the Count of a Collection

2.4. WORKSHEET 4: ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION A A B B C C 1 B C A C A B 2 C B C A B A 3

Worksheet 4: Addition and Subtraction

CHAPTER 2. CLASS 2 WORKSHEETS

2.4. WORKSHEET 4: ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION

or they may be displayed in two rows in the form

+ = which suggests writing addition in the form 2 3 5 2 3 5

CHAPTER 2. CLASS 2 WORKSHEETS

The concept of an empty collection and its count

2.4. WORKSHEET 4: ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION

CHAPTER 2. CLASS 2 WORKSHEETS

Worksheet 5: Using Straight Counting to Add or Subtract

Note that 3 is the predecessor of 4, and 233 is the predecessor of 234.

2.5. WORKSHEET 5: USING STRAIGHT COUNTING TO ADD OR SUBTRACT31

Adding any number

32 4. 237 + 3 = 240. Illustration + 237

CHAPTER 2. CLASS 2 WORKSHEETS

5. 4 + 75 = 79. Since 4 + 75 = 75 + 4 by the commutative property, we illustrate 75 + 4 = 79. + 75 76 77 78 79

Subtracting any number

Worksheet 5: The Order among numbers: Meaning of <, >, =

Using the symbols =, >, and <

The order among Whole Numbers