Project

ADVERTISING AND CHILDREN
Todays children are unique in many ways from previous generations, but perhaps the most influencing on our young children today is Television advertisements. Today, everywhere we go we see some type of advertising. A sale at the supermarket or a billboard-displaying discount at a fashion house, are two of the many forms of advertisement. Marketers choose children because they can easily lure them in. Advertisers spent $105.97 billion in 1980. This number has more than doubled in 2001 when it reached $230 billion (Laws, 2003). Advertisers spend this much money because of television. An average child sees an estimate of more than 20,000 commercials every year - that works out to at least 55 commercials per day (Laws, 2003). Children will insist their parents purchase what they see or hear on television. In the 1960's, children had an influence on about $5 billion of their parents purchases. That figure increased to $50 billion in 1984 and tripled to $188 billion in 1997. James McNeal, a kids marketing expert, estimates children twelve and under will influence $500 billion of family purchases by the year 2000 (Laws, 2003). In a time of Harry Potter, kids today have more money, more choice, more knowledge and know how than ever before. Children's spending has roughly doubled every ten years for the past three decades, and has tripled in the 1990's. Kids 4 to 12 spent $2.2 billion in 1968 and $4.2 billion in 1984. By 1994, the figure climbed to $17.1 billion and by 2002, their spending exceeded $40 billion. Kids direct buying power is expected to exceed $51.8 billion by 2006 (Laws, 2003). Tweenagers - kids from the age of 9 to 14 - currently spend $150 billion per year globally. Tweens also influence an additional $150 billion per year globally with pester power. In addition, they indirectly influence another $300 billion per year, for example, in situations in which a parent makes a purchase 1
taking into account kids tastes. That is a total purchasing/influencing power of $600 billion this year! In addition to the products that tweens buy for themselves and/or consume themselves (food, entertainment, clothing, music, electronics, etc.), they actually influence adults purchases of a large variety of products. Close to 60 percent of the kids world over voice their opinions on the subject of the family car purchase. More startling was the finding that 58 percent of tweens also had influence over their parents fashion purchases. In addition, 45 percent of parents mobile phone purchases were influenced by tweens. Parents were more likely to solicit tweens opinions about car and fashion purchases (30 percent and 28 percent), than about phones (20 percent). However, most tweens were not shy in voicing their opinions, whether or not they were asked. This interest in turn appears to reflect the local culture. Kids in India, the U.S., and Japan are more likely to express interest in cars rather than fashions, and to voice an opinion about parents purchases in that category. Brazilians and Europeans are more likely to be interested in fashions, and were more likely to voice an opinion about what clothes their parents might buy. With spending power in excess of US $150 billion a year, and doubling that number by factoring in their influence on their parents consumption patterns, it is unsurprising that marketers and advertisers are trying to understand and harness 'pester power' and how this can be leveraged to sell everything and anything from bubble gum to cars. No matter how we look at it, advertisers choose children because they are the most easily influenced and will spend their money if they find something interesting. Tomorrows adult and business marketing landscape will be shaped by tweens, who will have lived for years in the virtual worlds created in EverQuest, Entropia, Sims Online, Star Wars Galaxies, Lineage, and many other multiplayer fantasy worlds. They will be accustomed to creating their own personas with brands to match. They will want to shape their environments, interact with others constantly, and co-create their brand experiences, both online and offline. There are not many people in the world today that would disagree with the fact that children are our future. Children are the ones that must carry on family traditions, continue to build and develop new public projects, and continue to 2
learn and expand the knowledge of the human race. With that said it is important to understand that children are also future consumers. They are the engines that will drive the economy for the next generation, for advertisers the future is now. Advertising to children has long been a very successful way to build a solid consumer base that will win the minds of children in order to secure a lifetime of consumer purchasing. It may sound heartless but the fact is it works, and advertising to children is big business. We must understand the importance of a childs role in todays world and todays economy. Advertising to children has long been a part of the free market form of society and must be embraced as another part of a complex economic engine that runs day and night to provide a better life style for us all. Advertising to children generates jobs, injects money into the economy, and instills in children at a young age the importance of the freedom of choice. It also develops a childs ability to understand the value of a dollar and teaches them that individuals can achieve anything if they are willing to pay the price. Today's kids have more autonomy and decision-making power within the family than in previous generations, so it follows that kids are vocal about what they want their parents to buy. "Pester power" refers to children's ability to nag their parents into purchasing items they may not otherwise buy. Marketing to children is all about creating pester power, because advertisers know what a powerful force it can be. According to the book Kidfluence: Why Kids Today Mean Business (Anne Sutherland & Beth Thompson), pestering can be divided into two categories "persistence" and "importance." Persistent nagging is not as effective as the more sophisticated "importance nagging." This latter method appeals to parents' desire to provide the best for their children, and plays on any guilt they may have about not having enough time for their kids. Parents find themselves under pressure from pester power as they face growing demands from their children. Harnessing its power has become a holy grail for those who believe it to be the key to parents' purse strings.
Tools Used to Target Kids Building Brand Name Loyalty In her book No Logo, Naomi Klein says that the mid-1980s saw the birth of a new kind of corporationNike, Calvin Klein, Tommy Hilfiger, to name a fewwhich changed their primary corporate focus from producing products to creating an image for their brand name. Marketers plant the seeds of brand recognition in very young children, in the hopes that the seeds will grow into lifetime relationships. "Brand marketing must begin with children. Even if a child does not buy the product and will not for many years... the marketing must begin in childhood." (Source: The Kids Market: Myths and Realities James U. McNeal) Buzz or Street marketing Many companies are using "buzz marketing"a new twist on the tried-and-true "Word of mouth" method. The idea is to find the coolest kids in a community and have them use or wear your product in order to create a buzz around it. Buzz or "street marketing," can help a company to successfully connect with the savvy and elusive teen market by using trendsetters to give their products "cool" status. Commercialization in Education A school setting delivers a captive youth audience and implies the endorsement of teachers and the educational system. Marketers are eagerly exploiting this medium for promoting their products in a number of ways, including: Supplying schools with technology in exchange for high company visibility. Exclusive deals with fast food or soft drink companies to offer their products in a school or district. Advertising posted in classrooms, school buses, on computers, etc. in exchange for funds. Sponsoring school events The Internet The Internet is a favorite medium with marketers to target children:
it is a part of youth culture. This generation of young people is growing up with the Internet as a daily part of their lives. Kids are often online alone, without parental supervision. unlike broadcasting media, which have codes regarding advertising to kids, the Internet is unregulated. Sophisticated technologies make it easy to collect information from young people for marketing research, and to target individual children with personalized advertising. The marriage of psychology and marketing There have been several empirical studies to understand the purchase behavior of children and to be able to predict choice. Then there is the field of child psychology. Existing theories on child psychology, regarding learning, thinking, perception and social interaction have been primarily aimed at educators and therapists. Currently, Marketing to children is approached no different from marketing to adults, in theory [Kotler, 2003]: Understand the needs and requirements of the target Find gaps, see where needs are not being adequately satisfied or where a significantly more satisfactory offering can be made Create an offering that addresses these needs, keeping the audience in mind Find out how your audience is likely to purchase, the mode and the location. Make your offering available through appropriate channels. Find out how your audience evaluates offerings, how they perceive messages Design and execute a communication plan accordingly The problems arise out of the simple reason that marketers are adults and they think like adults. What may seem appropriate to an adult mind may be lost on a child. It needs a study of the cognitive processes of children at different stages of development, a reason to understand what, why and how of childrens thinking. This is where the theories of Piaget [Piaget, 1975] and Vygotsky [Vygotsky, 1934] help create a base to understand child as a consumer.
The development of thought Among the early, significant theories on cognitive development were those of Jean Piaget, a Swiss biologist who propounded the concept of Genetic Epistemology. Piagets theories were path breaking and are in essence still studied. Understanding these theories brings a very clear perspective to looking at childrens behavior. The image of the child changes to that of a complex, fascinating organism, groping in bewildering environment not only to survive but also to comprehend and control. This drives the child to learn. One explanation for the forces of cognitive development is the concept of Equilibration [Piaget, 1975]. Just as the body seeks to find a physiological state of equilibrium between exercise and rest, or hunger and overeating, the childs mind seeks equilibrium between what he understands and what he experiences. Its function is to bring about a balance between assimilation and accommodation. Accommodation is the process of adapting cognitive schemes for viewing the world (general concepts) to fit reality. Assimilation is the complementary process of interpreting experience (individual instances of general concepts) in terms of current cognitive schemes. The goal of the child is cognitive equilibrium [Piaget, 1975]. Adaptation accommodation. Assimilation - The process of taking material into the mind from the environment. Accommodation - The difference made to one's mind or concepts by the process of assimilation. Assimilation and Accommodation are the two complementary processes of Adaptation described by Piaget, through which awareness of the outside world is internalized. Although one may predominate at any one moment, they are inseparable and exist in a dialectical relationship. In Assimilation, what is perceived in the outside world is incorporated into the internal world, without changing the structure of that internal world, but potentially at the cost of "squeezing" the external perceptions to fit hence pigeonholing and stereotyping. 6 Adapting to the world through assimilation and
In Accommodation, the internal world has to accommodate itself to the evidence with which it is confronted and thus adapt to it, which can be a more difficult and painful process. This happens when the child tries to put in information, which does not fit the pre-existent fields and categories. He has to develop new ones to accommodate the new information. Both Assimilation and Accommodation happen together. This can be explained with the example of solid food. When a child has solid food put in his mouth for the first time, he attempts to do what he is used to doing with anything put in his mouth, he sucks on it. Then he tries chewing on it and realizes that this is something that can be done with things put in the mouth. He adapts to the introduction of solid food, otherwise alien to him, by assimilating it and accommodating it [Pulaski, 1971]. When a rattle is put in his hand, he puts that in his mouth, sucks on it, and then chews on it. He cannot assimilate it. Cognitive adaptation at this stage causes him to create a new classification. Things that are edible and non-edible [Pulaski, 1971]. This classification is a basic mechanism for thought processes. Piagets term schema would be food, in this case. The schema would be clearly differentiated from other schemata such as toys. While adapting, the child also develops intellectually [Piaget, 1975]. He organizes his new experiences differentiating, integrating, categorizing so that the first vague global schema of objects-that go-in-the-mouth becomes sophisticated and varied enough to include all the varied members of the category food. However, as cognitive equilibrium is only partial, existing equilibrium must evolve towards a higher form of equilibriumtowards a more adequate form of knowing. Piaget argued that this process of ontogeny drove cognitive development. When one cognitive scheme became inadequate for making sense of the world, it was replaced by another, requiring fundamental cognitive restructuring on the part of the child [Piaget, 1975]. This brings up a question - Once the organism is in equilibrium, what upsets it? Why and how does a child learn? This is explained by three dynamic forces that alter the states of equilibrium in an organism [Pulaski, 1971]:
Maturation: As the schemata of cognitive structures develop, the child begins to use them as if he learnt to use his muscles to walk, and then to run and climb. A child does not think like an adult simply because he does not have the logical structures, the organizations of thought, and the methods of reasoning which would enable him to deal with adult problems. As the child grows and matures, he fills this gap by becoming curious and by questioning. When he finds a satisfying answer, he attains equilibrium for a short period.
Experience: This pertains to physical and empirical experience that a child might come across while performing activities like playing, counting or lifting objects. Once a child has had a physical experience with a concrete object such as a ball, he can form a mental image of that object and act upon it in thought. He can think about throwing the ball, and his thought is interiorized action. Each of these experiences teaches the child something new, creating a sensory imbalance, causing him to look for equilibrium.
Social Transmission: Verbal instructions transmitted by parents, teachers and people around the child. Usually having multiple sources of social learning causes some amount of conflict, where the child may hear (what to him may appear) contradictory statements. When his equilibrium is disturbed, this way, the child sets out to achieve a new and higher equilibrium. Thus as the childs mental structures become capable of grappling with new problems, he is stimulated and challenged by his environment to seek new solutions. Piagets Stages of Development Piaget suggested that there were four major cognitive stages in logical
development, corresponding to four successive forms of knowledge. During each of these stages, children were hypothesized to think and reason in a different way [Piaget, 1960]. These stages, and their approximate ages of occurrence, were:
The sensory-motor period: 0-2 years. Sensory-motor cognition was based on physical interaction with the world. One of Piagets fundamental notions was that thought developed from action. In his view, a logic of action existed prior to, and in addition to, the representational logic of thought (sensory-motor behaviors became thought). For example, one of the hallmarks of this period was the attainment of object permanence. The development of object permanence refers to the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are hidden from view. A complete understanding of object permanence was said to emerge only between 15 and 18 months, marking the attainment of a cognitive representation of the object. If it were true that cognitive representations do not emerge until the final stage of sensory-motor cognition, then babies would have to wait a long time before they could engage in any meaningful cognitive activity. Learning, memory, reasoning and problemsolving abilities would all be seriously constrained.
The period of pre-operations: 2-7 years. Between around 18 and 24 months, the beginning of the internalization of action was thought to occur, although the results of such internalizations (called compositions) could only support limited forms of thought as they were not yet mentally reversible. A full understanding of the properties and relations of concrete objects was thought to develop very gradually during the pre-operational stage. During this period, childrens solution of problems concerning objects and their relations (e.g. class inclusion problems, conservation problems) displayed modes of thought that were egocentric. The child perceived and interpreted the world in terms of the self. Pre-operational thought also displayed centration, in that the child tended to fix on one aspect of a situation or object and ignore other aspects. Finally, it displayed a lack of reversibility, in that the child was unable to reverse mentally a series of events or steps of reasoning. The pre-operational child was thus seen as prelogical, having a subjective and self-centered grasp of the world. Nevertheless, via the transition from sensory-motor to
preoperational forms of thought, the practical logic of relations and classes in terms of sensory-motor action were the precursor of the representational logic of relations and classes used in the concrete operational stage. The period of concrete operations: 7-11 years. During concrete operational cognition, the compositions of internalized actions became reversible, making the beginning of mental operations such as class inclusion, transitivity and conservation. Piaget developed tests of the attainment of each of these operations that have become classic tasks in the cognitive developmental literature. The acquisition of concrete operations was marked by the gradual waning of egocentricity, by the ability to decentre or consider multiple aspects of a situation simultaneously, and by reversibility or the ability to understand that any operation on an object simultaneously implied its inverse. The childs growing logical insights were thought to lead to the development of concrete operational mental structures, such as classification, seriation and conservation. Piagets idea was that mathematical logic could be used to describe the psychological reality of the logical structures developed by the child, and the reversibility of those structures. The period of formal operations: 11-12 years on. During formal operational cognition, certain concrete operations became linked together, marking the onset of scientific thought. Formal operational reasoning depended on the ability to take the results of concrete operations, to generate hypotheses about their logical relationships and to represent alternative hypotheses and their deductive implications. Piaget described this level of reasoning as operating on operations, or secondorder reasoning. He conceptualized this mathematically, in terms of the ability to apply a formal system such as propositional logic to the elementary operations concerning classes of objects and their relations. Many of Piagets tests for the presence of formal operational structures involved tasks requiring scientific thought, such as discovering the rule
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that determines whether material bodies will float or sink in water, discovering the rule between weight and distance that will enable a beam to balance, and discovering the rule that governs the oscillation of a pendulum. However, Piaget recognized that the acquisition of each new way of thinking would not necessarily be synchronous across all the different domains of thought. Instead, he argued that the chronology of the stages might be extremely variable, and that such variability might also occur within a given stage. Thus, the ages of attainment that Piaget gave for the different cognitive stages are only approximations. How children think, react and evaluate Due to the nature of formation of cognitive structures, children desire to attain equilibrium. Children have other basic needs that they try to satisfy while maintaining a sense of balance. In terms of what they do, children want safety and familiarity as well as the opposite, adventure, risk and the thrill of the unknown in our lives. A childs first step, for instance, is a risk, an act of courage, as is the decision to spend its own pocket money on something new and untested. Egocentrism - At birth, the infant unaware of anything beyond himself. He knows nothing of the world apart from his immediate consciousness and therefore cannot distinguish himself from his surroundings. This reduces slowly as the child learns of his environment and people, but it takes a lot of development for children to be able to look at things from another persons perspective. It has been observed that in groups, children commonly engage in collective-monologues, appearing to play together but actually each child is engaging in a monologue, completely disregarding what others may be saying [Pulaski, 1971]. Piaget introduced the concept of Egocentrism to explain this phenomenon. Egocentrism is fundamentally a cognitive limitation; children are egocentric because they fail to understand how someone else's point of view might be different from their own, or they fail to coordinate their point
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of view with that of the other person. Understanding Egocentrism is critical to understanding how a child thinks, to be able to make sense of behavior that might otherwise seem irrational and random. Object Constancy Out of sight, Out of mind This is a manifestation of Egocentrism. If a desired object is hidden, the infant acts as though it no longer existed. It takes some time for a child to develop object constancy. He does not know that objects exist in the environment even when he does not see them. The infant is only aware of his immediate experience. If that experience does not include perceiving the object, then he has no idea that the object is there and has permanence of its own [Pulaski, 1971]. Eventually, after a good deal of experience with objects that that swing, drop, or roll out of sight that the child looks for them. Games such as hide-and-seek become a source of unfailing delight because of the reappearance of hidden but expected objects. An essential for later learning, this realization of the permanence of objects reduces the childs egocentrism by enabling him to differentiate between himself and external reality that exists independently of him. Conservation Conservation is the ability to realize that certain attributes of an object are constant, even though it changes in appearance. In an experiment when a child is shown two equal sized balls of clay and then one is rolled into a fat sausage in front of him. A child younger than seven thinks that the sausage has more clay in it because it is longer. His perception is immediate, egocentric and limited to the present. He centers his attention on a single, striking feature, the length. He has not yet mastered reversibility, the ability to follow a series of transformations and then reverse direction and think back to when the same piece of clay was a round ball [Pulaski, 1971]. The pre-operational child finds it difficult to understand the conservation of substance. The child in the period of concrete operations understands this concept and may even understand conservation of weight. However, conservation of volume is not acquired
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till about eleven or twelve. The reason for the child finding these concepts baffling is the missing logical structures in his cognitive development that are yet to be formed. Realism An absolute explanation for everything Children usually tend to have explanations for all phenomena. They have a reason and, what in their minds is, the only objective viewpoint. This is a manifestation of both egocentrism and a stopgap effort to reach equilibrium when certain questions remain unanswered in their cognitive structures [Piaget, 1955]. To the child, all things are equally real words, pictures, dreams, feelings. Names, for example, are real and exist as part of the thing being named. The young child cannot conceive that he could have been given another name. Animism The whole world is alive The child believes that nature is alive, conscious, and endowed with purpose. This arises because the child being unconscious of himself, confuses himself with the universe [Piaget, 1955]. There are four stages in the development of animism. Up to about 5 years of age, the child believes anything may be endowed with purpose or conscious activity. He blames a ball (Bad ball) for refusing to be thrown straight, or a naughty chair for bumping him. Then a transition stage occurs when a child experiences cognitive conflict and may reverse or contradict himself. Only object which move, such as floating clouds or cars, are alive. In the third stage, only objects, which move spontaneously, are alive; cars and bicycles are not. The last stage, in which only plants and animals are considered alive happens at about eleven or twelve years. Artificialism Everything is man made The tendency of the child to believe that human beings created natural phenomena [Pulaski, 1971]. Reasoning like this comes from questions like:
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Who made the sun?, Who puts the stars in the sky, at night? The child then tries to create an answer that is satisfactory, in order to reach equilibrium and he comes up with explanations. Fantasy Beyond reason and reasoning Children's stories have universal appeal. What constitutes fairy tales in Western cultures differs little from legends and tales woven out our own epics. Theatre owners' disposition towards films around children's fantasies is another good indicator. In India, many Western productions are given a miss by distributors, driven by the belief that it will have a narrow appeal if not lack relevance altogether. However, a film based on fantasy, will surely find its way into the Indian theatres [McCann-Erickson, 2003]. Sentience Need to gratify the senses An important part of the way children grow up is learning through all the senses. This explains the need for play-acting, for make believe. The reason why a child internalizes the concept of a train by playing with a set a of toy blocks, making train sounds. The symbolic representation helps him assimilate all the characteristics of trains he has seen, all the senses. This is very different from the way adults internalize objects [Pulaski, 1971]. Children interact more, they do not just perceive a product or a retail environment, and they actually play with it. It comes from their nature, they are questioning and learning because several of the cognitive structures that adults take for granted are missing in the childs mental make-up. A child notices and observes more, life is less mundane for him than it is for an adult doing a chore. In a store, a child notices things like floor tiles, point-of-purchase banners, display shelves, danglers, and if these are within an arms reach, the child will try to touch it, to move it. His experience needs inputs from several senses; if he is young, enough he will want to put any such object in his mouth, to taste it, to chew on it. An adult may look at a banner and 'know' how the plastic sheet material might
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feel, but a child does not 'know he has not made the connection; it is a new sensation to him.
The Information processing framework Consumer socialization is best understood in terms of childrens developing abilities to select, evaluate and use information relevant to purchasing. The information processing framework comes from consumer behavior theory. This framework works on the assumption that children are active participants in the communication process attending to some messages and ignoring others, selecting some information in one commercial to compare with product information gained through experience, and so on. The framework below shows an example for a specific purchase decision. Environment Family Initial Processing Central Processing Information search Interpretation and Attention Television Advertising Information Selection Use of information T 1.1 Purchase Decision Framework The model depicts two influences on childrens consumer behavior the family and television advertising. There are more influences such as peers, instore displays, etc. The decision-making is divided into initial and central processing, to describe the different cognitive activities that children go through in acquiring, structuring, interpreting and using information. A couple of caveats are necessary, now that this model has been described: Children do not go through this entire process for every purchase decision. In some cases, a child might want a toy only based on one 15 Comprehension Structuring of information Evaluation
Purchasing Decision
attribute (say, a blinking light). In many cases, there is no real information search children may simply see a desirable product while walking through a store. When the events depicted in the model do occur, they could take place in a few seconds or over a considerable period of time. The model depicts a rational decision-making process. This is one reason why it does not always apply to a childs decision making. Nevertheless, it provides a concrete framework to understand consumer socialization. Consumer Socialization The process children go through in developing consumer attitudes, knowledge and skills is termed Consumer Socialization. Cognitive development theory provides a basis for understanding and predicting age-related changes in childrens consumer information processing skills. However, consumer socialization depends on more than the childs general information processing abilities implied by his level of cognitive development. There are many external influences on children, which can also influence consumer socialization [Ward, Wackman and Wartella, 1942]. This view is based on two premises. Children learn in series of situations, i.e., configurations of people, places, and circumstances in which actions occur providing opportunity for learning. What and how children learn is determined by how a child interprets given situations. A childs interpretation of situations will depend upon his cognitive abilities, or cognitive stage. Thus, the same parental behavior will have differential impact on the child, depending upon his stage in cognitive development. Independent Variables Cognitive Development FamilyInformation Interpretation Money use 16 Initial Processing Central Processing Behaviors
Parents Behavior Parent-child Interaction Childs independent Consumer Opportunities Television Advertising
search Attention Information Selection
And comprehension Structuring of Information Evaluation Use of information Spending Saving Purchase requests
T 1.2 Cognitive Development Process The child to a marketer Defining the market - India has a population of 350 million below the age of 15, a whopping market equal to the whole of Eastern Europe. The size of this market is one factor, which decides how attractive this market is, the other is the simple reason that kids love branding. Six-month-old kids can distinguish between corporate logos, and a three-year-old could affiliate with a brand name [Lindstorm, Seybold, 2002]. Several factors are currently driving children to become consumers and full-fledged customers at earlier ages, some of these are pertinent to the Indian child. Fewer children per parent Fallout of increasing development is that fertility rates are falling. As is seen in developed countries across the world and also witnessed at a much slower rate in India, we push forward towards development and the number of children per parent reduces. Postponement of having children Adults in urban settings tend to marry later and as society moves towards greater stress on education and urbanization of towns, childbirth is being pushed further along the age line. Dual working families
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With both parents working in many families, the child does not get as much attention, he is not taught the ropes. He is more open to learning from his immediate environment. He is more susceptible to messages thrown at him by marketers and the media. In addition, the guilt factor combined with increased income from two paychecks causes parents to give the children more money for their purchases. This new segment of customers can be looked at as composed of four important markets [McNeal, 1992]: Primary market Secondary market Influencers Potential customers As primary consumers, children are current customers. They have a sizeable income in terms of allowances and pocket money and all of this money is for discretionary purchases. No other segment of the market has its entire income devoted to discretionary purchases. This is a tremendous opportunity for a marketer to bring a new product to the market. An adult would need to fit the product into his budget, to try it, a child has no budget to plan. As a secondary market, children consume goods and services purchased for them by their parents. As influencers, children affect purchase decisions made by adults in a wide range of categories. Until recently, marketers have underestimated pester power 52% of parents admit that kids influence their decisions. Kids and adults even associate with brands somewhat similarly, and kids also influence categories normally not associated with kids for example car purchase. Development of the child as a consumer To understand how children develop as consumers we need to look at it in its early stages. Children learn their consumer behavior mainly from their parents and marketers. Parents are the childrens primary socialization agents who introduce and indoctrinate them into the consumer role. However, marketers play 18
an important part in childrens consumer socialization, and their influence continues to grow as the parents have less time and the marketers have more interest. Below are outlined a few generalized stages in the development of the childrens consumer behavior patterns. These stages are most relevant to the urban middle-class and upper middle-class child. Accompanying parents and observing - By the time a child can sit erect, he accompanies the parent (usually the mother) on her shopping chores. The child is exposed to the retail environment and sees a wonderland of marketing. By age 2, a few connections have been made between television advertising and the store contents. Accompanying parents and requesting - Starting around the age 2 the youngsters begin making requests while shopping with their parent. Repeated store visits, more frequent consumption of certain items and a greater attention to advertising messages during television programming produce an increasing list of things for kids to want. At the same time the youngster is learning how to get the parent to respond to wishes and wants. Accompanying parents and selecting with permission - By age 3 or 4 children are walking along with the parent and asking to make some selections of their own. By now, they recognize many brands and know their locations in stores. Parents at this stage may begin allowing their kids to make some selections of favorite products, to keep the child busy or to teach the child some rudiments of shopping. Accompanying parents and making independent purchases - There is just one more step in the consumer cycle from wants to want satisfying goods. That is, paying for them. This is a complex undertaking for children, even though they have seen; their parents do it many times. Initially this act is an interference to children who are trying to obtain a particular product because they cannot yet conceptualize the exchange system. It is also frustrating and confusing because of the mathematics of
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money. This step in which the item is usually purchased does not change the direction and flow of the want-satisfaction process learned in step three. It simply makes it more complex. One of the reasons for this complexity is the interaction with store personnel. Going to the store alone and making independent purchases - Soon enough the child solos as a customer. The purpose is probably selfserving, although an increasing number of parents are encouraging their kids to make bread-and-milk runs. Later, when children relate this first independent store trip, the often do it with all the excitement of a pilot who has just made his first solo flight.
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Statement of the Problem

The research is carried out to find out the need of marketers to understand the nature and extent of influence children have on the decision making process for the purchase of cars. Thus, this information can be taken in their commercial and marketing strategies.
Objective of the Study

To find out if children are influenced by TV commercials of car. To find out what elements of TV commercials of car have influence children. To find out what age of children have what degree of influence. To find out if children ask their parents to buy the car they like. To find out if parents consider the suggestions given by their children and if they actually buy them. To find out the age group and the decision of parents to buy the car as suggested by their children. To find out what age group gives what reasons to their parents to buy the car that they like.
Scope of the Research

The scope of the research is limited to Bangalore city. It takes into account only those children who are aged between 7-14 years and their parents having car(s) bought in the last one-year. The respondents have given their personal opinions.
Research Methodology
Type of Research The purpose, the process and the outcome can classify type of research. These can in turn be broken down further
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The purpose of the research is descriptive. It is describing the phenomenon of children being influenced by advertisements and if they, in turn, are influencing their parents to buy the car they like. The data that has been collected is quantitative and statistical application like SPSS software has been used to summarize the information.
The process of research is both qualitative and quantitative. Firstly, qualitative research was carried out in the form of focus group interviews with children aged between 7-14 years. On the basis of their responses, a questionnaire was developed to get a better insight into their advertisement viewing pattern, the influence that ads have on them and if they are influenced enough to pester their parents to buy the car that they like. Even parents were questioned to find out how much they consider their childrens suggestions while buying a car.
Outcome of the research is basic research. The research has been primarily carried out to improve our knowledge about a childs behavior. Sources of Data
Secondary data Internet, books. Primary data structured questionnaires, focus group interviews.
Sampling
The research was done with the help of non-probability convenient sampling. The sample size is 100. This has been further divided into 2 subgroups of 50 each 1 subgroup consisting of children aged between 7-14 years and the other subgroup consisting of their parents. Actual sample size children 39, parents 39. 11 children and 11 parents were rejected for not fulfilling the research requirements The sampling units are children aged between 7-14 years and their parents who have car (s) purchased in the last one year. It has been
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carried out in the residential area of BTM Layout, Kormangala, Jayanagar, and J.P.Nagar.
Research Instrument
Focus interviews. Structured questionnaires open ended questions and close ended questions.
Methodology of Data Collection

Data collection can be classified into secondary data and primary data. Secondary data has been collected by referring to various web pages and books related to the study topic. The primary data has been collected with the help of exploratory research, under which focus interviews were conducted with children aged between 7-14 years. The data collected from the focus research was used to frame structured questionnaires for children of the same age group. Structured questionnaires were also administered on their parents.
Plan of Analysis
After having collected the data, the absolute scores were recorded and analysis was done by using chi square test for all those variables that had significant impact on the research objective.
Limitation of the Study

The study cannot be generalized across the population, as the sample size is small. Since the questionnaires were administered on children, their responses may have been biased as they are easily influenced by others responses. The response of parents may be biased too. Since the study was done by using the non-probability sampling, the findings may not be accurate to the entire population parameter. 22
Difference of perception while interpreting the open-ended questions of the questionnaires.
Operational definitions of concepts

Family - A family is a domestic group of people, or a number of domestic groups linked through descent demonstrated or stipulated) from a common ancestor, marriage, or adoption. Families have some degree of kinship. In Western culture, a family is defined specifically as a group of people affiliated by blood or by legal ties such as marriage or adoption. Children For this research study, children are those kids that fall under the age group of 7-14 years. Advertising Advertising is the paid promotion of goods, services, companies and ideas, by an identified sponsor. TV commercials - The TV commercial is generally considered the most effective mass-market advertising format and this is reflected by the high prices TV networks charge for commercial airtime during popular TV events. Pester power it refers to children's ability to nag their parents into purchasing items they may not otherwise buy. Decision a decision is the selection of an option from two or more alternatives. In other words, for a person to make decision, a choice of alternatives must be available. Influencer an influencer is a person who exerts influence on the person who has to make decision about anything. Decision making process - a decision making process takes into account all the stages that an individual goes through while taking a decision.
23
Overview of Chapter Scheme

Introduction to the Study This chapter throws light on how children are influenced by advertisements and how they are getting in control of taking major household purchase decisions. It also gives us an insight into the development of the process of thinking of a child. Design of the Study This chapter gives an overview of the problem statement considered for study, objectives of the study, scope of the study, the methodology used for data collection, limitations of the study, and project presentation overview. Profile of the industry This chapter gives a brief profile of passenger car industry in India how it evolved, where it stands now, major export and domestic sales trends, major developments of 2005, recent launches and last but not least, its contribution to the economy. Analysis and Interpretation This chapter gives comprehensive analysis of the study with respect to the research objective. Summary of Findings, Recommendation and Conclusion This chapter gives summary of all findings from the study, recommendations, and conclusions derived from these findings. Bibliography This chapter includes list of books referred and websites browsed. Annexure Includes the questionnaires used for data collection
24
About hundred years ago, India imported the first motorcar. Introduction of import duty on vehicles took place and the concept of Indian Great Royal Road (Predecessor of the Grand Trunk Road) was conceived. Simpson & Co established themselves in 1840. They were the first to build a steam car and a steam bus, to attempt motorcar manufacture, to build and operate petrol driven passenger service and to import American Chassis in India. A princely ruler brought the first car in India in the year 1898. In 1935, the proposals of Sir M Visvesvaraya to set up an automobile industry were disallowed. In 1942, Hindustan Motors Ltd was incorporated and they rolled out their first car in the year 1950. In 1944, Premier Automobiles Ltd was incorporated and they produced their first vehicle in the year 1947. The government of India had protectionism policies for the players in the automobile industry. The association of Indian Automobile Manufacturers was formally established in 1960. The implementation of MRTP Act, FERA and the oil shock of 1973 and 1979 changed the structure of the industry. During this decade, there were not major changes in the four-wheeler industry except the entry of Sipani Automobiles in the small car sector. During this time, the economy was in very bad shape. In 1980s, the first phase of liberalization was announced. Unfair practices of monopoly, oligopoly slowly disappeared. Many foreign collaborations came up in the eighties. Many companies went in for Japanese collaborations. In 1983, Maruti Udyog Ltd was started in collaboration with Suzuki, a Japanese firm. Other three car manufacturers namely, Hindustan Motors Ltd, Premier Automobiles Ltd, Standard Motor Production of India Ltd also introduced new models in the market. At that time, there were five passenger car manufacturers in India Maruti Udyog Ltd, Hindustan Motors Ltd, Premier Automobiles Ltd, Standard Motor Production Of India Ltd and Sipani Automobiles. During this period, important policy changes took place like relaxation in MRTP and FERA, delicensing of some ancillary products, broad banding of the products, modification in the licensing policy, concession to private sector (both Indian and 25
foreign), foreign collaboration policy, etc. these resulted in higher growth and better performance of the industry than the previous decades. Mass emission norms were introduced for petrol vehicles in 1991 and for diesel vehicles in 1992. In 1991, new industrial policy was announced. It was the death of the license Raj and the automobile industry was allowed to expand. Further tightening of emission norms was done in 1996. The Indian Automobile market in general and passenger cars in particular have witnessed liberalization. MNCs carefully planned their entry into emerging markets. Early commitment to a market often results in first mover advantages that are difficult to replicate. On the other hand, later entrants have the opportunity to learn from the mistakes of the first entrant. Among the first to enter was Daewoo of South Korea, with its model Cielo, targeted at the upper end of the market. Other MNCs such as Ford and General Motors also entered the Indian market, followed by Hyundai, Honda, Toyota and Volkswagen, Peugeot, Mercedes-Benz, Volvo and Fiat. These days the Indian car industry can be classified, based on the price, into lower end small car or economy segment (upto Rs0.25mn), higher end of the economy segment (Rs0.25-0.45mn) mid-size segment (Rs0.45-0.8mn), luxury/premium car segment (above Rs0.8mn). The lower end of the economy segment includes cars like Maruti 800, Maruti Omni and Premier Padmini. The higher end will include models like Maruti Zen, Matiz, Hyundai Santro and Telco Indica. The mid-sized segment currently includes models like Ford Ikon, Hyundai Accent, Maruti Esteem, Cielo and Honda City. The luxury segment of the car market includes such models as Mitsubishi Lancer and Mercedes E220. The demand for passenger cars can be segmented based on the user segment as taxi operators, government, non-government institutions, and individual buyers. A major portion of the demand in India accrues mainly from personal vehicle owners. Lately, the Indian car market has seen a lot of action with a number of new entrants wanting a share of the pie. With individual incomes on the rise and finance being easily available, aspirations have also grown to include a car among a familys prized possessions. With the Indian buyer still being price conscious, all these factors have contributed to the rising sales graph in the small car market. 26
T 3.1 - Domestic sales trend Category Passenger Car UVs MPVs Total Passenger Vehicles 95-96 31648 9 10127 3 41776 2 96-97 37414 4 13215 7 50630 1 97-98 38801 5 13001 4 51802 9 98-99 38448 3 10908 2 49356 5 99-00 61531 8 11832 3 73364 1 00-01 56772 8 12283 2 69056 0 01-02 50908 8 10425 3 61775 67511 6 02-03 54149 1 11362 0 52087 70719 8 03-04 696207 144981 59564 900752
T 3.2 - Export trend CATEGORY Passenger Cars UVs MPVs Total Passenger Vehicles 31838 39645 32993 28122 28420 27112 95-96 28851 2987 96-97 37161 2484 97-98 29705 3288 98-99 25468 2654 99-00 23272 5148 00-01 22990 4122 01-02 49273 3077 815 53165 02-03 70263 1177 565 72005 03-04 125327 3067 922 129316
27
G 3.1 April 2005 witnessed many significant changes in terms of implementation of VAT, tightening of emission norms, introduction of new safety and noise regulations. BS-II norms were introduced all over the country for Commercial Vehicles, Passenger Vehicles including Two & Three Wheelers, whereas the 11 key cities witnessed a change from BS II to BS III norms. Despite all these changes, automobile industry has shown a growth in the month of April 2005, when compared to April 2004. In domestic sales, the Automobile industry performance in April 2005 showed encouraging results excepting Commercial Vehicles. Industry registered a growth of around 20% in numbers over April 2004. Within the Passenger Vehicle Segment, the Passenger cars & Utility Vehicles have grown by 14% & 12% respectively. While MPVs have more or less stagnated. The performance of the Industry in exports is also encouraging. %. Passenger Vehicle export grew by 12%. According to the Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers (SIAM), for the year ended March 2004-2005, the total number of passenger cars sold in India was 8.19 lakh, as against around 6.96 lakh sold in the year before - 18% growth. While the B-segment, which comprises small cars, registered the highest growth of 34% year-on-year, the mid-size segment is fast catching on, growing at 28% annually. The compact car segment, a favorite in the Indian market, seems to have found several takers in the export markets. This segment, currently accounts for 75% of the total car exports followed by the lower end of the mid size segment at 20% and the entry level at 4.5%. These three segments account for almost the entire gamut of car exports from India. Mirroring a boom in the domestic market, exports of 'Made-in-India' vehicles soared 43% during the first eight months of this fiscal. The breakthrough in car exports came in calendar `01, when Indian exports touched 41,788 units. This prompted most car manufacturers to explore opportunities overseas, especially Europe. For instance, the country's largest carmaker, Maruti Udyog, has made a splash in Europe with its Alto. Tata Motors 28
has also jumped on the export bandwagon. It is Indica that is making inroads in Europe, where it is known as City Rover. Further, foreign car manufacturers are increasingly making their Indian arms a sourcing base. Meanwhile, many passenger car companies have announced plans of making India an export hub and component units have chalked out investments of Rs 1,000 crore in the next one year. While much of the current auto boom has been taken care of by engaging idle capacities and productivity enhancements like six sigma, defect reduction and quality control systems, the potential for job creation is high. The new vehicles launched in 2004 included the premium segment Hyundai Elantra (luxury sedan), the crossover vehicle Hyundai Getz, multi utility vehicle Chevrolet Tavera, the new Qualis from Toyota, the 'C' segment Fiat Petra (sedan), the Indigo Marina, station wagon variant of Indica from Tata Motors and the Ford Fusion. 2004 also saw a number of passenger vehicles being imported as completely built up units or CBUs. These include the Rs5-crore Maybach from Daimler Chrysler, the Skoda Superb, a new variant of the Mitsubishi Pajero, the Toyota LandCruiser Prado, the Nissan X-Trail, luxury sports car Bentley Continental GT, and new models of BMW. Some launches for 2005 include Toyota Motor's IMV Toyota Innova in the first half of 2005 while Hyundai Motor India has announced the launch of its crossover vehicle Matrix and has launched sports utility vehicle (SUV) Tuscan in 2005. General Motors plans to launch the Spark while Maruti Udyog has launched the 1.3-litre Swift. While these cars belong to the 'B' and 'C' segments, other high profile super premium vehicles are soon going to hit Indian roads. Volkswagen Group Company, Audi, has announced its plans to launch three models by the middle of 2005, while French company Porsche is bringing in the Carrera and two other models. Fiat India, enthused by big ticket launches of Audi and BMW is said to be planning the launch of Alfa Romeo in the coming year. The above-mentioned activities indicate that auto sector is one of the main drivers of the economy. Every commercial vehicle manufactured, creates 13.31 jobs, while every passenger car creates 5.31 jobs and every two-wheeler creates 0.49 jobs in the country. Besides, the automobile industry has an output multiplier of 2.24, i.e. for every additional rupee of output in the auto industry, the overall 29
output of the Indian economy increases by Rs. 2.24. Realizing this, successive governments have taken various measures to provide the much-required push to the auto sector. The road infrastructure, in particular, had been given special importance by the previous government of NDA with the 'Golden Quadrilateral' project and the 'North-South" and "East-West" corridor projects. This momentum has been maintained by the present Congress-led United Progressive Alliance (UPA) government with its continued support to road infrastructure development. The excise and customs duties on cars and auto-components have been continuously declining over the past five years. All these factors have contributed in providing the impetus to the auto sector. The government has chalked out a plan regarding Bharat Stage IV (equivalent to Euro IV) norms by 2010. The government is also planning to form auto clusters to improve international competitiveness of domestic industries. First, such cluster will be set up in the Pimpri-Chinchwad area of Maharashtra at a cost of Rs. 67 crores. In the 2004, Budget the government announced new incentives to facilitate Research & Development activity in India, which has been continued in the 2005 budget. All these efforts are directed towards increasing the competitiveness of Indian auto industries and providing better, technologically advanced and environmental friendly products to the end user.
30
31
Question No 4 - Number of Cars Owned

Number of cars 1 2 3 >3 Number of respondents 31 12 7 0 T 4.1 Percentage of total 62 24 14 0
number of cars owned

50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 1 2 no. of cars
G 4.1 Interpretation - As we can see, 62% of 50 respondents have only one vehicle whereas 24% have two vehicles. Rest 14% has three vehicles. However, nobody has more than three vehicles. Only those respondents that have bought their vehicles in the last one-year have been taken into account.
no. of respondents
>3
Question number 6 - Attributes sought in a car

Features Engine Perform 31 Mileage Price Looks Comfort Service
Opinion Very important Important Neutral Not so important Not at all Important
ance 60 26 14 0 0
50 42 12 0 0
32 20 24 28 0 T 4.2
60 32 8 4 0
70 28 4 0 2
46 40 14 4 0
Attributes sought in a car very important 100% 90% 80% 70% % of respondents 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% engine performance mileage price looks comfort service important neutral not so important not at all important
G 4.2 Interpretation - 60% of the respondents look for engine performance and looks while they are deciding to buy a new car. However, 70% of the respondents look 32
for comfort. Mileage is important to almost half of the total sample size. Price and service are not the causes of concern of the respondents.
Question number 7 - Various Influencers

Influencers Spouse Children Friends/peers/colleagues Parents Relatives T 4.3
various influencer
% 68 78 22 12 2
80 70 60 50 % 40 30 20 10 0 spouse children friends influencer parents relatives
G 4.3 Interpretation Children are the number one influencers. Next on the list is spouse. 68% of the respondents take their spouses suggestions. Friends, parents do play a role in influencing the purchase however only 22% and 12% of the respondents take their friends and parents suggestions into consideration. Relatives play a negligible role. (Note Multiple-choice question)
33
Question number 8 - Reasons reported by parents that their children gave for liking a particular car
Reasons % of Respondents T 4.4
Reasons given to buy the car liked
Car looks 46
Celebrity endorsement 49
Friends have it 36
Car features 31
50 45 40 % of respondents 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 car looks celebrity endorsement friends own car features
various reasons
G4.4 Interpretation - It is very apparent from the above table and graph that celebrity endorsement plays an important role in influencing children. It is evident that 46% of the respondents have agreed that their children had asked them to buy a particular car because it showed a celebrity that they like, for instance Shahrukh Khan or Sachin Tendulkar. Looks of a car also is able to influence children immensely. 44% of the parents have said that their children were influenced by car looks. Friends and car features influenced few children. (Note - Number of respondents 39) (Multiple-choice question) 34
Question number 9 - Purchase of car as suggested by the child

Purchase of car % Of respondents Yes 41 T 4.5
purchase of car as suggested by children
No 59
60 50 % of respondents 40 30 20 10 0 yes response no
G 4.5 Interpretation - The graph above depicts that 59% of the parents did not purchase the car as suggested by their children. However, the percentage of the number of parents that have bought cars as suggested by their children is 41%. (Note - Number of respondents 39)
35
Question number 10 - Childrens reaction to not purchasing the car liked by them
Reaction No. Of respondents T 4.6
reaction of children to not purchasing the car as liked by them
Giving up 20
Crying 0
Anger 3
Pestering 0
20 18 16 number of respondents 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 giving up crying reaction anger pestering
G 4.6 Interpretation as it can be seen from the graph, 20 respondents out of 23 said that their children just gave up when they learnt that their parents have decided not to buy the car that they like. However, 3 out of 23 respondents said that their children got angry when they learnt that their parents have decided not to buy the car. None of the children cried or pestered their parents. (Note - Number of respondents 23)
36
Question number 11 - Reasons for accepting the suggestion of the child

Reasons for fulfilling % of respondents Logical 56 T 4.7
Reasons for accepting the suggestion
Love & affection 13
Both logical and Affection 31
60 50 % of respondents 40 30 20 10 0
reasons
G 4.7 Interpretation here, it can be seen that parents who have purchased cars as suggested by their children have mainly done that because they felt that their childrens suggestion was logical. 56% of the respondents who have actually bought cars on their childrens suggestions have said that the suggestion was logical. Only 13% bought the car because they love their children a lot. 31% have said that the suggestion was logical and they bought the car because they love their children a lot. (Note - Number of respondents 16) (Multiple-choice question)
CHILDRENS QUESTIONNAIRE
37
both logical and affection
logical
love & affection
Question number 3 - Various programs watched on any day

Programs % of respondents T 4.8
programs watched on any day
Cartoons 68
Sports 48
Movies 24
Serials 34
News 10
Music videos 48
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 cartoons sports movies serials news music videos
% of respondents
various programs
G 4.8 Interpretation 68% of the respondents watch cartoons whereas music videos and sports channels are watched equally by 48% of the respondents. 34% watch serials, 24% movies whereas news is watched only by 10% of the respondents. (Note - Multiple-choice question)
Question number 5 - Reaction to advertising

reaction to advertisement Keep watching the Change the channel 38
Number of respondents
commercial 39 T 4.9
during breaks 11
reaction to advertisements
50 45 number of respondents 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 keep watching reaction change the channel
G 4.9 Interpretation 39 children out of 50 keep watching the advertisements when they are shown on television. However, the rest of the 11 children change the channel as soon as advertisements are shown on television.
Question number 6 - Liking any car advertisement

Liking car ad % of respondents Yes 100 T 4.10 39 No 0
liking car commercials
100 90 80 70 % of respondents 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 yes liking no
G 4.10 Interpretation it can be seen from the graph that everybody that watches advertisement has liking toward car advertisements. The percentage is 100%. They have liking toward a car advertisement of their choice.
(Note number of respondents - 39)
Question number 7 - Advertisement elements liked by children

Reasons for liking % of respondent 40 Ad music 38 Cars looks 72 People in The ad 44 The car Itself 13 Cars features 33
s T 4.11
reasons for liking car advertisements
80 70 60 % of respondents 50 40 30 20 10 0 music of the ad car's looks people in the ad various reasons the car itself car's features
G 4.11 Interpretation almost 72% of the children interviewed liked a car advertisement because of the looks of the car. 44% of the respondents liked an advertisement because it has celebrity endorsement like Sachin Tendulkar or Shahrukh khan. Almost 38% of the respondents like the music of the ad. 33% liked an advertisement because it showed the features of the ad. Very few people that is 13% of the respondents like the car itself, which in turn has led them to like the advertisement. (Note number of respondents - 39) (Multiple-choice question)
Question number 8 - Asking parents to buy the favorite car

Whether asked No. of respondents Yes 36 T 4.12 No 3
41
asking for purchase of favourite car
40 35 30 no of respondents 25 20 15 10 5 0 yes whether asked for purchase no
G 4.12 Interpretation almost all the children that liked a car advertisement have asked their parents to purchase the car. The number is 36. Only 3 children out of 39 have not asked their parents to buy the car that they liked for various reasons. (Note number of respondents - 39)
Question number 9 - Consideration of suggestion

Consideration of suggestion No of respondents Yes 23 T 4.13 No 16
42
consideration of suggestion
25
20 no of respondents
15
10
0 yes consideration no
G 4.13 Interpretation it is very evident from the graph that the parents of 23 respondents have considered the suggestion as given by them. However, parents of 16 children did not even consider the suggestion as given by them.
Question number 10 - Purchase of car as suggested by children

Purchase of car as suggested No of respondents Yes 16 T 4.14 No 23
43
purchase of car as suggested by children
25
20 no of respondents
15
10
0 yes whether purchased no
G 4.14 Interpretation only 16 respondents parents purchased cars as suggested by their children. However, the rest of the 23 childrens parents did not buy the car as suggested by their children.
Question number 12 - Sources of information about new cars

Sources % of respondents 44 TV 72 Friends 58 Newspape r 16 Billboard s 34 Car Magazine 22 Car games 36
T 4.15
sources of information about new cars
80 70 60 % of respondents 50 40 30 20 10 0 tv friends newspaper billboard car mag car games sources
G 4.15 Interpretation it can be seen from the graph that 72% of the children get information about new cars from television. The next scorer is the friends category whereby 58% of children have agreed having got information from them. Next popular sources of information are billboards, car games and car magazines being 34%, 36% and 22% respectively. There are few children, the population percentage of which is 16% that get information about new cars from newspaper (Multiple-choice question)
Correlation between liking the car commercial and the elements of the car commercials
45
Crosstab ADMUSIC .00 1.00 11 100.0% 31.4% 22.0% 24 15 61.5% 38.5% 68.6% 100.0% 48.0% 30.0% 35 15 70.0% 30.0% 100.0% 100.0% 70.0% 30.0%
CARADS
.00
1.00
Total
Count % within CARADS % within ADMUSIC % of Total Count % within CARADS % within ADMUSIC % of Total Count % within CARADS % within ADMUSIC % of Total
Total 11 100.0% 22.0% 22.0% 39 100.0% 78.0% 78.0% 50 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Cross tab 4.16

Chi-Square Tests Value 6.044 b 4.351 9.117 5.923 50 df 1 1 1 1 Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) .014 .037 .003 .015 Exact Sig. (2-sided) Exact Sig. (1-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square a Continuity Correction Likelihood Ratio Fisher's Exact Test Linear-by-Linear Association N of Valid Cases
.021
.011
a. Computed only for a 2x2 table b. 1 cells (25.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 3.30.
Chi-Square Table I Music of the commercial - From the above data, it can be interpreted that the liking a car advertisement and the advertisements music are significantly interdependent. The reason for liking the advertisement is the music which is 100% whereas those who do not watch it do not get to hear the music and thus do not like it the advertisement.
46
Crosstab CARLOOKS .00 1.00 11 100.0% 50.0% 22.0% 11 28 28.2% 71.8% 50.0% 100.0% 22.0% 56.0% 22 28 44.0% 56.0% 100.0% 100.0% 44.0% 56.0%
CARADS
.00
1.00
Total
Count % within CARADS % within CARLOOKS % of Total Count % within CARADS % within CARLOOKS % of Total Count % within CARADS % within CARLOOKS % of Total
Total 11 100.0% 22.0% 22.0% 39 100.0% 78.0% 78.0% 50 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Cross tab 4.17

.000
.000
Chi-square table II Looks of the car - Here again it becomes evident that looks of the car very significantly influence children to like a particular advertisement.
47
Crosstab ADPEOPLE .00 1.00 11 100.0% 33.3% 22.0% 22 17 56.4% 43.6% 66.7% 100.0% 44.0% 34.0% 33 17 66.0% 34.0% 100.0% 100.0% 66.0% 34.0%
CARADS
.00
1.00
Total
Count % within CARADS % within ADPEOPLE % of Total Count % within CARADS % within ADPEOPLE % of Total Count % within CARADS % within ADPEOPLE % of Total
Total 11 100.0% 22.0% 22.0% 39 100.0% 78.0% 78.0% 50 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Cross tab 4.18

.009
.005
Chi-square table III Celebrity Endorsement - Here, the people shown in the advertisement also have good effect in influencing children.
48
Crosstab ADCAR .00 CARADS .00 Count % within CARADS % within ADCAR % of Total Count % within CARADS % within ADCAR % of Total Count % within CARADS % within ADCAR % of Total 11 100.0% 24.4% 22.0% 34 87.2% 75.6% 68.0% 45 90.0% 100.0% 90.0% 1.00 Total 11 100.0% 22.0% 22.0% 39 100.0% 78.0% 78.0% 50 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
1.00
Total
5 12.8% 100.0% 10.0% 5 10.0% 100.0% 10.0%
Cross Tab 4.19

Chi-Square Tests Value 1.567 b .466 2.637 1.536 50 df 1 1 1 1 Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) .211 .495 .104 .215 Exact Sig. (2-sided) Exact Sig. (1-sided)
.573
.272
Chi-square Table IV The car itself - Negligible number of people like the advertisement because of the car itself.
49
Crosstab CARFEAT .00 1.00 11 100.0% 29.7% 22.0% 26 13 66.7% 33.3% 70.3% 100.0% 52.0% 26.0% 37 13 74.0% 26.0% 100.0% 100.0% 74.0% 26.0%
CARADS
.00
1.00
Total
Count % within CARADS % within CARFEAT % of Total Count % within CARADS % within CARFEAT % of Total Count % within CARADS % within CARFEAT % of Total
Total 11 100.0% 22.0% 22.0% 39 100.0% 78.0% 78.0% 50 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Cross Tab 4.20

.046
.023
Chi-square table V Features of the Car - Some children like the advertisement because of the features shown in the advertisement.
50
Correlation between liking the car commercials and asking parents to buy the car liked
Crosstab ASK 1.00
.00 CARADS .00 Count % within CARADS % within ASK % of Total Count % within CARADS % within ASK % of Total Count % within CARADS % within ASK % of Total 11 100.0% 100.0% 22.0%
2.00
1.00
Total
11 22.0% 100.0% 22.0%
36 92.3% 100.0% 72.0% 36 72.0% 100.0% 72.0%
3 7.7% 100.0% 6.0% 3 6.0% 100.0% 6.0%
Total 11 100.0% 22.0% 22.0% 39 100.0% 78.0% 78.0% 50 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Cross tab 4.21

Chi-Square Tests Value 50.000a 52.691 38.332 50 df 2 2 1 Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) .000 .000 .000
Pearson Chi-Square Likelihood Ratio Linear-by-Linear Association N of Valid Cases
a. 3 cells (50.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is .66.
chi-square table VI A very good number of children who like a particular advertisement have asked their parents to buy the car.
51
Correlation between considering the suggestion and buying car as suggested by the children
CONSIDER * BUY Crosstabulation BUY 1.00
.00 CONSIDER .00 Count % within CONSIDER % within BUY % of Total Count % within CONSIDER % within BUY % of Total Count % within CONSIDER % within BUY % of Total Count % within CONSIDER % within BUY % of Total 11 100.0% 100.0% 22.0%
2.00
1.00
2.00
Total
11 22.0% 100.0% 22.0%
15 65.2% 93.8% 30.0% 1 6.3% 6.3% 2.0% 16 32.0% 100.0% 32.0%
8 34.8% 34.8% 16.0% 15 93.8% 65.2% 30.0% 23 46.0% 100.0% 46.0%
Total 11 100.0% 22.0% 22.0% 23 100.0% 46.0% 46.0% 16 100.0% 32.0% 32.0% 50 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Cross tab 4.22

Chi-Square Tests Value 67.386 a 68.292 36.544 50 df 4 4 1 Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) .000 .000 .000
a. 3 cells (33.3%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 2.42.
Chi-square table VII Consideration of suggestion and the act of buying are highly dependent on each other. The parents that consider do buy but the parents that do not consider do not buy.
52
Correlation between the age of the children and the amount of influence they have on their parents
AGE * CHILD Crosstabulation CHILD .00 AGE 1.00 Count % within AGE % within CHILD % of Total Count % within AGE % within CHILD % of Total Count % within AGE % within CHILD % of Total Count % within AGE % within CHILD % of Total 6 54.5% 54.5% 12.0% 3 12.0% 27.3% 6.0% 2 14.3% 18.2% 4.0% 11 22.0% 100.0% 22.0% 1.00 5 45.5% 12.8% 10.0% 22 88.0% 56.4% 44.0% 12 85.7% 30.8% 24.0% 39 78.0% 100.0% 78.0% Total 11 100.0% 22.0% 22.0% 25 100.0% 50.0% 50.0% 14 100.0% 28.0% 28.0% 50 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
2.00
3.00
Total
Cross Tab 4.23

Chi-square test VIII From the above table, it is evident that 56.4% of the children aged between 1012 years influence their parents the most. The next age group is 13-14 years the Percent being 30.8%. Children aged being 7-9 years have the least influence being 12.8% 53
Correlation between the age of the children and the decision of parents to buy car as suggested by their children
AGE * BUY Crosstabulation BUY 1.00 2 18.2% 12.5% 4.0% 5 20.0% 31.3% 10.0% 9 64.3% 56.3% 18.0% 16 32.0% 100.0% 32.0%
.00 AGE 1.00 Count % within AGE % within BUY % of Total Count % within AGE % within BUY % of Total Count % within AGE % within BUY % of Total Count % within AGE % within BUY % of Total 6 54.5% 54.5% 12.0% 3 12.0% 27.3% 6.0% 2 14.3% 18.2% 4.0% 11 22.0% 100.0% 22.0%
2.00 3 27.3% 13.0% 6.0% 17 68.0% 73.9% 34.0% 3 21.4% 13.0% 6.0% 23 46.0% 100.0% 46.0%
2.00
3.00
Total
Total 11 100.0% 22.0% 22.0% 25 100.0% 50.0% 50.0% 14 100.0% 28.0% 28.0% 50 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Cross Tab 4.24

Chi-Square Tests Value 18.459a 16.697 .682 50 df 4 4 1 Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) .001 .002 .409
Chi-square table IX This table depicts that 46% of the parents do not buy cars as suggested by their children. However, 32% of the parents do buy. In this category, children aged between 13-14 years have the maximum influence. Next is children aged between 10-12 years, where the percentage is 31.3%. Children aged between 79 years have the least influence.
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Correlation between the age of the children and the reasons reported by parents that their children gave for liking a particular ad.
Crosstab LOOKSS 1.00 9 2 81.8% 18.2% 28.1% 11.1% 18.0% 4.0% 16 9 64.0% 36.0% 50.0% 50.0% 32.0% 18.0% 7 7 50.0% 50.0% 21.9% 38.9% 14.0% 14.0% 32 18 64.0% 36.0% 100.0% 100.0% 64.0% 36.0% .00
AGE
1.00
2.00
3.00
Total
Count % within AGE % within LOOKSS % of Total Count % within AGE % within LOOKSS % of Total Count % within AGE % within LOOKSS % of Total Count % within AGE % within LOOKSS % of Total
Total 11 100.0% 22.0% 22.0% 25 100.0% 50.0% 50.0% 14 100.0% 28.0% 28.0% 50 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Cross tab 4.25

Chi-square table X looks most of the children aged between 13-14 years like the looks of the car and asked their parents to buy the car. But children aged between 7-9 years did not like the looks of the car
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Crosstab CELEB .00 AGE 1.00 Count % within AGE % within CELEB % of Total Count % within AGE % within CELEB % of Total Count % within AGE % within CELEB % of Total Count % within AGE % within CELEB % of Total 8 72.7% 25.8% 16.0% 15 60.0% 48.4% 30.0% 8 57.1% 25.8% 16.0% 31 62.0% 100.0% 62.0% 1.00 3 27.3% 15.8% 6.0% 10 40.0% 52.6% 20.0% 6 42.9% 31.6% 12.0% 19 38.0% 100.0% 38.0% Total 11 100.0% 22.0% 22.0% 25 100.0% 50.0% 50.0% 14 100.0% 28.0% 28.0% 50 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
2.00
3.00
Total
Cross Tab 4.26

Chi-Square Tests Value .720 a .743 .580 50 df 2 2 1 Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) .698 .690 .446
Chi-square table XI Children in the age group of 7-9 years do not like celebrity shown in the commercials. But the children aged 10-12 and 13-14 years like the car commercial due to the person shown in the commercial. Due to this reason they ask their parents to buy the car.
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Crosstab FRIENDSS .00 1.00 8 3 72.7% 27.3% 22.2% 21.4% 16.0% 6.0% 16 9 64.0% 36.0% 44.4% 64.3% 32.0% 18.0% 12 2 85.7% 14.3% 33.3% 14.3% 24.0% 4.0% 36 14 72.0% 28.0% 100.0% 100.0% 72.0% 28.0%
AGE
1.00
2.00
3.00
Total
Count % within AGE % within FRIENDSS % of Total Count % within AGE % within FRIENDSS % of Total Count % within AGE % within FRIENDSS % of Total Count % within AGE % within FRIENDSS % of Total
Total 11 100.0% 22.0% 22.0% 25 100.0% 50.0% 50.0% 14 100.0% 28.0% 28.0% 50 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Cross Tab 4.27

Chi-Square Tests Value 2.103 a 2.250 .663 50 df 2 2 1 Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) .349 .325 .415
Chi-square table XII most of the children in the age group of 10-12 years have asked their parents to buy the car just for the simple reason that their friends own the car. Children aged between 7-9 years and 13-14 years have not considered this factor for asking their parents to buy the car they like.
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Crosstab FEATURES .00 1.00 10 1 90.9% 9.1% 26.3% 8.3% 20.0% 2.0% 20 5 80.0% 20.0% 52.6% 41.7% 40.0% 10.0% 8 6 57.1% 42.9% 21.1% 50.0% 16.0% 12.0% 38 12 76.0% 24.0% 100.0% 100.0% 76.0% 24.0%
AGE
1.00
2.00
3.00
Total
Count % within AGE % within FEATURES % of Total Count % within AGE % within FEATURES % of Total Count % within AGE % within FEATURES % of Total Count % within AGE % within FEATURES % of Total
Total 11 100.0% 22.0% 22.0% 25 100.0% 50.0% 50.0% 14 100.0% 28.0% 28.0% 50 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Cross Tab 4.28

Chi-square test XIII most of the children in the age group of 13-14 years have got influenced by the features of the car. Because of this, they have asked their parents to buy the favorite car.
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Findings
Most of the people interviewed have at least one vehicle, the percentage being 62%. None of the interviewees had more than three cars. However, some had two cars i.e. 24% and very few had three cars i.e. 14%. The compact cars seem to be a winner with everybody. 70% of the people interviewed have Santro, Alto, and Maruti 800. The rest 30% owns midsized cars like Ikon, Cielo, Esteem etc. All the 62% of the people who have one vehicle have purchased it in the last one-year. However, the rest of the 38% have bought at least one of their vehicles in the recent past. One years duration is taken because the respondents will be in a position to recall the purchasing pattern, not for a period more than one year. When people go to buy new cars, they look for better engine performance, comfort and looks of the car. Mileage also plays an important role in deciding upon a new car. However, the price of the car and number of service stations do not really matter to people as long as they are getting value for their money. When the head of the family decides to buy a car, the major influencers are his spouse and children. Friends, relatives and parents of the family head play a very negligible role as influencers. Therefore, if the impact can be made on spouse or children by the advertisers, then they can hit a jackpot. Parents who had not considered their childrens suggestion were not considered any more for the research. Nevertheless, children are influenced very easily by seeing the people they like on television. Therefore, celebrity endorsement is a major rage these days. Moreover, children like sporty looking cars. Few of them give into peer pressure and like to have cars that their friends own. A few more like particular cars because of their cars features. However, at the end, majority of the parents did not buy the car as suggested by their children. According to them, children between the age group of 7-14 years do not have the capacity to take decisions rationally. 60
They are influenced very easily by the outer things and usually demand the purchase of cars that do not meet the requirements of the family or are very costly. But there are few parents that bought car as suggested by their children. These children fall under the age category of 10-12 and 1314 years. These children after getting to know that their parents are not buying the car that they like just gave up. Very few got angry but they did not do anything else. However, parents that did buy car as suggested by their children did so because they felt that the suggestion was logical, met the requirements of the family. Few parents did so because they love their children a lot and cannot see them sad. While questioning the children, following facts became apparent. The television-viewing pattern of children aged 7-14 years is very varied. 68% of the children like watching cartoons, 48% sports and music videos, 39% serials, 24% movies and a negligible percentage that is 10%. Some of the channels that they like to watch are all the sports channels, cartoon channels, movie channels like HBO and Star movies Almost 78% of the respondents keep watching the advertisements whenever they are shown. However, the rest of the children that is 22% switch the channels. All the 78% that view advertisements have liking towards car advertisements and all like some or the other car advertisements. Looks of the car has been the major parameter in deciding if an advertisement is liked by children or not. If the car looks very sporty then the advertisement featuring it is liked by children. Next are the celebrities that endorse the cars like Shahrukh khan or Sachin Tendulkar. As they are very popular among kids, products endorsed by them are liked by children. Even music is able to catch the attention of children. All the children that like some car advertisement or the other have asked their parents to buy the featured car. Only 59% childrens suggestions 61
were considered. While buying the car, only 41% childrens parents bought the car as suggested by them. Children had asked their parents to buy cars like Mercedes, Lotus, and Lamborghini. These are all foreign made cars, which are very expensive and not feasible for Indian conditions. Therefore, it becomes apparent here that children get influenced by the looks of the car very easily. Almost 72% of the children get information about new cars from television. Friends have major influence on children the percentage being 58%. Billboards also, to certain extent give information to children on new cars. There are few kids the percent being 22% and 16% that read car magazines and newspapers and get information about new cars. These kids have had major influence on their parents in car purchase. They know some technicalities about the car and are able to influence their parents into purchasing a car of their choice by presenting facts. Few children that play car games get information about new cars from there. The elements of commercial that have been able to have maximum influence on children are music of the commercial, looks of the car and the celebrity that is endorsing the product. Some children do go for the features of the car but it is very less. When it comes to listening to children, children aged between 10-12 years are listened to the most. The next age group is 13-14 years. But children aged 7-9 are least heard because they are not capable of making any rational decisions. The 13-14 age group gets most influenced by looks, celebrity endorsement and the features of the car. They do not give in too much to peer-pressure. But kids aged between 10-12 are most influenced by their friends and would like to have their parents buy a car for the simple reason that their friends have it.
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Recommendations
As children aged between 10-14 years are the major influencers, the marketers can use this information in their commercial and marketing strategies. They should try to grab the attention of children by making such commercials that will be able to grab their attention. Using elements of commercials like music, celebrity that are able to attract children, this can be done. Apart from this, marketers can also concentrate on spouse. This is because even they have major influence on the purchase of cars.
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Conclusions
Children have always been fascinated by colorful advertisements. Advertisers have been successful in wooing children of all ages to buy products that they want to sell. However, when it comes to buying high involvement goods like cars, parents do not depend so much on children. Because children of this age group are not rational enough and they are influenced easily by flashy things like music of the advertisements, celebrities used, looks of the car, colors etc. Whereas parents, when deciding to buy a new car look for aspects like engine performance, comfort, mileage and looks. Parents do consider their childrens suggestions provided the suggestion is rational. For instance if the child talks about the features of the car like engine performance, looks, mileage etc. Therefore, kids who read car magazines get technical information though the number of such children is very less. Therefore, this study can be concluded by saying that advertisements have great impact on children in influencing them but when it comes to decisionmaking at home related to purchase of car, rational decision making than emotional decision-making has more impact.
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Bibliography Web sites visited

www.agencyfaqs.com www.indiainfoline.com www.siamindia.com www.timesb2b.com www.fadaweb.com www.icicidirect.com www.strategicmarketing.com www.synovate.com
Books referred
Marketing management Philip Kotler Consumer behavior Schiffman & Kanuk
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Annexure Parents questionnaire
I, Swapna Ghosh, a student of MBA IV SEM, Alliance Business Academy, am carrying out a study the effect of advertisements on children aged between 7-14 and how that would effect the decision making behavior regarding the purchase of car. I, therefore, request you to fill up the following questionnaire, which would help me in carrying out the research. I assure you that the data collected would be kept confidential and that it would not be used for any purpose other than what is mentioned here. Thank you for your co-operation. With regards Swapna Ghosh
_______________________________________________________________________ _
1. Name 2. Age 3. Address
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4. How many cars do you have? 01 03 02 more than 03
5. Which car(s) do you own and when did you buy it/them?
6. What are the factors that you looked in for, when you purchased the above mentioned car(s)? Please tick them in the order of your preference. Factors Engine performance Mileage Price Looks Comfort/space Service centers Others (specify) ________________ 7. Who influenced you to buy the car? Spouse Friends/peers/colleagues Relatives Children Parents Others (specify) Very important Important Neutral Not very important Not at all important
_________________________ If children have influenced you to purchase the vehicle, then go to the next question. Otherwise end. Response of children aged between 7-14 years only to be considered from now onwards. 8. What are the various reasons that your child/children gave you to buy a particular model? Looks of the car Celebrity endorsement 69
Their friends have it
Features of the car
9. Did you buy the model as suggested by your child / children? a. Yes b. No
If yes, go directly to question number 11. If no, go to 10th question and skip 11th one. 10. What did your child / children do when you did not buy the car as suggested by them? They give up/do nothing They got angry / upset Others (specify) They cried They asked again and again
_________________________ 11. Why did you fulfill your childs / childrens request? The suggestion was logical You love your child / children a lot and do not want to see them sad. Others (specify) ___________________________________________________
Childrens questionnaire
1. Name 2. Age 3. What kind of programs do you like to watch on any given day? cartoons movies news sports serials music videos
4. Which are the various channels that you like to watch? ____________________________________________________________________ _
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5. What do you do when advertisements are shown on TV? Keep watching Change the channel If you keep watching the ad then, proceed. If you change the channel, then go to question number 12. 6. Do you like any car advertisement? Yes No If the answer is yes then proceed. If the answer is no then end. 7. Why do you like the particular car advertisement? Music of the ad People shown in the ad Features of the car Looks of the car The car itself
8. Have you asked your parents to buy the car you like? Yes No
9. Did they consider your suggestion when they decided to buy car? Yes No
10. Did they buy the car as suggested by you? Yes No
11. Which car model did you suggest and why? _______________________________________________________________________ _ 12. Which are the various ways by which you get to know about new cars? TV Newspapers Car magazines Through friends Billboards Car games
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ADVERTISING AND CHILDREN

search Attention Information Selection

Statement of the Problem

Objective of the Study

Scope of the Research

Methodology of Data Collection

Limitation of the Study

Difference of perception while interpreting the open-ended questions of the questionnaires.

Operational definitions of concepts

Overview of Chapter Scheme

Question No 4 - Number of Cars Owned

number of cars owned

Question number 6 - Attributes sought in a car

Question number 7 - Various Influencers

80 70 60 50 % 40 30 20 10 0 spouse children friends influencer parents relatives

50 45 40 % of respondents 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 car looks celebrity endorsement friends own car features

Question number 9 - Purchase of car as suggested by the child

60 50 % of respondents 40 30 20 10 0 yes response no

20 18 16 number of respondents 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 giving up crying reaction anger pestering

Question number 11 - Reasons for accepting the suggestion of the child

Love & affection 13

Both logical and Affection 31

both logical and affection

love & affection

Question number 3 - Various programs watched on any day

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 cartoons sports movies serials news music videos

Question number 5 - Reaction to advertising

50 45 number of respondents 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 keep watching reaction change the channel

Question number 6 - Liking any car advertisement

liking car commercials

100 90 80 70 % of respondents 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 yes liking no

(Note number of respondents - 39)

Question number 7 - Advertisement elements liked by children

Question number 8 - Asking parents to buy the favorite car

asking for purchase of favourite car

40 35 30 no of respondents 25 20 15 10 5 0 yes whether asked for purchase no

Question number 9 - Consideration of suggestion

(Note number of respondents - 39)

Question number 10 - Purchase of car as suggested by children

purchase of car as suggested by children

0 yes whether purchased no

(Note number of respondents - 39)

Question number 12 - Sources of information about new cars

80 70 60 % of respondents 50 40 30 20 10 0 tv friends newspaper billboard car mag car games sources

Cross tab 4.16

Cross tab 4.17

Cross tab 4.18

5 12.8% 100.0% 10.0% 5 10.0% 100.0% 10.0%

Cross Tab 4.19

Cross Tab 4.20

11 22.0% 100.0% 22.0%

36 92.3% 100.0% 72.0% 36 72.0% 100.0% 72.0%

3 7.7% 100.0% 6.0% 3 6.0% 100.0% 6.0%

Cross tab 4.21

Pearson Chi-Square Likelihood Ratio Linear-by-Linear Association N of Valid Cases

11 22.0% 100.0% 22.0%

15 65.2% 93.8% 30.0% 1 6.3% 6.3% 2.0% 16 32.0% 100.0% 32.0%

8 34.8% 34.8% 16.0% 15 93.8% 65.2% 30.0% 23 46.0% 100.0% 46.0%

Cross tab 4.22

Pearson Chi-Square Likelihood Ratio Linear-by-Linear Association N of Valid Cases

Cross Tab 4.23

Pearson Chi-Square Likelihood Ratio Linear-by-Linear Association N of Valid Cases

Cross Tab 4.24

Pearson Chi-Square Likelihood Ratio Linear-by-Linear Association N of Valid Cases