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Philosophy

of

Mind

AN

ESSAY

IN

THE

METAPHYSICS

OF

PSYCHOLOGY

BY

GEORGE
PROFESSOR OF

TRUMBULL
PHILOSOPHY
IN

LADD
YALE UNIVERSITY

NEW CHARLES

YORK SCRIBNER'S 1895 SONS

Copyright,

1895,

by

Charles

Sckibnek's

Sons.

2Snfoersttg

$ress:

John

Wilson

and

Son,

Cambridge,

U.

S!

A.

aber wir achten die

Namen

siud

Duust

Geister,
uns

Heilig

Kunst." ist die

wir

die

Meister,

aber

frei

Wurdig

ehren
uns

Uhland.

PREFACE

THIS
the
course

book

is

an

essay

in

the

speculative
but not

treatment

of

tain cer-

problems,
of Inasmuch
nature
a

suggested

usually study
all of relate of

discussed mental
to

in

thorough
as

empirical problems
and be

nomena. phethe real

these

and the

actual

performances
may

relations

the

human Let with

mind,
it
be

essay

properly
that the in
"

called

metaphysical.
forward

confessed,
in

then,

author the that

comes

treatise that

metaphysics,
I

more

special
in

meaning
the
in

of

term. into

think,
which

however,
all

spite
has

of

marked certain such first

two

disfavor

metaphysics
for

fallen readers

quarters,
treatise

no

detailed be the offered book which

apology
in its

asking

for the how

need of

Preface. in of of

Indeed,

chapters
is the

are

occupied
science

showing psychology
its

inevitable makes for

demand

the

further

philosophical
this demand

discussion is not made

all

principal
clear be

problems.
the
more

If, then,
detailed

perfectly
it

by

discussion forward of

which

follows,
at

would

quite
of my

useless

to

put
the

it

unsupported,

the

beginning
first

task,
upon

in

hope

producing

favorable

impression

luctant re-

intelligences.
As
two to

the

kind

of

metaphysics
remarks and

which

it is

designed

to

offer,
first
meta-

or

three
to

preliminary
be open

seem

important.
Of all
"

And,
bad
"

of

all, it is

undisguised.

viii the physics, and while views

worst is

PREFACE

very
"

to likely
even

be that which from the

is unavowed

concealed,
as

sometimes
is
or

author

himself,

yet he
others,
No
one

engaged
in

in

the metaphysical criticising essays in

of

denouncing metaphysical
peace of mind is
sure

general.
by
any

whose

to be disturbed

attempt, however

carried

out, at
the

this

form

of reflective table

thinking should
of contents wish
to be

venture

beyond
On the
two

and titlepage

of this volume. held

other

hand, however, I
are

for responsible
to

things which
treatise of
a

required
acter. char-

in order

to entitle

respect every
statement

similar

These

are,

the first,

of the

facts and

laws,

to established, scientifically

which

the

speculativediscussion
in

constantly refers
for

for which
as

its

own no

grounds

experience.
in

And

metaphysics

has

foundations
as

incontestable
one.

experience, I
besides

have

little respect

has
to

any

But

this constant

appeal

to

facts and

laws

empirically
the tion deriva-

established, sound
of

reasoning

is

indispensablefor

acceptableconclusions
or

in any

metaphysicalenterprise.
will

Any

reader,

critic,therefore,who
of these
two

point

out

tions viola-

of either
to

requirements, will be entitled service,no

less

gratefulrecognitionfor
by the readers
few
to

his

by the author

than A

of this

volume. relations
same

words

concerning the

which

this book will

be

tains sus-

preceding works

by the
In

author
sort

helpful
volume works1 This

for its better may

on

understanding.
as

some

the entire series of

be

regarded

in

continuation science of

of

psychology, or
as
a

the

mental
ever

phenomena.
must

science, which,

science, is,and
many

remain, chiefly
the real
nature

starts descriptive, and

inquiriesregarding
external

relations

to

the

world,

and

especiallyto

the

Physiological Psychology,1887 ; Outlines of Physiological chology, PsyPsychology, Descriptive and Explanatory, 1894 ; Primer of Psychology, 1894. (All published by Chas. Scribner's Sons.)
1891
;

Elements

of

PREFACE

ix

body,

of

that
to

subject of
call "the

all the mind."

phenomena,
The

which

we

are

accustomed
at

partialconsideration,
difficult to

least,of such
the

inquiriesis extremely
at

separate
treatment

from of
a

attempt

anything
these

like

comprehensive
be

psychology.
little way

But

very

inquiries can
so

carried

only
with
us

before

they

become

inextricably mingled
to make

comprehensive problems
aware

in

general philosophy as
some

that

we

are

already at
is

distance
a

from

that

form

of discussion The

which

appropriateto
shows of

science. descriptive

discoveryjust noted
at
a

the

necessitywhich phenomena

every of

attempt

metaphysics
conclusions

mental from the

feels

borrowing

certain This

general field of philosophy.

and it is also

necessity is

made the the

apparent,

acted

upon,

in the the

chapters on
of the
not
a

the identity, the reality,

unity, and
relations discussions of

permanence mind
to

mind,

and

on

the Hence
to

real the views the

the of
or

bodily organism. infrequentlyrefer

work
On

this

volume

stated briefly
same

hinted

at in

philosophy1 by

author.
nature

The

of

psychology, however,
nature to

and

the

nature

of

the philosophy,and especially between the

of the relations it

existing
not

two,

are

such in
one

as

make

undesirable, if

to impossible,

consider this of

book science

all the

metaphysical problems Indeed,

more

which whole this.

empirical

suggests.

the

sphere
A

philosophical study scarcely does

but not

than of cussion dis-

somewhat

wholly arbitrary selection

made the
; and
one

problems had, therefore,to

was

be

their

detailed

then The
course

brought under

title, "Philosophy
are

of Mind." clear in the

I Finally,

reasons

for the selection

made

sufficiently

of the discussion believe that advanced

to

itself. of

do not

specialstudents
students, and
Chas.

psychology,

whether

beginners or
1

thoughtful men
Sons.

Introduction

Philosophy,1890.

Seiibner's

PREFACE

generally,
are

lack

interest in this

in

the

metaphysical
The the fashion

inquiries
of of

which

undertaken

treatise.
or

denouncing
or,

the

study
of is

of any

metaphysics,
group the and of the of

of

theory

knowledge,

indeed,

the

profounder
"fad" of than of these
a

philosophical
blase* the the

lems, probor

more

scholastic selfish
on

minds,
result

the any of Such

refuge genuine

of

weak lack
in

spirits,
the

of

interest,
earnest

part
of
to

multitude

thinkers,
"persons

discussion
or

problems.
for

become

agnostic,
at

resort

demand

tioning unquesto

faith,
baffled and To of
or

the
in

point
the

where
at

they

themselves As
to

begin
the

be

tired of

effort
men

thinking.
will
in

limits

validity
rebuke human

knowledge
for like
no

always
the

eagerly
of the face

inquire. history
of the
or

them
reason,

this

seems,

light
In
more

solemn

trifling.
can

the

regnant
more

agnosticism, important
And
than

inquiries
which in
and

be

obligatory
a

those
so

concern

theory
of of
a

of

nition. cogare

while

many,

the

name

science,

denying
existence

the of

reality, unity,
the

possibility
and
are

permanent
its
"

human of from it

mind,

resolving
associated

entire

being mena,"
cerebral

into

stream

mechanically
the is
not

epiphenoof
or

thrown

off

molecular
an

machinery time,
a

the
a

hemispheres,
useless like
and

inopportune
to

wholly
discussion

thankless undertaken

task,
in

propose volume.

serious

re-

that

this

GEORGE

TRUMBULL

LADD.

Yale

University,

New

Haven,

1895.

TABLE

OF

CONTENTS

CHAPTER

Psychology

and

the

Philosophy

of

Mind
PAGE

The

Opinion
involved of Mr.
"

of The

Kant

"

Psychology
taken

"

without

Metaphysics
Sciences
"

"
"

Assumptions
Inconsistencies

Course Peculiar
"

by

the

Physical
of

Huxley
"

Difficulties James
"

Psychology
M.

Professor
"

Hbifding
examined 1
. .

criticised

Views of
"

of

Professor

Flournoy's
"
"

Position Views

"

Principle

Psycho-physical

Parallelism

Contrasted

CHAPTER

II

Psychology

and

the

Philosophy

op

Mind

(continued)
of
"

Difficulties
Views of

examined
"

The The in

two true

Courses

open of

Views
"

Volkmann
"

Wundt"

Conception
"

Psychology
asa"

Use

of

physical Meta"

Assumptions
Nature
"

Psychology
"

Psychology
of

Natural
to

Science

of
"

Philosophy Spencer's
"

Relation of

Philosophy
"

the Relations
"

particular
of The

Sciences
to

Mr.

View Branches Mind

Philosophy
of

Special

chology PsyProb41

Philosophy

Metaphysics

involved

blems

of

Philosophy

of

CHAPTER

III

The

Concept

of

Mind

Popular
not
mere

use

of

the

term

"

Mind

"
"

Standpoint
"

for life

Inquiry
an

"

Psychology
Nature
"

doctrine in of The

of

"Content" Nature of

All of Mind of

mental

Activity
"

of

Conception

general
the

"

Self-knowledge
False
"

Formation

and Views 83

Development
examined"

concept

or

inadequate

higher

Knowledge

Self

xii

CONTENTS

CHAPTER

IV

The
The in
"

Reality
and ?

of

Mind
PAGE

concept of

Reality
"

Knowledge
"

Realitycorrelates
"

"

Of real in

Beings

general
"

"What
an

is it to be

Real"

The
"

Foundations Of

experience
criticised

Reality
And The

implicate of Reality of

Self-consciousness
"

recognitiveMemory
Views mind's of the

"

of reflective contrasted

Thinking

Scepticaland
"

Agnostic

"

Things

True

Nature

Reality 113

CHAPTER

The

Consciousness

of

Identity,
Consciousness

and

So-called

Double

The

concept of Identity
"

The
"

identity which
The

Things
as

have

"

Immanent
"

Idea

an

implicateof
in

identity

concept of Self
"

self-same and
"

sible Permisof Minds And the

Changes
Contrasted
true
"

so-called Personality of so-called toward them

"

Identityof Things
Double Consciousness"
' '

Phenomena

"

scientific Attitude
"

Principleof Play

ism" psychicalAutomatetc.
"

Phenomena

of

Inspiration,"Possession,"
of the

"Obsession,"
"

"

Dramatic
"

Sundering Experience

Ego
"

"
"

of Children of of

Phenomena
"

of

Dreams from

of Actors
"

Phenomena

Prophetism
"

Parallel of sonal Per148

Ethical

Consciousness

Explanation

Hypnotism

Loss

Identity

CHAPTER The
The

VI

Unity

of

Mind have

concept of Unity
"

"

The

unity which
"

Things
Ethical

"

Unitary Being
from

of

Mind

Development unity of Degrees of Reality And of mental investigations Possibility visibility Unitary Being Teleological Principle involved Simplicity and Indiof mental Conclusions
"

the foregoing

"

"

"

of Mind

189

CHAPTER Mind

VII Body
at
a

and

Realityof
the

"

Relations"

in

general
"

Attempts

non-metaphysical use
in the of the Conservation
"

of

of Principle

Causation View

"

Current

conceptionof Causation
"

cal Physiand

Sciences Correlation
of the of

"

of Phenomenalism
"

Law

of

Energy

Origin

of the
"

concept of Causation
of Intellect
"

ment Developthe World 208

.

concept of Causation

Work Reason"

upon

Things

"

of "Sufficient Principle

Summary

of Results

CONTENTS

Xin

CHAPTER

Vm

Mind

and

Body

(continued)
PAGE

Classes
"

of

Phenomena

discussed
"

"

Phenomena absolute
and

of

"Concomitant

tion Correla"

so-called, rejected
of two
"
"
"

No

Concomitance
"

demonstrable of this
"

Formation

concepts, Body
The from

Mind

Development
an

"

BiThe in tors Fac-

"or Diremption partition Body only formally distinct the

concept of Body
Nature
"
" "

Abstraction

All

Metaphysics
of

involved
"

Validityof
in mental

this

"

bi-partition

Influences

body
"

on

mind

Life not

in the represented

bodily Basis
of Ideas Will

Influences The

of mind

on
"

body

"

"Dynamo-genetic"
"
"

Influence

"

Principle of
237

Suggestion

Influences

from

Feeling and

CHAPTER

IX

Materialism
Use of Terms defended
"

and

Spiritualism
The four Forms and
"

"

Limits

of the Discussion

"

of speculative defined

Opinion
"

Materialism, Spiritualism, Monism,

Materialism stated
"

Dualism

Position

of

and

discussed of

Incomparability of
et

physical and
criticised
"

psychicalphenomena
Outcome of Materialism
"

Positions

Biichner, Vogt,
"

ah,

unintelligible Metaphysics
monistic examined

of Materialism
"

examined its Tenets and criticised

"

Position
"

of
"

Spiritualism stated
and

And

Animism

rejected
"

Materialism 283

Spiritualism mutually

destructive

CHAPTER
Monism
Method of current Mind Monism The
"

and

Dualism
Monism
"

"

Agnosticismof
of Professor
"

The

assumption
"

of Absolute

justified
"
"

Views

Hoffding criticised
its Terms found

The adequate in"

principleof
or

"Parallelism"

examined

And
"

either

unmeaning
"

Proportionality an

inappropriateTerm
"

Facts
"

incompatiblewith
Monism
to this

the

Identity-hypothesis ends
summed

The of this Principle complete Extension in the unintelligible The Case against psychological
"

up

"

Position

of

speculativeDualism

"

jections Ob314

positionexamined

CHAPTER

XI
Mind

Origin
Nature
"

and

Permanence

of

"

Problem followingDiscussions of to of terms Locality Mind Application of Mind "Transmission an absurdity of the
"

of the
"

Origin

of Mind

stated

Traducian Creation

"

"

Theory Theory examined

examined
"

xiv

CONTENTS

PAGE

Problem

of
to

the Mind
"

Permanence The of all

of

Mind
"

stated
"

Concept
Man" of The all

of

Permanence

as

applied
of Mind
"

"Tripartite
conscious of
states

division

of

permanent

Unity Reality
of

the

Subject

"

Principles
but
"
"

abiding
Mind

Possibility
"

really

existent

Unconscious

"Phenomena ence Existfinite mind 356

of

so-called of Absolute Mind

unconscious

Cerebration and

Only
Mind
"

possible
Relation

unconscious of

"

Being

Becoming

of

to

Mind

CHAPTER

XII

Place

op

Man's

Mind

in

Nature

Kant's

criticism of

of Mind

the

Doctrine Existence
"

of

Immortality"
of unconscious

Nature
"

of

Arguments
of for Relations
no

for value

mortality Im-

Mind-Stuff"

"

Views other Mind

from

the

psycho-physical
True
"

standpoint
Nature of

"

Necessity
"

introducing
of man's

Considerations
to

Mind-Life
to

physical
as

Nature
"

And,

finally,

the

Being

of

the

World,

sidered con-

Absolute

Mind

396

Index

413

PHILOSOPHY

OF

THE

MIND

CHAPTER

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OP

MIND

IT is
the
exact

now

somewhat Kant

more

than

hundred
in

years

since
over

the the

philosopher

expressed
ever

himself

despair
a

possibility of psychology
sciences.
to
"

securing
which
was

title to

place
this

among

One
a

reason

influenced the inherent

great
of

thinker power the

robe at
as

such he

state
"

of
on

mind the

lack
to

as

thought

part of psychology
and
to

put off
on

traditional

incertitude

of

metaphysics,
a

put

the find view of

of mathematics. end the of the

nature

It is

certainly
almost For

significant fact change

the

to

the
to

century
of this

an

complete perhaps
worth

of

study.

majority
now

those

students
not

whose that

opinion
the science

is best of that
so

consideration

hold,

only
with shown of
the

mental

phenomena
form

should it has teristic charac-

dispense actually

metaphysics,
that
"

but do

in its modern
an

it
"

can

; while

essential

new

psychology
it makes and the

is of

undoubtedly

the

large
and

and

methodical This

use

which

experimentation study
of that
"

statistics.

experimental
of course,
exact

statistical exercise

of mental
arm

phenomena
which
measurement

implies,
all and

by

alone

the

sciences

triumph,
seem,

namely, then,
has that
ceeded suc-

mathematics.
but
now

It would reinstated in
a manner

this

for

time

dethroned her
nature

queen which

in considered

changing
her very

vesture,
to
1

Kant

render

forever

impossible.

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

A and
state

more

careful

examination

both

of the

current

practice
the real

of the of the

history of opinion, however,

case

shows
or so

that

is

by

no

means

so

clear few

satisfactory.
writers who admixture themselves

For

the obvious
most

truth

is that

not

of those the

cry out of

loudly and
with

unsparingly against psychology unkindly

tenets

metaphysics
the

scientific

are

often their

greatest transgressors in this very regard. Indeed,

the
not
sarcasm

practice suggests
exclude

that think

the it

metaphysical hypotheses indispensableto

are comes

and from of

which science
"

they

the

"

of mental And
on

nomena pheso

solely those
that
in
some

their

opponents. by such

it

about

treatises

writers
more

chology psyless which

the

soil is first of all

cleared, with
weeds of

or

declamation, of all those noxious

philosophy
the is

might
science
sown numerous

otherwise
;

mix

in and

spoilthe purity of
it

empirical diligently
from

then, next, the seed of this pure science

our

before

delighted

eyes,

as

comes

fresh

physiologicaland
the

psycho-physical laboratories,or
himself. is for the

from Yet
not
a

of the author brains, fertile in conjecture, when the total crop

are

somehow,
few

ready

harvest,
crept

sprouts of metaphysics

still found
are

to have

into it. which made It

Strange

to

tell,however, they
on

chieflyof species
room

flourish best for them

can

just that soil,whenever

of that which the

has

been

by the clearance

species. pre-existing practice of keep

the shall
as

scarcelybe claimed, then,

of
a

advocates

scientific

psychology
desirable
to

itself
us

clear of all

metaphysical implications has

to turn
secure so a

yet taught

precisely how
And incline
matters

result. does
not

if
to

we

from others kind

example
better

theory (forwho
he does himself
not
even

teach this

than
case

practises in
then
seem

of better.

?),the
confident from

much who

For, in general,it is those

most

very

psychologists metaphysics
discussion of

have

been

of the

of freeing possibility of

scientific who have

psychology
given
us

all

investiture

least

and intelligent

calm

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

of

consciousness of various

or

as

to what

kinds, amounts,
the

and

timethe

rates
nervous

stimuli, when
are

applied to

periphery of
states,
the
mere

system,

succeeded

by definite

known

changes in
"

the

intensity,and quality,

time-rate

of mental
state
as

then

these
to

investigatorspropose
between
as

to faithfully

facts, and

let the

from generalizations the

two

them

stand of

orderly
But if

sequences the

classes movements

phenomena.
of

question be

to what

of the

vations muscles, inner-

of organs

of sense,

determinations

qualitiesand
tions; func-

changes of perceived things, disturbances

or

of cerebral

of the all the

or as

and respiratory, circulatory,

digestive systems,

with

therewith;
modifications

and secretory activities connected capillary subtile organic changes and to what more form of tissue

of every

(such
or

as

birth-marks,
certain forms of

stigmata, and
reactions of the of consciousness

hyperesthesia epileptiform
"

hallucinations,

psychic cells" so-called)follow

called
" "

emotions, passions,desires, deeds

or

will, and
these

"

suggested

fixed

"

ideas,

"

why

then, too,
to
knowledge ac-

writers

accept the obligationto be equally ready

sequences in fact of between different

mere

classes

of

phenomena.

It is the business

science, say they, simply

between

^to discover
And be

actual

orderly correlations
of all of
to

phenomena.
it not

if this be true
true

science, as such, why should

of the be
our

particularscience
purpose later
on

psychology ?
consider last of in the detail the

It will various

assumptions
such this

involved from

in
our

the

positions
to

just mentioned.
fault with
a

It is far

present purpose
its
own

find

position.
its

It
be

has
seen

justification; only temporary

blamed
because

although
and

will justification Nor

are

to be to be

partial.
that

advocates and
assume

they habituallyuse
are

language

subordinate

ises premfor all

can

thoroughly
to the

suffused

with

metaphysics ;
case.

this
even

belongs

very

necessities

of the and about

No

one

talk about

mental
or

phenomena
upon

their

dependence
under psy-

upon

brain-states

changing

stimulations

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

cho-physioallaws
minds What
"

without

assuming the real existence

between

of both them.

and

of interaction things, and the reality

is meant is

by such

complex
one even

network may

of

assumptions, psychological
all.

that

something

which and

pursue

science It is
as

without

knowing

without

consideringat
which
a

preciselythis question
a

of and

meaning
natural

scientific,

distinguishedfrom investigate.
Grave fault is to be

naive

metaphysics, aims
with the considerable of psychology the
so*

to

found, however,
on

number

of this latter class of writers for the

science

unthinking

way

in which
"

they adopt
yet graver
to to

called has

purely scientific point of view,

indicated, for their
For

fault,as
by it
the

already been

failure

abide

consistently.
after of the all

they, too,
view of has
a

as

rule, fail

keep
front

adopted point of temple

door. sacred of

dualistic been

phenomenalism.
out

And,
door

metaphysics

thrust
are

of the somewhat of

science, they
some one

found form

tinely clandes-

admitting
the
rear

favorite

metaphysics by

The of that science

precincts have
of the his
some

indeed

been

industriouslyrid
all

metaphysics adopts.
But
on

Dualism

which

unsophisticated
is tific scien-

high-priestof
knees,
"

the establishment in the main

or

finallydiscovered
aula,
"

if not

at least

in

ante-chamber

side
an

apartment,
physician meta-

before

the

altar is

of Monism.

Now,

for about

avowed

there

nothing shameful
to be done

this; but
who has in

it

is

scarcelythe rightthing
his voice before all the very

by

one

lifted up

threshold Such

of the conduct

temple
of

warning
the

against

metaphysics.
the What
on

certainlyleads
a

bystanders to
made

suspicion of
later
; and

ulterior

motives

concealed will be
us

philosophicalkind.
more

these

motives how far of

usually are they

in
seem

clear

to

ficient sufbe of

to

justifysuch
We
are now

an

attitude

worship
the

will

also

explained.

simply arguing
and
we

interests

and candor; intelligence

believe

that these

twoquali-

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

ties

ought
as

to

characterize

the

study

of the

science

of psychology

of all the other

seem,

sciences.

It would
form

without

special research, as
were

though
and
to
an

tain cer-

of

metaphysics
of every This

the natural

necessary

accompaniment
mental
common-sense are

scientific form

approach
course

the

study
"

of

phenomena.
Dualism. "minds"
are;

is of

uncritical,

Psychology
and "nature" of

assumes

that

things

"

and

that, within

certain

limits
act

mined deter-

by the
upon each

so-called Those which

both, they
which
to
"

causally
to
garded re-

other. those science

happenings
are

are are

ascribed
never

things, and by
or,
"

ascribed

minds,
as
mere

without word
"

metaphysics phenomena
and
to
"

phenomena

rather, the very

necessarilysuggests
the

and That after

implies beings of
is to say, what

which

which "the

phenomena
modes of And

are.

science
as

calls the

phenomena"
of

are,

all, in fact, regarded

of real the

observed and

the
so

behavior

beings,both
the

of minds

things.
the

long

as

student
on

of mental

science

maintains

this

tude, attiof

he

remains

ground occupied by
The the

students
as a

all the natural science correlations

sciences.

study of psychology pursuit of wholly

a

ral natu-

is not

really,then,

knowledge
any

of

between

phenomena
the is

without this

physics meta-

whatever; it is rather

pursuit of
for the

science

with

only

such

metaphysics as

naively assumed then,

it so,
"

in all scientific time

"

inquiry. Psychology
one

may leave

being,
a

"

if ence sci-

is
"

only willing to
but

be called
upon
a

natural

only

as

it is founded

natural, uncritical,
far

and

unreflecting metaphysics.
in this

How way
we

psychology
also

can

successfullybe pursued
later
on.

shall

consider

It is ardent the

instructive, although
advocate of
a

somewhat

for disheartening,
to

the

purely scientific psychology

of his

contrast

practiceand
of the
"

theories

colleagueswith
sciences. somewhat

those

of the

students how

principal physical
who himself dabbled

All
too

remember

Newton

freelyin

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

rather

poor

metaphysics
the

"

issued
no

to

physics
his
successors

warning
in

against all metaphysics ;

at investigation

and

doubt

sical phy-

present day suppose

sensitive

themselves, in
of this great
to what
own

the

main,

to be

carefullyobserving the warning

rate, they
are

master.

At

any

enough
their

they

consider when

the immeasurable with

most
even

superiorityof
the modern

sciences

contrasted of the

endeavors, in this
sionally, Occa-

regard,
of the

advanced

psychologicalscience.
ill-concealed of

however,
"old

while

speaking with
as

contempt
worthless show

psychology"
hold the
out
"

mostly composed
the hand with
"

metaphysics, they
of toward cordiality

charming
and

new

psychology ; promise
of

this because tific scien-

the latter offers to them

the

exhibiting,in
use

form, methods,
If it
were

what

it

can

accomplish by
to discuss

of

scientific

"without
our

metaphysics."
present purpose
or

problems
of

in the

philosophy
than
in

of nature

the

metaphysics
or

physics, rather
of psychology, critical examination the

the
we

philosophy of
should claims It is
are

mind

the

metaphysics

profit by giving a
of

detailed

to

these

superiority on
now

part of the

physicalsciences. physical sciences

On the

enough
far

to affirm that the modern

very

indeed

from

being capable

of

exhibiting themselves assumptions

structure and

as systematically stripped of

all metaphysics.

contrary, the

most

sical stupendous metaphyare woven

mere

implications
Instead among of of

into formulas
are

their for

throughout.
and

being

stating uniform
to

sequences

phenomena, they experiences which

that and the assumed

scriptions deat

explanations
invisible and

appeal

every

step
abstruse
among

to mysterious entities,
are

hidden
to take

and

forces, to transactions

place
can

beings
become,

whose in any

existence
sense

modes

of behavior

never

of A

words, immediate
of

data

of

sensuous

knowledge.
one

high place only

after that

honor,

although
the pangs

doubtless of
a

to

be

obtained

enduring

prolonged crucifixion,awaits

philosophi-

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

cal

or biologist,

that

philosopher sufficiently acquainted with subjects the

critical its modern doctrine
with
a

scientific
to

biology,who
a

of view

lution evo-

thoroughly

analysis,
turn

to

detect such
a

and
one

to estimate

metaphysical assumptions.
out

When

appears,

if his criticism

mainly
will

tive, destrucof be that

"

it will be the so-called favorable this result and

"

interesting to know
science
"

how

much

remain

of evolution in

; but

if the criticism is safe

"

conservative

result, it

to

say

will be attributable better

as

to the fact of the

scientists

having
as mere

builded

metaphysicians
the that

than

they

knew

"scientists."
to endeavor to break

It is vain

force of the present the students

causes,
or

tention con-

by reminding
science which

ourselves

of natural and
can

regard all so-called

never

entities,real
themselves of

actions, trans-

have

become

become

phenomena, hypotheses.
be conceded
to

in

the

light simply
be
at
once

permissible
; and

and

helpful
the

Let that
a

this

conceded

let it also

this way

of

introducing hypotheses, in
actual is

effort

find

more

complete explanation of
if
one

ence experi-

(of the "phenomena,"

this

on pleased by insisting

word), is scientifically legitimate. It will scarcely be

that
men as

seriouslymaintained, however,
causes, and
"

entities, by hypothetical
of science and
mean mere

transactions, the
that

hypotheses,
of the of

is, assumptions
as

pure
more a

simple
than the

states
sciousness con-

hypothesizing mind, ideating and

satisfied if

nothing
in able
to hit

reasoning only
For

certain upon
one a

way,

and

of

feelingbetter
of
"

certain call

way the this of

ideating and only

reasoning.
ether" that
a

example,

may But

luminiferous
means

hypothetical entity.
an

by

one

it is

entity about which,

cannot
we see

the
no

existence immediate

which, and
and smell
an one

the transactions

in

have

certain
or

knowledge.
it. such But
and account

One if such
one

it,hear
to

it,taste
assume

or

touch

is

permitted
and

such

and entity,
can

transactions

in this

then entity, of

the better

for existences

transactions

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

which is
be

one

has
as

indubitable
an

knowledge.
such
an

The

assumed

entity
cannot

assumed made Or

entity; and example:

as mere

assumption

"without another

metaphysics."
What in

to take

physicistthinks
his
own

of the duced intro-

so-called

"atoms"

ideas
a
an

mind,

into his dream in the interests does science

about

an real,

"extra-mental" The

world,
rather

simply

of

ideal

consistency?
the themselves

incline

to maintain

that

things seen,
"

heard,

smelled, tasted, and

"

touched
;

are

at

least relatively and

in

phenomenal
the and

and

that

the

beings between
occur are

which

relativelyreal
entities. It and

transactions

just these

transcendent

permanent, these is, says

this

all-potentbut yet hypothetical

natural

science, these
entities which

non-phenomenal
do the real work this It is in

never-to-be-phenomenal
real world. but in and than the

of the frank

courageous in its
success

totallyuncritical dispensing
; for

metaphysics,
all sciences such
to

rather

with

metaphysics, that metaphysics,

of the present superiority

physical
it is

psychological science
and it of nature who

largely consists
is the wishes

alone, which

appropriate
himself
sions excur-

outfit of the student

to scientific

to confine

without investigation, the fields of

avowedly making
Its fundamental is

into

philosophy.

and

unquestioned epistemological assumption Knowledge

and tion of is to be had

briefly this:
for

by working in the right way

the mental
are.

it;I

by "knowledge"

is understood
events
as

representa-;
And
to

things
is

and

they really
is the

if the work in

question
for

raised, What,
? the

then

"right way"
have

knowledge

sufficient in which

practical answer
others

consists

pointing out knowledge.

But the

the way

already attained
the
"

correlated
were,

ontological assumption
transactions

"

other is that

side, as it

of the that

epistemologicalassumption actuallytake
"

things reallyare,
that
causes

place, and
"

actuallyoperate (and by

really"or

actually

"

10

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

is here known

undoubtedly
to

meant

"

extra-mentally")
to

as

they

are

be, to take place,and

operate.

Nor,

unless

he is

influenced
tenets

by
held

some

suspicion of danger
reserve

to other

cal philosophiwith ethical

in

and

connected chiefly the student of

and

religious tenets, does

hesitate
to

the

physical
the of minds has

sciences

apply

both
own

the

epistemological and
and to the

ontologicalpostulatesto
other neither that he
to
men.

his of

mind

As
own

man

science
"

simply,
the
ago,
same nor

he

doubt

of his
was

real

existence,
even

self

somehow

yesterday and
himself
as

years is.

"

of his he

ability
not

know

he

really
the hesitate

Moreover,
of

does

think

himself

obliged, in metaphysics.

interests about

any the

scholastic

metaphysical theory, to
common-sense

adopting
it would

ordinary
tesy cour-

Surely
the

be scant with whom the

in discusses

him the

to

deny

that

colleagues

he

nature

of luminiferous of the in

ether, and
are

lences equivareally

and

performances
minds,
to

atoms,
actual

themselves of

existent intercourse It

standing
that

relations

friendly
physical
it

himself.
true
some

is, indeed,

authorities
are

in

the

sciences, particularly if they

engaged
with

in

composing
sary neces-

unusually voluminous
to

and words

profound treatises,think
of
way.

have in
a

a more
a

few

reckoning

so-called their

physics meta-

formal

In this case,

custom

is

to

announce

position of thoroughgoing agnosticism respecting assumptions

told and

the fundamental

conceptionswith
same

which For

they will example,

and
not

soon

be found readers

dealing in
are

these

treatises. with
a

their

at

once,

becoming
does

impressive scientific modesty, know,

matter
or

that

natural

science

even

aim

to

know,
Next in the

what
comes
use

"matter" the

reallyis, or
confession science that desires

what

is per is
a

se, etc.

"energy," too,
to

word

of which

get rid of all metaphysical implications; here also science

neither the

acknowledges
that

obligation nor
term

the
so

to ability

tell what

is real is meant

by the

it

constantly employs.

12

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

mechanism of the

to be

explained in
and natural

accordance of

with

the

hypothesis
this
comcerning con-

conservation

correlation

physical energy,
is He

celebrated
'mon-sense

authority in
he himself

science

obviously
discourses he himself

realist of the dualistic what has

type.

done, and what

that

knows,
in

with the

naive

metaphysical assumption
of and

transactions
vast

real world of space

things,actuallystretchingover
time,
as are

sions exten-

set forth. being correctly

But

let

some
or

question arise
as

to the

freedom and

of the

human
or as

animal,
to

to
"

the

relation
"

of

brain

mind,
how his

the

so-

called

reality
show
a

of the

latter,and
!

quickly

does

Mr.

Huxley
of

to change disposition

philosophicalpoint
so

view, with
is his

all its

implied
be

tenets

Indeed,
that in the find

rapid
several of

times some-

metaphysical metamorphosis
taken
we

quite
a

distinct pages. himself followed of Pure criticism

standpoints may
For
an

course

few

first, perhaps,

shall

him

announcing
who
"

agnostic of

the

type of the Kantian

the first edition
on

has

only

his master

through
who

of the the

Critique
sequent sub"

Reason," and
and its

lays emphasis
while
"

destructive

negative outcome, Critique

rejecting the
Reason

attempts of the
find
anon,
room

of Practical and

to

for is
to
a

metaphysics
"

of morals

religion. Then,
he
may be

he

materialist,
or

really so,
name;

however he the

inclined

accept
the

rejectthe
the other

for and

is found whole
to

ally virtunervous

assuming
system, and
science
must
"

realityof

brain

of the

entities

belonging
that

the

natural

of man,
be

while

maintaining
"

all mental of
more

ena phenomthe

regarded solely as
in the fundamental and
now

phenomena
a

brain,

mere

epi-phenomena.
takes

Or, yet again,

still

ing astoundthis facile

change
reasoner

metaphysics
he appears in
a

of

place ;

ing garb simulatAll that

to

the idealist
we can our

of the advanced and

states to

Berkeleyan type.
is
"

immediately
own

certainlyknow
of the

now a

declared

be

ideas
a

or

consciousness,

proposition
of

from

which

return

position that

no

knowledge

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

13

reality at all is possibleoffers

varied
are

no

insuperable difficulty.So
of the
man

the for

metaphysicalperformances
some
reason or

of science

when,

cal other, he gives up the uncritiis

so

dualistic
enters

metaphysics

which

becoming

to

him, and
scholastic

self-consciously upon
!
"

the mazy

of territory

theories But

why

we

may

now

ask

with

increased

eagerness,
"

and
not
on

perhaps
the
seen

with be

somewhat cultivated
same

improved intelligence
as a

shall

psychology
basis

purely
as

natural

science,
we

of the

naive

Dualism the

that which

have of be last

rightlyto characterize
students of the not other

metaphysicalassumptions
sciences?
also boast of If this
can

the

natural

done, why shall

what
a

psychology
it
never

being
"

at

Kant

seemed without
are

to think

could ? And

become,

namely,
not

science who

metaphysics
anxious natural dualistic
to

why

do

the that

writers

most
a

establish science

their

claim

psychology adopt
The and
reasons

is

purely
to

themselves

frankly
satisfactory largelyun-

cling

this

position? vacillatingand
its recent

for the

somewhat

practiceof psychology, in
build itself up
as a

attempts

to

science
can

without
no

metaphysics, are
that
an

partly
lines Some of

historical.

There and

be

doubt
movement

exceedingly
new era.

promising

already

fruitful

in

research psychological of the leaders

characterizes have

the modern indeed for

a

of this movement

been

quite

too

ready
and

to

forget the large accumulations

trulyinductive
the
were

scientific of the

psychology, which, preceding

This if

even

under

excessive made

domination
men

special metaphysical views,

era. seems

by
and the
too

of

less

strange
to

basely ungrateful, however,

recent

attention of what

is called is somewhat It
was

rise

and

rapid
the Weber
"

advances

boastfullycalled
1835
"

"new

pyschology."
Fechner's did
not

only

in

that

E.

H.

published his
and

articles first appear

in

Wagner's
work,
1860.

Handwbrterbuch der

great
until

"Elemente

Psychophysik,"

14

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

Now,

it is of

course

almost discussion

wholly
of that

in

connection

with

the law of

investigation and
connected
exact

the the

psycho-physical
modern has the science
been

with

these

names

measurement

of mental
so

phenomena
time, then, has
in
earnest to

oped. develof
robe

Only psychology
workmen,
thousands
as

for

short

science
on

been

endeavoring although patient

to

put

the

of mathematics; with of

hundreds endurance have

of skilful

and

diligent
of

through
been of this

hundreds

experiments,
the scientific of
"

meal, contributing piecerobe.

it were,

construction

In

detailed

study of the

nature,
immortal

origin, and monographs

"

development
of
"

the sense-perception,
"

Helmholtz

Lehre

von

den

Tonempfindungen Optik
these 1862
"
"

and
as

Handbuch the

der

Physiologischen
of
no

deserve in

pioneers
first

place
form the

honor;
earlier

but

appeared
and 1867

their

complete
On

than

tively. respecand had

not

physiologicalside phrenology
and of of determined Fritsch

the almost Gall and

worthless

highly misleading
to

Spurzheim
; and

provoke
the

long

reaction and

it

was

until

experiments
foundations function

Hitzig
the

in

1870

that of of

the bare cerebral certain first and

of the modern
were

science With

of localization

first laid.

exception
which in the
even no

exceedingly
the

fundamental
are

matters,

about

the little

simplest conclusions experimental

mental
assume

still involved of

doubt, begun
General

investigation
cannot

so-called
to

"higher"
to

phenomena
the form of

be

said

have

attempt

at exact

measurement.

nerve-physiology, which
handmaid
to

may

in of

time all

become classes

helpful
the
to

the

understanding

of

psychoses,and
cerebral be
a

the particularnerve-physiology of especially

centres,

cannot
as

as

yet truthfullybe claimed

science; while
much of the
to

for

hypnotism,
which

psychiatry,
of the

criminology, and
lower animals

the

tribute

anthropology,
treatment

race-psychology, and
assume

comparative
pay
to
a

psychology

truly scientific

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

15

of human form The then of

mental

life,
"

why,

the less said

about

this in the

claims scientific

the better. student

to

consciousness

of the average

of

psychology
somewhat of forms

is

(not wholly unwarrantably) apt

as

become

confused

to

the

relations
to each

which

all these
to the
as

the

phenomena
wider duties branch when while of the

sustain of

other, as

discussion
own

of the

problems

philosophy, and
an

to his

rights and
this lessened of the

taking the part of

natural science. fundamental

avowed is the

of investigator confusion

Nor

more

preliminary discussions
and of the safe and

methods, right psychological

use

satisfactory
are

of

those upon and

methods him.

deemed

right
the

in

themselves,
of that

thrown ethical

Moreover,
also

shadow

portentous
seem how some-

perhaps
to

problems, religious
up
or or

likely
What
to the

get

mixed

with

his

attempts
or

at

an

empirical science,
one

overawes

stimulates

angers

him.

thinks

is true,

ought
of

to be

true, with

respect

origin and explanation of

or

the so-called

consciousness the ness consciousone's

of

freedom,
of "the

the

consciousness
does not

self, or

ought,"
the
a

concern particularly racemes

investigationof
scales and

pistilsand
fish, or
etc.

of chemical
a case

plant, of
and of

the

fins of of
a

of the But

physical laboratory
the

constitution
work in
or

rock,

if it is

of investigation of of conscious

the

phenomena
it

of

tion voluntary attento

choice,

is

difficult

exclude the

influence

philosophical prejudices. Moreover,

of

pursuit

of the science
as

psychologywithout
metaphysics
is
"

metaphysics (inasmuch
often becomes practically the the Not

this

"

without the

so

equivalent to
lack
a

rejection of

all

metaphysics except
embarrassed

pursuer's own)
of few of the

undoubtedly
the who
our

often

by

thorough training on
young
men

psychologist's part.
been
set to

have

investigate
either from with its

"special problems"
laboratories have with
no

in

newly

founded

psychological

adequate

acquaintance

philosophyor

human

psychology as

pursued

16

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

various

points

of

view;

while attainments hands and

the

psychological
of most committed mental

and

philosophicalinsight and
and

physiologists
the

physicians, into
of

whose

chieflyis

first treatment
are

abnormal

pathological
for

nomena, phe-

scarcelyworth
is

mentioning
potent
of

in this connection. the and marked oughness thormodern and be

physical meta-

But

there

yet another
and lack

reason

shamefacedness which

confidence, candor,
the attitude of much

belong

to

psychology
the influence

toward

metaphysical
The
reason

assumptions
is

speculations.
which of

partly to

found

in

psychology
natural been

has

received In
some

from

certain

leading
influence It has of

forms has

science.

respects this
and

undoubtedly
to correct to

stimulating
too

salutary.
method their

assisted

the

former mental

prevalent phenomena,
from relations the

attempting
and
to

deduce

the

connections notions soul.

as

accepted explanations,
and nature, activities,

preconceived
of the

the also

It has

spurred

on

investigationinto
of of collection secured
more

attempt adequate
and
care

at increased

accuracy

in the observation the has

psychic facts; it
a more

has

enlarged diligencein
for

basis in

induction,and
Of

reserve

generalization.

course,

also, without

the

knowledge recently
improved

which

physics, chemistry, and physiology have acquired upon a great variety of facts,laws, and
forms
of instrumentation for and

experiment,
as

any

satisfactory
laudable
established many in

equipment
desire
at

experimental
would be the

psychology
older

atory pursued by labor-

methods

quite impossible. The

other and better

last to rival has

empirical sciences
results

undoubtedly contributed
yet
a

good
the

already; it promises
of scientific the other

larger
of the

number

future
On natural
means

psychology.
the modern

hand,
upon

influence

physical
been
not

and
no

sciences

wholly beneficial. chieflyof the

students

psychology has This, however, has

of these

by
been

the been

fault

sciences; it has

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

17
all

the fault of the them

use,
a

chiefly
"

as

far

as

one

may

speak
here timid

of fault
we

at

"

students certain
own

of half

psychology. surrender, or
must

And
too

may

note

in

and

deferential This

of their

peculiar psychological standpoint. always

No mental remain turned
at

standpoint is
of of

and

the upon

same.

It is that

discriminating consciousness
consciousness. of the

the
"

phenomena objective
the least of
nature
"

attempt

sQ-called
can ever

observation diminish

phenomena
to

in very

necessitywhich
view of

belongs

to

the

psychologicalscience
the

regard these phenomena

always
in what

from

point

of

introspection also.
can we ever

Only
know The

sentative reprethe of

self-consciousness

phenomena
the assist the

of consciousness

really are.
other
"

piling up
"

experimental results,the enlarging anthropological and

science of

of collections

of statistics,

objective
in
so

data,
as

all

psychology only

far

they
foundly pro-

help
For in

the

psychologistmore
to

extensively, accurately,and
his science is

analyze
soul ; and. the

this

representative self-consciousness.
moves ever

the world his

own

in which

mirrored collect and he

if he

first goes

outside

to

arrange
must

signs of
come

conscious
to his

processes
own

of other

minds,
to

always meaning

back

consciousness

interpret
fear of

the

of these

signs.
student of

When, being
to

then, any
too

psychology, through
too

considered
or

subjectiveor
he

metaphysical, neglects
the
a

cultivate

depreciates and
sale his

denounces is in

analytic of
soon

a,/

trained
be

introspectiveobserver, offeringfor
are

fair way

to

found

own

peculiar birthright ;
of his

and this

the chances

very

largelyin
mess

favor

exchanging reign
of

birthrightfor Moreover,
this of
awe

some

of half-cooked
sense

pottage. law,
as

the

overpowering
in sacred
as

of the

reign

is maintained the

the

physical realm
the
a

; the

feeling
and
to

before

principle of though
it
were

conservation
near

correlation

of energy,
to

approach
be

blasphemy

suggest

that

this

principle

may

utterly

18

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

inadequate
relations of
not

(not

to

say

totally irrelevant) to
and
in

set the

forth mination deter-

psychic phenomena;
to

general
for in the

claim

attainments scientific from head

to

psychology
garb
an

until

she

is
"

clothed

foot

of

mathematics,

all these
on

things have
modern
some

exercised It

unduly
is to be

depressing hoped
that

influence

psychology. day
dwell

psychologistsmay
their of mental formulas

at peace
a

with mission sub-

physicists and
to treatment

not physiologists,
as

simply by
for
terms but

dumb

sufficient
on

the of
a

scientific

phenomena,
it is
not

genuine
former need
to

equality. Indeed,
may know The of Mr.
now

possible that
a

some

day the

show

the

latter

few

things

which their

they
own

for the

more

successful has

pursuit of
been
"

sciences. the mention It

foregoing criticism Huxley's

be
name
"

excepting
and illustrated

quite general
and far from

impersonal.
by

will

briefly enforced
It is very detailed

several

selected in

examples. selectingfor
of
as

our

ever, intention, howthe

examination Professor

opinions
and

and M.

practice
and

Professor

Hoffding,
hold

James,

Flournoy, obloquy.
a

respects the
to

relations any
one reasons

of .scientificpsychology of these which

to
name

metaphysics,
On the

writers

up

to

contrary, the
our

might
these

induce three
to

critic

undertaking
are,

present task
most

gentlemen
them. Of

for

the

part, distinctlyhonorable

Professor
as

Hoffding,1
"the science

it may of

be

said
or,

that

in

defining
"of that
as

psychology
which the science

mind,"

again,
with and

thinks, feels,and
of
at

wills, in
moves

contrast

physics

that

which

in

space

occupies
point standdefinition "mental

space," he
of

first takes

and frankly the intelligently

uncritical
assumes,
"

dualistic
not

metaphysics.
the
as

The of of

plainly

merely
"

existence

phenomena,

but

of is
1

mind

"

the "that

subject
which
1.

these

nomena. phe-

Mind

spoken
Outlines

of
of

as

thinks, feels,

Psychology, p.

20

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

what where itself. the which science

breaks

down

is not do
not

the

attempt
but
"

to

the justify
very

laws

they plainly
And
now

belong,
*

the in the
to

contrast
as

it is announced
we

that

mental the

in

material
was

world,

hold

fast,"

not

contrast,
of the

formerly

declared and

to define

the very

nature

of

psychology
"

the very law of

essence

of the
"

cal psychologiAnd
so

standpoint,but

to the

continuity

the

"identity hypothesis" is affirmed to be triumphant at the which originally very beginning of a psychological inquiry professed
What,
to

maintain
not

standpoint "purely empirical

or

or

phenomenal,
now,

metaphysical
for his

ontological." identityhypothesis," thus

avowed Dualism

is this "so-called

naively
writer "these
on

substituted

formerly
the

by

purely
of

"scientific" mental the

psychology?
and

Why,

it
two

regards
festations manirience. expe-

worlds

[the
one

material] as
that the

and

same

being, both
show

given
most

in

"

We

shall

in due

time

avowedly

tions high-and-dry ontological dogmatism contains few declarametaphysical more obscurely,not to say unintelligibly, than this. Even
at this

point it
"new

is evident

that

nothing
And
"

but

the fear of his

misunderstanding2
view
a

deters

Hoffding
all
we

from

edging acknowlwas

as

the

Spinozism."
above

not

Spinoza, then,
"

metaphysician, and
However short road this
to
a

an

cal ontologicertainly
contrast

philosopher?
led
any

may

be,

have marked

ibeen Iwith

by

very

positionin

purely empirical standpoint.

this taint of due original transgression,
as
a

After between has been

to

commerce

psychology
admitted

science the

and

monistic life-blood
must not

metaphysics,
of
be

into

very

Professor

Hoffding's psychological inquiry, one

to find

surprised
the the of

it

repeatedly breaking development

of the of instances the

to

the

surface

throughout Among
effect

structural several

inquiry
such of
a

itself.

marked upon
of

corrupting

metaphysics
1

purity
66.

his

"empirical science,"
3

Outlines

Psychology, p.

Ibid., p. 68.

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

21

single
able

selection discussion

will of
a

quite
the fair

suffice.

In

his of

interesting
the

and

"Psychology
amount

Will,"1

Hoffding starts with

science of consciousness. that
as

of

to psychofidelity logical

dealing primarily
But when which he
comes

with
to

the the

phenomena
clinch with

profound problem
detailed the of

certain under
we

facts the find

usually included
term
"

by
not

psychologicalclassification
reflective

Will

"

offer to

study,

him

abandoning
also the
ally naturmost

only

strictlypsychological standpoint,but metaphysical assumptions

this which
an

very

field

surrounds

standpoint.
that of "so

For

in

unqualifiedway,
we

just

after

admitting2 place
the in

long

as

keep

to

the the
not

purely empirical ground

action, takes
and

what,
before

before

and

during
is law

consciousness, it
the causal mental life in

possible to
the

demonstrate of will in

the
or

validity of
the

in

sphere

of

general,"
dicta: determin-i

Hoffding3 indulges "Psychology,

istic; that
that the causal this law like is to

the

following metaphysical science, must

start
even

every say,

other it must

be

from in the

the

assumption

law is

holds assumed for

good
to

life of the the

will,

just as
conscious How
to

be

valid

for

remaining identity
reign of

life and

material

nature." the likeness in

or

thorough Hoffding (as implied by

law
we

conceives words
"

be

the

just as ")

the the

causal

within
may

both

the

psychological and
too

physical
told:4

realms,
which
"

gather only
follow. whether the

certainly from example,

of
we

utterances
are

immediately
not matter

For

It does small

the breach

causalityis great
"

or

[thatis, in
one

phenomena
A whether

of so-called

Will

"]

;
a

the

question is
to

of

principle.
And

weight suspended by
the

string falls place

not
"

the

ground

string is

cut

in

one

or

in

many."

again,6 "Indeterminism
also
ff.

conflicts,

only
Outlines

with
of

psychology,but
Psychology, vii.
*

with
2 6

physiology [sic],
Ibid., pp. 344 f. Ibid., p. 347.

pp.

308

"

Ibid., pp. 345 f.

Ibid., p. 346.

22

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

inasmuch the

as

it enters

into

irreconcilable
energy
a cause

contradiction
in

with

principle of persistenceof
If
a

the is

organic [sic]
system
from of of
or

province.
be allowed of

volition

without and

admitted, then
must

the functions
to

of the

brain

of the
a

nervous
"

originate without
of

cause.

Neither

the

point

view
nor

psychology
that the and
to

as

the

science

psychical sical metaphypsychical

"

phenomena,
being, as

from
as

of any
nature

possibleforms
of

doctrine
to the
as

physical
the

nature

of reality of

so-called and

causal
we

law," or
now

to the real connections

body
of

mind, do

question these simply ask,

rash

statements
now

of Professor

Hoffding.
a

We
"

What

has

become
not

psychology as
ontonaive

purely empirical or phenomenal,

What has

metaphysical or
of the and
a

science? logical,"

become

tively rela-

justifiable metaphysics which

of
. .

considers

it

as

science
contrast
"

"that with
.

which that

thinks, feels, and

with the which

wills,

...

in deals?

scientific

physics
to

Later with ask the this

on,

when

attempt is made
the show

deal

thoroughly
shall
one

metaphysics of authority to
which the
"

we "identity-hypothesis," reason satisfactory

"

why
to

the

to reality

contrasted

and phenomena (psychical

physical)are
the
one

referred,might
the conservation

not

possibly choose
and

follow in

principleof
Just

correlation

of energy

of its contrasted
now we

aspects, and
are

decline

to follow

it in the that

other.

merely
at

forced
a

to the

conclusion

Professor

Hoffding'sattempt
with
a

purely scientific psychology

confusion of science and mischievous
be

really begins

mischievous with Nor

a can

metaphysics, and
worse

ends

yet more
the

confusion
as an

confounded.
but

result

excused
to

honest science

necessarily unsuccessful phenomena

such The failure without
as

attempt
is

treat

the
at

of mental

metaphysics, or, legitimate in

be

most, only with

scientific
a

metaphysics
into

all
to and

inquiry.
effort to

plainly must psychology

ascribed

covert

introduce

scholastic

doubtful
a

metaphysical assumptions while claiming to purely scientific inquiry.

conduct

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

23

So

varied

and James the

shifting are
boldest and

the

metaphysical standpoints
treatise hesitate them
on

of Professor
as

in his voluminous critic to

psychology affirming
nor

to

induce

before all ;

that think show At

he has

detected

comprehended
would

do

we

that the most how

friendlycritic
all be held this

readilyventure
a

to

they
very his

can

together in
writer is

perfectharmony.
than

the

beginning,
warning
when treated told
: l
"

more

usually
into the In

lively in
Preface

against introducing metaphysics

as

psychology
we

"a

natural

science."

are

Metaphysics, fragmentary, irresponsible,

unconscious she this that
we

and

half-awake, and
science." the With

that she

is

sical, metaphyinto

spoils two
a

good things when

all

injectsherself
it is

natural

perfectly agree; "fragmentary,

whose

especially with
and irresponsible,

suggestion
"

half-awake every

metaphysics
of natural be

corrupt-v
and the On

ing
other

influence

over

form

science,
feared.

over especially

to psychology, is chiefly

hand,
when

we

also

believe is

that
"

and thorough, responsible,

"

wide-awake

metaphysics
it is

good
and

thing ;
with

of

such

physics, metanot
see

"consciously"

and intelligently,

or clandestinely

combined dishonestly, any

science, we
over

little

reason

to fear

corrupting
does

influence

any

form

of natural That
as a

science. James
not

Professor science

propose any

to treat

his

subject

wholly
affirmed its data

without
us

metaphysics whatever,
top of this
as a same

he for

has he

already
has for

informed that

at

the

page; science

psychology
time and

natural

assumes

(sic),(1) thoughts and

in space, with it know.
as a

feelings, and
which

(2)

physical world
which for that

they

coexist, and
claimed science

(3) they

Now,

might easilybe empirical

of the

psychology

perfectlypure

(descriptionand
(or states

explanation) of the phenomena

of consciousness)
vi.
as

consciousness
1 8

such,2only

The

of Psychology, i. p. Principles James

So Professor

defines it to be in his smaller

work, "Psychology,"

p. 1.

24

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

first of these

data

"

namely, "thoughts
those
"
"

and

feelings,"as
which assumed. be
and

including,
we

of

course,

states

of

consciousness

call

"knowledge
of
a

are

necessarily to
world in time

The with

assumption
which these

"physical
and for

space,"
indeed
a

thoughts
science. it is

feelingsco-exist,is
is, however,

justifiable assumption
form of natural but

psychology, as
It that

it is for every
a

other

metaphysical
of

assumption;
it,constitutes

just

metaphysical assumption
loose way

which, in Professor
one

James's entire

large and
a

stating
there

half of

crude, uncritical

Dualism. view

Moreover, from
is

the other

purely psychological point of subject the

better said
treatment

probably no
is
more

of which very of the

by this
of

author

unsatisfactorythan
" "

those modes The

"states

consciousness,"or
mind which "You
are

of activity "I

called

"knowledge."
etc., and
the is attainable
as

assumptions
in

know,"
that

know,"

assumption
and every it is other
a

general
indeed form of

scientific

knowledge

actual, are

legitimate
natural and

for

psychology,
At the
same

for

science.
a

time, genesis
has

chief

tion obligaas an

supremely
to

difficult task the

for

psychology
in his

empirical
volumes

science

trace

and

development
less
reason

of

knowledge.

Professor

James this be

nowhere

spacious
formed perfor

fully recognized
this task. It may
"

obligation, much
that
"

suspected
in

the the

this

is to

be

found all
"

at

least

part
"

in
to

complete
even a

inability of glimmer
of

cerebral upon the

psychology
involved in

throw
to

light

psychological, not
such

say

the
sciousness. con-

epistemological,problems
After Professor

states

of

having
James

once

recognized and
reference

approved

the

opinion of cal metaphysiwe are

with
at the to

to his fundamental

assumptions
more same

top of this remarkable

what
sentence
"

page, the

the the

astonished page. For

read

he

says which
"

at

bottom the

of

in the

follows the natural

warning
of

againstsuch metaphysics as

spoils

science

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

25

psychology,we
forward
as as a

have

the

theory of

"

spiritual agent" brought

**

leadingexample.
are

It is

just such
"

metaphysics
books." toward the ?
"

this,"we why

told, which
excessive

corrupts the
tenderness
a

psychology
the Preface

But the

this

in
as

metaphysical postulateof
"

mind

(to quote again

wills
"

phrase of Hoffding)
unless, indeed,
different will is the from
to

that
a an
"

which

and thinks, feels,

be

that-which," etc., is fundamentally

"

being

agent

"

and

to to be
"

think, feel, and

other something necessarily

than of
a

spiritual." On
is the

contrary, if the

assumption
mental

physical world
"

and legitimate the the of

necessary of
a

metaphysical standpoint of physics, being (or

necessary

assumption psychology.
with

spiritual agent ")

is

and equallylegitimate But

we

metaphysical standpoint
that
physics meta-

have

already repeatedlydeclared
the

both

assumptions
which of

constitute
every

equipment
of natural

in natural science
"

student
"

whether scientific

of

physics or
This

psychology
between

starts necessarily

his

inquiry.
vacillation all the

philosophical standpoint which

mix with

denies that but

metaphysics the rightto

affirms all the

psychology,and
of
' physics,

which denies

rightsof
the treatise
more

the

metaphysics
of Professor

rights to
entire

metaphysics
of

mental James.

science,
The ture admix-

characterizes

the

total result is rendered of life who of but

a
"

even

confusing by large
with those students the

philosophical sympathy openly affirm

is not
to

of mental

and

defend intelligently
are

assumption

spiritual agent," whose

be identified

the

psychical phenomena,
with the with sum-total the of

who

either

these of the

phenomena
James

regarded content-wise,or
cerebral
to

subject

and physiological
seems

phenomena.
that
but

In many

places
only the
word

Professor

hold

this the

is

not

legitimatepreliminary assumption,
of science To would prove and
our

very

last

philosophy upon
somewhat

the matter. accusation who of

sweeping

inconsistency
studied
"

scarcelybe

necessary

for those

have

The

26

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

of Psychology Principles ourselves with

"

most
one
"

carefully. We
or

must many

content

citingonly
A

two

of

the

possible
to Other nature

illustrations.

chapter1

on

The

Relations is from
"

of Minds its very

2

Things
a

"

in

psychologicaltreatise
discussion. In when that whereas
not
"
"

metaphysical
affirms

this I

discussion

Professor I
am

James

perceive Orion

only
"

and cognitively, work

no

dynamically, present there,

to my

because

effects,"
as

brain

am

dynamically present,
to react be
more

inasmuch processes
to the

my

seem thoughts and feelings

upon

the

thereof." advanced such

not
a

Of course, advocate
sentence

nothing could
of
as

agreeable
a

most
"

the

"

theory

of

spiritual
that the

agent

than

this ; for
"

it affirms

spiritual agent
too, upon

but only exists, processes.

works such

and effects,"
a

that,
ern mod-

the cerebral

By
and
so

claim

the

hypothesisof
and cal all the current
way
as

the conservation weak

correlation
use

of energy,
an

attempts
the

to

it in of

ontologiordinary
where Still toward
two

to

contradict

plainestdicta
de
grace.

our

experience,are
materialism it is accustomed further
on
3

given a private coup

a

Especiallyis place

inflicted with
to
are
a

deadly wound
itself
as

in the

represent

invulnerable.

we

told that the

attitude psychologist's Dualism.

"

cognition is
elements
"

thorough-going
"

It and

supposes

(rather beings),
treats

mind

knowing,
Neither
is the

thing known,
makes

and

them

as

irreducible. in any way

gets out of itself or

other, neither

into the

other, neither

the other."

Further, however,
Professor
said James in the

as

to
4

the
to

relations

of

mind
to

and has

brain,
been
our

refuses

add

anything

what

preceding

two

chapters. What,
memories find
or as

however, is
what has

surprise, on
said
not

refreshing our chapters,to

mere

to

been shows

in
so

these
much

that

the
as

comparison
a

addition

subtraction For in
one

different totally these

metaphysical point
1 2

of view.

of

preceding

The

of Psychology, vol. i. chap. viii. Principles 3 ibid., Ibid., p. 214. p. 218.

"

Ibid., p. 216.

28

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

the interests for reality

"

of scientific
"

explanation.
and

But

as

to any
or

assumed

the

agent," for spiritual thoughts

the Whether

the soul
"

the

mind, for
physics metaor

the

subjectof
is
is

the

feelings, why,
we

such

avoided. carefully

like

the

word

not, this
Hence

undoubtedly

positionof

materialism. of
a

arises Professor

James's
as

ideal

scientific treatment form

x

of mental
a

phenomena
"

possible only in the

his frank of declaration
at

of that

cerebral

psychology ;
a

hence

nothing resembling
exists. whenever

science"

psychology

present

Hence,
he is

his finally,

intimate

philosophicalalliance, thoughts, with

in the

pressed

for his Mr.

we

ultimate

metaphysical standpoint of problems.

in italicized
at print,

Hodgson
are

treating of
and

chological psy-

Indeed,
the close

told

out

out, and

of the

that following chapter,2 of the

not to

it is the relations
to things feelings,
or

of the and
to

subjectivedata,
the brain

thoughts
one

and

(but
the

another

to

the

mind?),
view his

that

"constitute

subject-matter of subject held

psychologicscience."
The M.

pointsof

and

of

approach

to this
3

by

Flournoy in

interesting monograph Hbffding and gives

James,
to
as

differ

widely from
title
"

those This

of Professors

already discussed.
the all physics Meta-

writer,although he
and

his

work

Psychology," undertakes (ifwe

"good"
may for the in time James

to banish

metaphysics,
to
a

good
with

or

bad

being
there

continue
is

agree

Professor

holding
He

that

such the

thing
of it be either

possibleas
considered
to be
or

metaphysics), forever
will have in the form
none

from of

arena

psychologicalinquiry.
as

it,whether

introduced
verified

of

assumptions
of scientific the
course

disproved or
form of

by the progress
interests The

inquiry,
of the

in the

speculationsarisingin
the

inquiry,or

professedin

of fuller

explanation of
whose

acknowledged psychic facts.

1

general principleon
2

See the close of his small

book. Th.

Ibid., p. 197.
en

Metaphysique
1890.

et

Psychologie,par

Flournoy, Docteur

medecine, etc.,

Geneve.

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

29

proud

shoulders the

is to be laid the task

"

of this

date exorcisingmanor

is called

Principleof Concomitance,
This is principle

of

physical Psychoat the

Parallelism." very base of modern

declared

to be

psychology.
M.
as

It is not

quite clear,to begin with, what

of his

Flournoy
the
to base

means
"

by speaking psychology,
"

principleas

"

serving
we

of

whether, for example,

of those which all necessary
but

are

understand

that it is

one

non-metaphysical
may make admitted
;

supposition preor

empirical

science

whether be true while

sorry

it is

derived, but principleinductively

of
our

to

by
to

all students take into that done

a no

psychology whose
account.

opinion it is meaning
us,

worth be
;

Personally,we
author's

should

to believe

the
us

latter is the the honor

to

for

he himself

has

quote

and

this in fessor Prowho this

so-

conjunctionwith
Wundt,
as

less

distinguishedauthority than
the few
extent

among

remaining
in

"savants"

deny
called

the
"

absolutelyuniversal

of application this

l Denying principleof parallelism."

is principle the

defined

by M. Flournoy
of

as

the

equivalent of holding that plain tokens

function and of that of
an
"

phenomena
of sense, function

psychic

life show
"

activity
data

having the properlyspiritual,"

is
to
"

the elaborating such

comparing them," etc.; independent of

the the

activityor
it

organic processes."
of the the clause

Now,
may would would
as can

precisephrasing
that

just quoted
in of
"

safely be presumed
be

both

writers

question
them
so

interpose well-founded willingto

that be committed
"

objections. Neither
to

the

view, and
has
ever

far

be readily

shown

neither
or

of them functions

expressed,
stricter

the view
sense

psychic activities
word,
ever

are, in the
"

of the

" totally independent

of the this
;

organic,
we

that
not

is,the attempt
in

cerebral, processes.
to
answer

Further

than

will the

for Professor

Wundt should
to
some

and wish of

for
to

answer,

its fuller

form, which
must
et

we

make later

for

ourselves, reference
1

be

had

the

Metaphysique

Psychologie, p.

6.

30

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

chapters of
with
but

the

present treatise.
modern

It will

now

suffice to say that

obviously it
all

is not

experimental psychology alone,

measurement

its elaborate

system of
of all

and
even

psycho-physics,
the
commonest

psychology
correlates

times, and
man

knowledge
which

of the unlearned
states

about

his

own

mental

life,
with does

of

content-wise, consciousness,
that the

the character
not

of the stimulus
a

produces them. type trained

One

need

to be

of psychologist that when within

in the modern in the crack of that that the

ten

laboratoryto
of
a

know

one's
"

fingers are
the
one

door, the
is

more,

limits,"the
grows

pressure
or

door

increased, the
make which

greater

pain;
candle
;

candles

things brighter than

is

or

the

weight
who

heavier, when
to

thrown

into

the

narily scales, ordi-

feels heavier
man

the

muscles, skin,and
common

joints of
to

the

lifts it.

Indeed, the

impression really is,

than underdo the It is difficult there is

in many estimate for

so men

respects,more
of the

likelyto
be

overdo

strictness

of this

correlation.

generallyto
difference of the

convinced, for example, that

much

as

actuallyexists
the
exact

between

the

subjective
the

time-rate which

sensation,or
into
or

temporal position at
the

it strikes

the

stream

of

consciousness,and

objectivetime-rate
stimuli.
one

temporal position of
"

occasioning
of sensations of
"

So, too, everybody knows

"

that the kind avoid

has

depends
savor,

upon
we

"

or,

to

metaphysics
with" the

even

the kind of

weakest

will

say, is "correlated which

act

the

of external

excitements

upon

end-organs
influences

sense.

Here, again, it is those

far

obscurer

which which clear

do not
even

belong
modern

to the

obvious
can

external

and correlations, of with any

as

psychology

only speak

terms by employing psychological intelligibility

are

(such
overlooked

that desire,intention, etc.) imagination,feeling, in the

popular estimate.
a

It is of view when

long

and

weary

journey,however,
that all man's

from

this

point
but of

to the

conclusion
on

especially psychic life, passive content,

regarded

the

side, not

of

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

31

those
"

activities and

functions like

which
manner

develop into

the

so-called

is in higher faculties,"

correlated strictly Such

a

with,
sion conclu-

not to say determined is do

we

by, the physicalseries.

in accordance with the warranted

not certainly

popular view, nor

most

believe it to be the view

by the
base
"

minute At

data study of psycho-physical any

after the modern

"

methods. for

rate, it

can

be

said it is

to

serve

as

modern have

psychology only as
and
our

put there

who by investigators the

already grievouslydeparted from

have taken incontinently

scientific position, strictly the

up with

metaphysics of
of M. Flour-

modern But
we

Spinozism. psycho-physical
have

alreadysaid
his

that

the distinction this

"

noy

consists

chieflyin
"

deriving from
or

acknowledged
physics meta-

of principle

concomitance,"

complete
he

psycho-physical
this

a crushing refutation,as parallelism,"

thinks, of all

whatever.

For
"

he goes

on

to declare " that

physical psychoscience,,

principle, like Janus, presents

of which while the
one,

two

opposed faces,,
at

looking toward
toward it does
to

the the

future, smiles past, shows

to be

other,turned
needs

its teeth

at^
"

metaphysics." Now,
metaphysics which
this new-born

not beware

appear

simply
and

"

bad

of the

growl

bite of
"

Janus psycho-physical
as

; it is all

metaphysics,
to learn

metaphysics by
"

such.

As

to

what
can

M.

Flournoy understands
from the

metaphysics,"the
This
are

reader
as

claim scarcely but

his definition.

runs,

all the world

"

sicians metaphyspeaks

themselves those who does with

not

agreed :

Metaphysics is
which It would

that of which he who

listen understand himself

to

nothing,and

understand."
the audience

scarcely consist
were

courtesy
to

(these words
take the

originally
nition defiof

spoken), or
of the

the

speaker himself,to
too

this facetious

metaphysics
"

seriously;for

larger part
a

remainder of the

of this treatise is taken

up with

cussion critical dis-

metaphysicalhypothesesconcerning principal this discussion is of the soul and the body." And the union reader to comprehend. clear for any intelligent sufficiently
1

Metaphysique

et

Psychologie, p.

6.

32

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

Now,
we

it will at

once

be

said,in defence
in mind how his

of M.

Flournoy, that
nounced, already an-

must
"

constantly bear namely,

and
to show

intention

this fundamental inconsistent But

and with

nerable invulthe
two

psycho-physical principle is
tenure

of any

exery
to

form

of

metaphysics.
; and

here

important things are

back the the way

be noticed theoretical

both

of them

bring
in

practicaland
of every from

difficulties which
to

stand

attempt wholly
of

separate scientific psychology

the influence of
as

the

criticism
no

any

philosophical speculation.First, rejected metaphysical hypotheses has

no

itself

force

and criticism, influence critic's

own

meaning

as

out language, with-

admitting standpointsas
suppose it to be
tenets

the the

of

other

accepted metaphysical Indeed, in general

we

part.
that be
no

true strictly

particulartenet
or

or

tem sys-

of
without
tenets.

in

can metaphysics

gainsaid

even
or

discussed

adoptionof some
It follows that

other
no

metaphysical tenet champion

"

system of
of

consistent without

science,
can ever

pure
even

and draw
come

simple,and
his sword within the

wholly
to

metaphysics"
the

slay the metaphysical ogre

and

unless

he

first

realm,

put
and

on

armor,
are

of metaphysics.
but

Otherwise,his
;

sword of

he

himself the

toms phan-

and

his
not

work

hewing
must in

down

metaphysical
In is
no

hypotheses
by himself
other

only is,but
that
to

consistencybe regarded
goes
on

as

being,like
for bad and

which the

in Valhalla.

words, and
cure

change

figureof speech,there metaphysics

of the but

critical and

insufficient

good

consistent

metaphysics.

But, second, M.

Flournoy's very
destructive and
a

proposal

physical psycho-

principle as
of the statement unless it be taken in

of

metaphysics is
he

itself incapable

which application

gives to it,
materialists

metaphysicalway.
which both

It is itself the very

scientific and

principleon
be

metaphysical

base metaphysicalspiritualists
more

their conclusions.

Perhaps

it would upon

correct

to call it the

metaphysical principle

which

both

materialism

and

base themselves, spiritualism

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

33

by emphasizing

"

each

one

"

only one-half
an

of this

principle.

It is,properlyspeaking,not itself of
can serves as

at all

inductive modern
course

which principle

the

base

for the

the

empirical science
of this treatise

psychology. Only by
the made
now

entire

full force of obvious. be

our

criticism both the

we

of M.

Flournoy's position
criticism in the consider them

be

But

foregoing points of
shall easier the task

will order

illustrated ; and

above

mentioned,

as

putting the
assumes

first.

How

inevitably every
and takes for

author

point, metaphysicalstandsome

of granted the validity

(hisown,

of

course)
other
on
"

metaphysics,whenever
well illustrated
1

he criticises the

metaphysics of
for that
to

is people,

by M. Flournoy in his remarks

chosen form the
sciousness, con-

Phenomenism."

This

is the term which

of

metaphysical hypothesis
of

carries

idealism
state

length

solipsism.
that

Its

conclusion

is, " My
in

of

is all the
matter

reality." Or,
to
"

other

words, its
our

hypothesis reduces
consciousness, an
of investigation have
"

pure
a more

representation of

idea." the

Perhaps
the

thorough preliminary metaphysics?

would out Withthat is

What inquiry,

is

suggested to
all

the author
"

followingconclusion:
so-called matter somehow

totallywithout

any

metaphysics whatever,
or

what precisely

whether reality,

so-called

mind, becomes.
in the and
not

But, conversely, as
state

given,or implicated,
as

of

consciousness, regarded

my

state,

all reality, regarded merely as state, by any possibility of matter

or are

whether The is M.

of

mind, exists.
now

questionwe

interested, however, in discussing

from what he is
or

Flournoy'smethod
resort

of escape

pleased to i solipsism,
The final
as

call the without wrench

not

of phenomenism, metaphysicalhypothesis
on

his

own

part

to

metaphysics.

of this modern sponsor

or

advocate

of

science psychological

the

the

heir,but

the executioner of the

of all onto-

from logical hypotheses, is

the clutches

metaphysicalogre,
Johnsonian
37 f.

accomplished in
1

the

followingsomewhat
3

style.

M^taphysiqueet Psychologic, pp.

34

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

It

is not

material

things, however,
or

whose

reality can
with

be
our

demonstrated
canes,

by kicking them,
the fashion of

by strikingthem
common-sense

after M. the

ordinary
the

realism,
He
eats

which that

anxious Flournoy is chiefly real existence mental of very

to

save.

admits1

bread

he

might
"

be

spared

if the

phenomena
could which

vulgarly
be

called

seeing,
by

touching, and
the mental and

eating bread

constantly followed
no

phenomenon
for there
maw

I call

longer being hungry

need feel
no so

being reinvigorated" Surely idealism point;

never as was a

alarm
cious vora-

at this

solipsistic ogre
to

of

metaphysical
of bread. But
a so

to wish

deprive us

of this

kind

there

are

other

interests

(touching

real entities and

cannot

of

metaphysical sort) which

surrender. lightly all For

this critic of he goes

on

phenomenism
a

to say, with
or

feelingin
children,
diverse of

which

metaphysicians,whether
:
"

idealists my

would dualists,

share fully all

To

admit, however, that

and

wife, my
are no

humanity, past, present,

of
my

future,
"

only

groups love
or

sensations exists there

my brrr

and of

ideas,
those

that which than

sentiment

hate
"

outside
are no

1 my

directlyexperience,
own,
"

that with
...

other memories

Egos
or

that all

alone,
"

actual

hopes, comprise
solitude that

Reality,
a

! the bare and I

am

idea of this
not

gives me
all the
to

chill in the

spine;

astonished fact

phenomenist philosophers are system."

The the
sentences

in

unfaithful

their

justquoted undoubtedly
of the barriers
to

land

their author advocates But

to

on

other

side when
see

erected limits of

by the

of who
mount sur-

idealism does
not

pressed
that

the

solipsism.

MV Flournoy has employed, in order

these sentiment with with

barriers, the soaring wings of the metaphysics of

have
no

? We

to mingling sentiment objection

freely

philosophy,if only
warmth and
1

it be done

in such
a

way

as

to suffuse

color the

body

of

sound

reflective
42.

thinking;

Metaphysiqtieet Psychologie,p.

36

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

The

meaning
which is to

of

the

fundamental the coup

de

psycho-physical principle
grdce
to

give

all

metaphysics
ligible intel-

is stated

by M. Flournoy in the following compact and

"

way:1

Every psychicalphenomenon
The is to fuller say, "That the

has

determinate
of

physical concomitant."
runs as

statement

meaning
interior tutes constimental in
tem; sys-

follows:

totalityof psychic or

events, thoughts, sentiments, volitions, etc., which

what
we

call the life of

a

our

soul, our

is accompanied by life,
our

parallel series of modifications

bodily organism,
and this in such
upon state

and
a a

particularlyin
way that each
term

our

nervous

term

of the

psychic special
fibres of
ment state-

series

depends
state

definite

of

the

physiological
a

series ; to each molecular

of consciousness

corresponds
group cells
as
or

of

our

brain,

determinate in the

of

co-chemica physi-

phenomena
our

effectuated

cerebral

substance."
in
a

Now,

just so
of

long

this

is understood

totallynon-metaphysical
one

way,

it

simply

affirms

the

regular sequence
class of

class of Phenomena

ena phenomcalled

upon

another

phenomena.

"thoughts, sentiments, volitions, etc.," depend

called

upon

nomena pheof the

physico-chemical,or
these

molecular
to

states

brain; and
know
as

of
one

two,

it is

impossible (the so-called

in
an

deny

that

we

the

(the "thoughts, etc.") directlyand

while
are

indubitably

phenomena, phenomena)

the

other known

cal physico-chemiwhat is most

only

extremely uncertain,
But the is
as
"

fragmentary, important
and class of
to

and notice

conjectural
is, that
so

fashion.

long

as

strictly logical psychoheld, the they

about latter fall under

non-metaphysical standpoint
can

phenomena
class,
"

be

known
"

only
and And
"

the former for the most

that

is, as

thoughts

(or,rather,
and catch
"

part, somewhat
faiths

wild

irregularguesses
now one

half -conceived
at this last

about,etc.).
ask
"

might
"

word, and

about

what

Oh,

about

the

brain

and

its cells and

1

and fibres,
et

about

physico-chemical and
5.

Metaphysique

Psychologie, p.

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

37

other M. of

molecular

changes.
intends
to

But, again, we adopt

he the
must

insist that

unless

Flournoy
common-sense

metaphysical standpoint
class very himself for the

Dualism,
the advocates

present with
he refutes

of that
on

phenomenism
of

which

by flying aloft

the

wings

metaphysical sical metaphy1

sentiment.

However,

plain signs are

M.
assumes virtually, reverse

not

lacking of
; for

another

standpoint which
but if
we no

Flournoy, perhaps unconsciously

he goes
on

less should

to say

that

this has
a

and proposition, determinate the limits

reserve.

affirm,"Every
tant," concomi-

physical phenomenon
we

psychic
of
"

"should upon make of

depart from

positivescience, Now,
for the of for the

and

enter

metaphysics
this
very

without

right to

reversal, and
the

indeed both

tive imperaof what with

duty
science, we
we a now

making it,in
shall elsewhere
to know

interests

logic and
But

strenuously contend.
this refusal of the
tenure

wish

is,how

is consistent celebrated here

one

purely non-metaphysical
of it is and

ple princimay

psycho-physical parallelism? Surely,

a

say,

lamentably "poor
it

rule

that with

won't

work

both

ways,"

might

be

added, work
The Either in your

equal ontological nism, phenomeBut cisely pre-

in efficiency

both

directions. itself.

appropriate exhortation
stick
to

irresistibly suggests
or

your

else

be

consistent

metaphysics.
to

what favor said becomes in brief

kind very that

of metaphysics is
clear the when
we

be told

shown
: 2

special
may

are

"It

be

principle
is

of

parallelism, on
assumes

which every

experimental psychology phenomenon phenomenon;

of because

founded,
a

beneath

consciousness

correlative in
as

physiological
to
as

psychology,
to

order much

become

positive science, ought Indeed, physiological."

Flournoy, is Now,
1

become

possible
to

its

grand ideal, according

but
a

M.
"

to become

"

nothing

branch

of mechanics.

it may

be
et

that

psychology
13.

will

ultimately have
a

to

Metaphysique

Psychologie, p.

Ibid., p. 15.

38

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

sell its
'

"

soul

"

for

so

cheap

price as
be

mechanics

is

likelyto
do
not

be able to pay ; propose sell at value

to

although
the
are

there

psychologistswho
if for in

close

bargain just at present:

content to wait
a

they
rise "Just

must

all,they
of the

large

in

the
at
one

commodities it
can

offered

exchange.
claimed

present," however,
who has sufficient

scarcely be
with

by
an

any

acquaintance
cerebral
to

facts to be

edged acknowla

authority,that enough
whole how such scientific of it in
an cosmos

physiology constitutes
induce
even a a

large
the But

wise

man

to

take

exchange

for

hypothetical soul.
effected
to

exchange
is what have his
we we

will find
not

ever

be

totallywithout
prehend. com-

metaphysics

it

difficult particularly
seen

And

just now
if

M.

Flournoy
the

self him-

expressing verity of
his future
"

willingness to daily bread,

and all

surrender

ontological
save

his

own

only

he

can

that

of and

"wife, children,
? That
a

humanity, past, present, defending

certain destructive

is to

say, when

souls, in
physics meta-

\whom
of the

he has of

interest, againstthe practical

he is
a

phenomenism,
in the

pronounced metaphysician emotional),

a

common-sense

(albeit,rather
interests
"

realistic

type.

But

now,

of

so-called works of

physical "psychothe is

principle of parallelism only

in
one

that in of

"effectually reducing
"

direction,

"

"

namely,
a

that

science

of

psychology only
suppose, What

to

branch

mechanics,

he
own

ready to
and,
and
we

assume

the

ontological verityof brains, his

of
"

must
"

those

all

humanity, past, present,

without of real "all how would become

future.
to
"

would

become
or

of real brains

bread

nourish

them,
as

what of

humanity
men

considered win and

devoid

or psychicalreality,

would

distribute did have

bread
a

and

grow

brains

unless
comitant, con-

physical phenomena
are

determinate But the

psychic
what
same

not

made

quite
more

clear. than

is exceedingly tenderness toward

the

clear which
we

is

something
Professor of the

found

James

displaying
of the

ontologicalinterests

physical half

principleof

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

39

parallelism. Indeed,
this one-sided that elsewhere

the

standpoint involved metaphysical

the Yet M.

in

working of
and have

is defiprinciple of parallelism nitely

of metaphysicalmaterialism.
criticises
as we

Flournoy
of materialism; of

rejectsthe metaphysics
seen,

and,
a

he

adopts
in

the

standpoint
interests

metaphysics
and Further

of

spiritualidealism, humanity."
of
a

the

of his

friends

of "all

illustration

similar effort

shifting of philosophical
to

points
the way science

of

view, in the very

without

establish

science
us

of

psychology wholly
in which and of of
a

metaphysics,
the

is afforded of

by

M.

Flournoy invariablyspeaks
conservation is Here his

physical
lation corre-

of its

principle of
realist of
a

and

energy.

standpoint
the world

apparently
type.
material
may

that

common-sense

dualistic of

Bread

exists, and exists, and former, may

that the is to The such cal
be
"

brains all

exist, and
"

objects
know the fact

humanity

exists ; the latter in

effectuate

changes

it,
a one

in

spite

of the

principle,as psycho-physical
taken

scientific

principle,
at
'

ontologicallyin only
of these with three
so

direction. been discussed

views

authors

have

length, and
criticism,
which
to

much

of somewhat
are

sharply polemithe
are as a

because

they
in the

quite representativeof
and
treat

success

Monism,
attain

Materialism,
effort
to

Positivism

accustomed

psychology
of

purely "natural
whatever. One
and
can

science," without

any

admixture

physics meta-

scarcelysuppress
on

pardonable feeling of
writers

relief

satisfaction

turning example,

to

who,
tenets

like the

Volkmann

and

Wundt,

for

openly

maintain

right

toy

introduce

speculativeand
and who remain and

metaphysical
some

into scientific

psychology ;
and
a

openly adopt standing

views

point, philosophicalstand-

in it and So the held

ready
far
as

to defend

it, in
sary neces-

consistent

intelligible way.
on as

it

seems

to refer to definite

relations

of

psychology
who
set
so

and

the

philosophy

of

mind,

by

writers

40

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

commendable

an

example,

this

will

be

done

in

the

following

chapters.
The result of
our

investigation
much of the

thus

far

has of

been

to

show

how

inconsistent

is

practice

the

advocates

of

psychology
what
are

as

"natural

science,"
of the

without

metaphysics;
sciences,
in
as

the

advantages
when

physical
with

at

present
of their

pursued,
method

compared making

psychology assumptions;
kind of

respect and,

of

metaphysical
way,

at

least

in

preliminary
with that

what

metaphysics justifiable
science
as

is

consistent

uncritical

but

wholly

approach
such affects.

to

its A

problems
more

which

psychological
examination
must

careful

now

be of

given
mind

to

those

relations

of

psychology
very
nature

and

the

philosophy

which

grow

out

of

the

of

both.

CHAPTER

II

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

(continued)

THE
related
to

difficulties

of in

consistent

and

not

needlessly

sive offenas

practice
to

treating
are

psychological
so

problems
as

metaphysics
from There the
are

scarcely

great

would the

seem

follow

examples
two

criticised of

in these

earlier

chapter.
either candid
one

ways
to

adjusting fairly
In the

difficulties,
to
one

of

which of the

ought

be

satisfactory
first

any may the

student the and does

not

subject.
of

place,

approach
modest who In the causal

examination unobtrusive aim

one

mental of

phenomena
the time
at
man

with of

metaphysics
be
at

science

to

the

same

philosopher.
to

this

way,

takes of between what

for

granted,
and of

least

begin

with,
of of

existence relations both it be

both

things
the and

minds,
and the

the

reality

two,
their

possibility really
are.

knowing
Let

they
at once,

relations that these

noted

however,
of in mental

assumptions by
the

justify

the of

explanation
those and
as

phenomena
with which

covery disare

changes
well

things hypothesis

they
a

connected,

by the
are

(undoubtedly
of
a

physical metaists ex-

one)
and

that

they
in

phenomena
relations
"

being
world

which of

develops
may
be

actual

to
"

the Such

things,
the every

and

which

called

the

mind.

is, indeed, by

matter-of-fact worker
in

metaphysical psychology
of who

standpoint investigates
or some

assumed definite of

problem ideas,
or or

(let

us

say, of

reaction-time,

association in the

changes

affective

consciousness,

laboratory;

of

42

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

the
or

hypnotic, the insane,

on

the

criminal, in

so-called

real

life ;

the

basis of the

dramatic To this

of representation
same so

soul-life in gator investi-

novels,plays, etc. ).
and finds of
an

standpoint every
as

unconsciously adheres,
to critically

long

he

does

not

try
no

sciously conone

be

metaphysical.
this.

And

any

fault with treatise

him
on

for

doing
call

Indeed,
even

the writer

entire

mental
we

phenomena,
our

including
of
"

those of may And

phenomena
of

which

conceptions
of

Self

"

"Things,"
far

"Time,"
the

of

"Space,"
same

"Causation,"

etc.,

definitelyadopt
so as

metaphysical standpoint.
may be

he adheres
not

to

it,he

in justified

ing claimat

that

he does he is

need

the the in

help

of

specialmetaphysics
considered

all,that

only taking
science.

standpoint appropriateto psychology

his how later chief he
on.

the

of problems investigations
as a

purely
will
or

natural
to

Where

difficulties may best face

begin
avoid

show

themselves, and
will be considered

them,

But, again,
scientific

it is

equally legitimate that

he propose of the entire
some

the

writer
what some-

on

psychology, especiallyif
with

to deal

thoroughly
should

round

psychologicalproblems,
of

adopt
its allied

definitive
or use

metaphysical point
reasoned of it
as

view,
and
to

with

assumptions
make such in the

conclusions;
can

that he should be

then

be shown of mental
friendly un-

helpful

or

necessary
a course

explanation undoubtedly
from

phenomena.
and immature But cal have

Such

would

invite ardent

perhaps contemptuous
advocates of
not

criticism without

but

psychology truth,
all

metaphysics.
of
an

why

may

speculative hypotheses
in

ontologitentative is not

character
an

(and,
mental

speculative hypotheses
to

ontological character) be applied

the

explanation of thought
in all should other

phenomena?
with
to fidelity

The the

same

method

inconsistent

demands

of science

departments
be

of made

investigation. Why,
"

then,

discriminations In
answer,

of all
be

subjects
"

against
time that

psychology?

it will

shown

in due

44

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

non

etc. multiplicanda), to

But
"

the that

call may

at to

any
a new

time

be

issued,"back
agement
of this

the

facts,"

is, back
to
a more

envisalysis an-

of actual

experience,and
and and modified

thorough

experience;

then

forth, again,

if you

will,to enlarged hypotheses. Now,

amount
no

speculative and assigned why

should

explanatory
considerable be

valid
even

reason

can

be

of

special metaphysics
above
a

not

employed
this almost is the
at

in

the

explanations of psychological science.

will be seen, such all

Indeed,
and
a

science
to

others, to invite
of

necessitate

method with

study.

Such

method

that
two

actually employed
writers close
to

distinguished
reference their of

success was

by
made and

whom last
on

commendatory chapter, in
the science

the

of the treatises

admirable

minous voluof

psychology.
the

One

them, Volkmann,
of the Soul of the mental

makes
as

prominent

metaphysical hypothesi subject(or Trager)

upon all
"

the

reallyexistent
as

states, and
"

reacting
into

kinds

of

excitement

(upon being
the form of

brought

relation

with

other

being)
The

in

mental

representation (Vorstellen). although keeping

at

other, Professor
tenets
more

Wundt,

his

tive speculathe
ception cona

in the Soul
as

background
an

first, adopts
forms conscious the

of the

actual

psychic energizing, as
ultimate of
as

dynamic
The

and

synthetic reality,which
of all the

explanation
of

phenomena
as

experience.
tion, assumpof

metaphysical outcome,
Volkmann the author is
a

well
a

metaphysical
form it another
to

is

really

certain

Dualism;
name.

although
That title of
"

himself certain
"

prefers for
form of

of Wundt

Monism,

which

the

Ideal-realism be

is

assigned.
say

It would of

unfair,not
without of the

to

ungenerous,
to

for the

cates advovery

psychology
authorities

metaphysics
voluminous the rank

deny

the

high
the

scientific merit

treatises fact of

written

by

two

just mentioned;
in the very front

is that

their

stand chefs-d'oeuvre

psychological

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

45

science. Wundt's
two

Indeed, Volkmann's

Lehrbuch

der

Psychologie1
are

and the deal

Psychologie2 Grundziige der Physiologisehen

modern whole
our

masterpieces among
the in does it appear,

German round

attempts
the

to

with scientifically Nor

of mental that

phenomena. quality of
"

judgment,
their

the
"

empirical science
jr

of these

has psychologists frank of and

been

spoiled,

even

greatlyinjured,by
well

but intelligent, and in that lative specu-

on

the whole

restrained, use
This

metaphysical
is maintained
to
even

hypotheses.
the form
as

judgment
realism

spiteof

dislike of the
as

shown

in certain

quarters
which

modified

Herbartian the various

Volkmann
of

employs

well

to

conceptions

psychic synthesis,

apperceptive function,etc., which

to his

Wundt

adopts, in

dination subor-

general metaphysical standpoint.

all writers of who aim
at any

The

practiceof
those

ness great thorough"

in the treatment of course, which

psychologicalproblems
present themselves
in forms the of mental

especially,
effort
to

the

explain the
"

so-called

"higher"
For this well

functioning
it will

differs
matter
our

largely,in respect of
of

metaphysics involved,as
other
reasons

degrees.

and
to

serve

general
Volkmann

purpose and

examine
on

very
use

brieflythe cal philosophicultivation the task the of

opinions of
of scientific

of Wundt

the

of the

standpoints and comparing

considered their in the
to

philosophical tenets
We leave
to the

in

psychology.
actual last

reader of

practice with chapter.

the

that

writers

According
of But reduction

Volkmann,
is the

primary
of

and

obvious

lem prob"the
are

psychology
of the in

explanation
is further of
our

psychical phenomena.
to
mean

"explanation" time,
Ph. Dr.

declared inner

phenomena
to

world, which
which
und Volkmar nach

given merely
1

those

aotual
des

events
Realisnms Putter
von

lie at
gene-

Lehrbuch

der

Psychologievom
von

Standpunkte

tischen

Methode,
1884. A

Wilhelm

Volkmann,

(3d ed.,
Professor

Cbthen,
2

an

just issued). Grundziigeder PhysiologischenPsychologie, Wilhelm von der Universtat zu Leipzig(4th ed.,Leipzig,1893).

fourth

edition

Wundt,

46

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

their

foundations

(das
follow

ihnen

zu

G-runde

liegende wirklich according to So, then,

and the tence exis1

Gesehehene), and
which the former

the establishment from the

of the laws latter. " of the

question whether
of the soul
to the

the determination

nature

belongs,
of

as

an

integraland
upon

legitimatepart,
whether
or

problem

psychology depends
any

not

the any

explanation of
way upon
our

of the

phenomena
the existence And while

is conditioned and this

we

in

insightinto phenomena. being,

that left

nature

of the

subjectof
admit that

all the time its

question may
must at
a

be, for the

unanswered,
in

least

investigationoccupies occupied by
how the

psychology

tion posi-

to parallel

metaphysics

of matter

in

physical science.
Now,
it is not of easy the this
to
see a

psychologist who
instance,
;
can we

takes tently consishave

the

position
the of

"scientist,"for position of
in the the

objectto
seen,

Volkmann interests

for, as
of the
a

former

assumes,

tion explanaand of
a

psychic phenomena,
of
as

existence actual

of

brain

real world

objectswith
are

manifold

occurrences a

in there-

(so far
or

they

in the

brain, though mostly of

as we

highly
seen,

purely conjectural sort). Only,

"scientist" often abandons
as

have

also

the of

early the peculiar standpoint

Volkmann does

psychological science,
near, in
a

not;
if he of

and does

thus
not

draws

perilously friendly way,

over

actually

go

wholly
For

to

the
on are

metaphysics
the laid in
"

monistic mental funda-

materialism.

Volkmann,

contrary, the
actual

principlesof psychology
events."2 And
so

psychic
physical meta-

close of

is the
a

connection

which the

the

hypothesis
the of scientific and

real sustains that

soul,
to

as

subject of

all

psychic phenomena,

the old
must

possible interests
division be between abandoned.

explanation,
has
been

the

rational Much
must
1

empirical psychology
held
to to

of what then
Lehrbuch

belong

to rational

psychology
to

be
der

assigned

metaphysics
i. pp. 2 f.
2

rather Ibid., pp.

than
3 f.

psy-

vol. Psychologie,

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

47

chology
the
can

at

all; and
of

what

should consists in

be

retained

as so

part of
much
as

science be

psychology

only

of

successfully employed
true

the

explanation
Volkmann method
a

of actual

phenomena.
The method
"

of

psychology,
"

goes
traces

on

to
plains ex-

declare, is the
the

genetic;

and mental

this

and

development of
think of

life by

combination

of
For of of
asi

empirical and
who this actual would life
can

or metaphysical principles. speculative

claiming by making

that

the

general
upon such
a

laws basis

be

established

induction
use

facts, without

any

of

concepts
which

substance, change, force,self-consciousness, causality, time,

etc.?

Indeed, it is just such

the interests
barren

concepts

as

these

have than
"

realityin
those
"

of

explanatory science, rather

concepts of "powers
old-fashioned the

wholly
"

and which

abstract

and
so

faculties

with

psychology

freely dealt.
Volkmann thus arrives
at

the

following definition
which
sets

of psychology.1

It is "that

science the the

before of

itself the

problem

of

explaining
means

general
forms

classes of

psychical phenomena,
representation

by
as

of

mental of the

empiricallygiven,
of mental

and

by

means

ception speculativecon-

representationaccording representation." discipleof metaphysics

to

to

the

laws the

of

the life of such of this and

consummate

It

is,of

course,

effort

the

Herbartian all mental

psychology ena phenomthe states; which both

Herbartian
as

explrin
the

due
"

to

one

mode

of the

soul's reaction
as

(Vbrstellen).

The

"soul

is,indeed, assumed

subjectof
reaction

but it is this

peculiarmode
Volkmann's

of the soul's
treatment

givesunity to
and

of

science, psychological
the

also furnishes

the occasion dissent from

never on

for

on perpetualobjections

part of those who

his theoretical be

point of
its its

view.

Psychology, he holds, can philosophicalcharacter

1

deprived of hand,

necessarily

the other

metaphysics

Lehrbuch

der

vol. Psychologic,

i. p. 34.

48

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

is

not

to
"

be

constructed
"

priori,but
is
.

in
us a

the

interests

of

making
the

thinkable

what

given

to

posteriori. Yet
different
tion assumpwith
can

standpointsof psychology and metaphysics are

answers

metaphysics
of the V
a

the

same

problems
which

with

the

speculativeprocess
of
a

psychology answers
process.
cannot ; for

demonstration be of

historical

But

how

they

kept wholly apart ? metaphysics, and

are even

They

all the

lems probphysics, meta-

all the

conceptionsof
the

psychical products; indeed,

but
a

totality of

metaphysical thinking is nothing

Even under relation does render
not

psychologicalprocess.
itself is

the the

conception
of the any

of

metaphysics
of of

possible only
Yet this

assumption

psychological
the

science.
on

dependence
means

metaphysics
former
our

psychology
to

by

deprive
the

of all power

assistance of the
as

to

latter; for

knowledge
of the of

of

the

correctness,
or

and objective validity,

as no

aesthetical

ethical

well is

value epistemological
means

metaphysical
upon
our

conceptions
to ability

by

wholly dependent
historical process be added

demonstrate

the

of their
"

origin
the

and

development.
does
not

Moreover, it could
insist upon and

although
"

Volkmann

this, as he might
demonstrates himself
are

that
a

psychologist who
process

studies
cannot

such the

logical psycho-

strip being.

of

metaphysical
parts of his

assumptions
own

and

conceptions which
mental

essential

developed
Volkmann be done
a

then

proceeds

to

point
and

out

""

and

this

may

always
to

to the

confusion

contempt of all attempts

without any
physics meta-

institute
"

cerebral the

psychology wholly

that

physiologicalhypothesis is
further follow
nature

itself

rably insepa-

connected necessary of views

to
our

with

metaphysical conceptions.2
to

It is not

purpose the and

his of

discussion the from

"

concerning
is

being

and

soul. the

Materialism critic's
own

neatly

consistentlycriticised
view
2

philosophicalpoint of
Compare
pp. 49 f.

so

also

Spiritual-

Compare

pp. 81 f.

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

49

ism," meaning by
from
same

this

the

explanation of Ihe body solely

of reality the soul. The which
ences, influ-

the task

standpointof
is then

the assumed

performed
any

for that form

of Dualism

denies

the
or

of possibility causal

mutually determining
the
on

relations,between
of the section

body

and the

the

soul ;

while
own

at

the

close

Monism

author's tions ques-

philosophicalstandpoint on
of

these is

fundamental

speculativepsychology "psychology
real of
a

announced. definitively This

assumes

It is that of the existence

of Realism."

the

spiritas
of the

and

unitary being; analyzes the

then shows how its the the soul takes while

body
the

into

system of unitary beings ; and

as spirit

development
of the

place through
it establishes the basis of

changing unity
The
to

relations soul's

with law

the of

body,
two

activityupon
which

difference

in the

nature

of the

beings.
Professor is Wundt allows
than

amount

of discussion

disputed metaphysical questions

allowed

less relatively
use

that

by Volkmann;
and This

while

his of

of

the

adopted
nature

philosophicalstandpoint
is
two not
so

theory
the

the

soul's between former

obvious. is

marked
to

difference fact that the

the
fessedly pro-

authors

partly due
all

treats

psychical phenomena

solely
But

from also

the
to

physiologicaland
a

experimental points of view, and

interests.

difference is known

in

and training,outfit,
as a

Wundt,
himself

who

leading authority in physiologicaland

committed definitely
to

experimental psychology, has

to

the

opinion

that

it is

impossible
and

effect

complete
The tion rela-

separation between
between

psychology
two at
a

philosophy.
close and

the

is,1he affirms, so

peculiar
in
an

that

the

attempt
scheme appear

partitionof sovereigntyresults
of

abstract

which, in the presence

must actuality,

always

unsatisfactory.
among

Prominent Professor
1

those

conceptions which, according

every

to

Wundt,
System

pre-existfor
der

attempt

at
f.

scientific

1889), pp. 5, 21 Philosophic(Leipzig,

4

50

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

is that psychology (psychologische Vorbegriffe) This

of the

"

soul.

"

conception,in psychology.
for

some

form,
we

must

be

adopted by
any of its
we

all scientific

When
us

approach
to

problems,

"soul

means

the

subject

which of

as attribute,

predicates,all
itself in in the

the

particularfacts
for the
"

inner

observation."1 it
presses ex-

Undoubtedly, too, logical sense,

or

natural the

consciousness,as merely
a

language,
but
a

soul is not real

subject
whose of the

a substance,

being, as
activities this

manifestations soul
are

transactions
"

the so-called the

apprehended.

To

adoption of psychology
on

cal metaphysipossibly be
upon
as

presupposition a
led at the conclusion task the author

scientific

may

of its task ; but

entering

that the

proposes inner
use

simply

to

regard the soul

This of
seems

logicalsubjectof
to

experience.
the of

equivalent
physics meta-

the

proposal to
enable

language

common-sense

until the science

psychology has
an

been

pursued

far

enough
critical and

to

us

to

establish,on
estimate

empirical basis,a
the real

interpretationand
of that

of

meaning

value

language.
does it become which
use

Repeatedly, however,
course

evident, during the

fill his of the
in two

of the that

scientific Wundt
we

discussions is

large

'volumes,

making
observed
2

speculative
the interests

hypothesis which
of At
a

just attributed
of there is

to

him,

fuller

explanation

psychical phenomena.
a

the close of the treatise

brief discussion
nature
"

of the of the
ing mean-

leading metaphysical hypotheses regarding the

soul. and Materialism, Spiritualism, Animism

the

given
Yolkmann The the

to
"

the
are own

second examined view

of the and

three

differingfrom
as

that

of

dismissed introduced

unsatisfactory.
a

author's

is then

by

statement

of

principle that "only epistemological

for
us

inner

experience
must

possesses

immediate
an

reality."

Idealism

fore therecontest-

always gain
1 2

indisputablevictoryover

every

(4th ed. ),vol. Psychologie Grundzlige d. Physiologischen

vol. Ibid., ii. pp. 626 ff.

i. pp

10 f.

52

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

are

at

once

informed:

"This

way

of

apprehending

the

problem beyond

of

reciprocal relation
the that

leads, however,
that

unavoidably
is the

itself to

assumption

spiritualbeing
essential

actualityof things, and development.

How far
we
"

its most

property is

find the

ourselves

in

agreement
or

with

either

the

standpoints,or
mann
or

assumptions,
the

the

conclusions
treatment

of Volkof all the

of

Wundt,

subsequent
we

problems
The in
we

involved of these
to

will,
authors

trust, make
been

perfectly clear.
at this
"

views order

have

introduced

point
and,
as

put their

theory and highly

as

practicein
favorable of the
to

contrast

believe, in
the

contrast

them, both
science in
"

speculativethinkers
with first And

and and

students of

empirical
writers

practice

theory
the

cited

the

chapter.
now,

leaving
of the what

for

present all polemical

of

and
anew

cal critithe stand of

discussion \iquestion: In
j

views

others,let
scientific

us

raise

relation mind This

does

psychology
three

to the mental

philosophy of phenomena)? questions,

"

(the science
What is

to the

metaphysics
What the

question involves

subordiis
two

nate

namely,
What of the

Psychology?
between

""

Philosophy? and,
which "If grows
out

is that very

relation

nature
as

of both? the
to

psychology is approached
of

purely as possible from

is, of
course,

empirical point
isolate,with
class of facts.
we

view,
to
use

the their the

effort

made

reference

scientific
more

pursuit, a

certain

Or,

to to

statelyand
and
to

impressive
it In

term,
is

endeavor

tell

precisely what
in the
not
"

phenomena investigate.
of

to designed scientifically
case

establish

the any

of

beginning psychology, as
so-called

case

beginning
immediate
"

other

science, we
the very

need word

give

pause

to consider

that the and

phenomena
which this the

is

ingless mean-

without

assumption"of
of other
can

actual

beings of

which

the

phenomena
appear.

are,

beings to
we

phenomena

Nor,

of course,

think

phrase through

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

53

without of

recognizing the complicated metaphysical postulate

in real relation
to

things standing
that know

other
so

things, and
obvious
an

to

minds

them. it

But

passing by
us

ontosecret

logicalskeleton,as
chamber the kind of of
most

grins upon
is

the

instant

the

empirical science

opened, and
next
our

studiouslykeeping inquire:
terms
"

unblushing naivete*,we then, does

this
one can

What
to
,

phenomena,
And

science
use

propose

consider?

here, in answer,
itself definition

must

which

only psychological science they

is admit of any

define,
Let

if, indeed, reply be,

such
"

whatever. of
or

the

then, that
"

it is the

phenomena psychic,
if further
"

consciousness,as
"

; it

psychic facts, as
of all examine.
"

if you

please

choses "psyto

kinds, which
And is
a
"

psychological science inquiry

"

proposes what are,

to

be

made

as

that
"

consciousness
"

of

whiGh

all the

phenomena
What
are

or no

to

which,
answer

as

to
can

general class,they belong, perhaps given

or

better

be
or

than

to

say:
you

you

are

whenever
use

you

think

feel

will, when
or

in in

awake widemost

of all your submission Yet the

powers,

when

you

dream
"

extreme

to the
even

capricesof fancy,
our

that

it is to sion expres-

be conscious.
as

thus, in
of

most

cautious

to

essentials
as

phenomena
we seem

of
to

consciousness,of
have of
as come

psychic facts, merely

near

such,

ously peril-

the For

scarcely submerged
to
seems

rocks

metaphysical
"what you be
{

hypothesis.
are

describe

consciousness
too
us

when,"
as

etc.,
its

likely, if
to

curious in the

inquiry
consideration

made of
some

to

import,
most

involve of

of the
"

abstruse the endeavor

as a

philosophicalproblems.
at

However
on
"

since be

knowledge

must
:

move

this
as

may
a

accepted

preliminary
science this way

definition

chology Psyof that

psychology as tive descrippurely empirical pursuit,

"the In of the

and

explanatory, is
such."

phenomena
seem

consciousness,as
the without either

it would
at least

branch descriptive

of the science
or

might

be

begun

interference

assistance

from

metaphysics.

54

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

Possible

assistance

from

metaphysics
of wish the the
to

in the form

of

tive speculafairly But,

appears
to actual
sity neces-

hypotheses explanatory
expect
alas S
to encounter
or even

facts, one
invoke

might
later
on.

even

the

of description such

phenomena
to and

of mind

quite impossible, if
of For other

descriptionis
the

correspond
almost and the

psychic facts,without actually

"

danger

introducing metaphysical
that
"

convictions

hypotheses.
and of

is, in the real life of ourselves

facts
are or

persons
"

the

not

at

all

described faithfully
or

by saying,
are,
or

Sensations

are,

perceptions are,
rather
or

feelings tion descripor

desires
us or

are," etc.
to say
"

The I
or

does

faithful

compel
or

(or you,
1

he) perceive;
etc.

J feel ;

/desire;
in the

plan;

think,"

For

such, when
the actual

stated

most

meagre

possible fashion, are

So the that total the

facts of
or

ordinary experience. "fringe," of

the
"

portion,or phase,
fact which is
tence descriptivesen-

"aspect," or (by the

"

psychic
the
"

expressed or place which

distinctive about the it

signifiedby I,
"

subject of
the

or

the
as

that- which

thinks),and
to

by the

it sustains

subjectto
the

perception,feeling,
it, is
as as

desiring, planning, or

thinking
be.

attributed fact

much

of, and possiblycan

it

integral to,
character
no

itself all this

anything
left out is of

Indeed, with
of the

the description,

psychic fact
a

totally

changed;
At take known
about
some

is, in truth,

longer

faithfullydescribed

fact. "psychic this

sort

point,then, the psychologistis compelled

of attitude toward those which

to

implications of
are

all

phenomena
from

of consciousness
nor

neither

remote

inferences

the facts

metaphysical hypotheses
to

duced introare

solely in the

attempt

explain
facts

the

facts,but
At

important belongings of
same

the very

themselves.

this

point,then,

the

psychologist must
has the
to

adopt

one

of those

two

metaphysical standpointswhich, as positions for only justifiable

science. He may say

justbeen
not

said, are
this his

the

investigator of
to

empirical

himself, if

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

55

readers:

Yes,

for

the

time
as

being
is of

I will

hold

by such
in

mon-sense com-

metaphysics
and
assume,

plainly involved
the

ful all faithI will of

a or

complete description
as men

psychic
there is
"

facts.

generally do,
what the it is may

that

some

sort

real

being corresponding to
that under

this

so-called

1,

"

this Mind

Soul ; and it behaves and in the

be known

by ascertaininghow

greatest possiblevariety of conditions,

To end render of all such

greatest variety of relations.

"

knowledge scientific,
of the process of

this

is the

very

logical psychoto

investigation.But
to modify reject,

the

right is reserved, as
criticise
"

the result

to investigation,

to

adopt
very To

or same

and which

to

restrict the
to

or

expand
the

"

this

assumption
this mind last

with

investigationbegins.
show
same

make
to

assumption
as

is but the

courtesy

the the

that which
as

psychologistswho
of
a

appeared
science" brain and and

in

chapter

advocates

"natural
to the

of mind
to other

without material this form is

metaphysics actuallyshow
things.
of How much
becomes
more

reasonable
at
once

scientific it

courtesy is
that
to as,

apparent, when
the

considered

the

very and

facts

which
are

psychologist only
etc.

undertakes
terms to

describe

explain

statable

in

such

"/perceive," "/think," "/feel,"

are,

And

say
or

simply, Perceptions
to

thoughts
that
"

are,

feelings are,

etc. ;

say,

Thoughts think, perceptions perceive, and

; or

feelingsfeel,etc.
knows describe them. the the other

to affirm

"the is
not

present knowledge
at

knowledges,"
It is to do

all
to

fairly to
travesty

facts.

little better

than

Yet, again, the psychologistmay

an

at this

same

point, with

equal proprietyand
his
own

an more

almost

if not

quite equal safety,

tions. assumphe

bring forward
He understands may
to

special metaphysical
is the
a

state be

what

real basis

import,
of the

which

on justifiable are

fact, of those
faithful To and

popular conceptions that complete descriptionof

implicated in

all

developed psychoses.

employ

56

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

speculativehypotheses
to

in

manner

to distort be
no

or

dishonestly
and

hypothecate
Here

the

facts

would than in
in

less of the

unscientific other

injurious in psychology
sciences.
statement

any

empirical
the
be amount

also, as
that in
to

all scientific
be

investigation, the

of facts

can

verified of the

as

facts,and
and

use

of

hypotheses

explanation
each be the

facts, must
kind

kept
of the

distinct; and
confidence
must

suitable

assigned. Practically, however,

skill in
to

psychologist'sabilityand
upon the he

doing
which

this do not he

depend
upon believes and very
even

particular
is
a

school the

belongs;
and

/whether
has

discipleof
or

old in
as

psychology
adherent

jin metaphysics,
newest

is "well

up"
without

laboratory methods
an

publiclyannounced
much the

himself

of the and

psychology, wholly
so as

metaphysics,
of
a

without
are

assumption
all the modern

soul.

Those know

who best

most

familiar the

with

researches the

how

much

theories

of the into the he is

man

behind

reacting-key
of his

incorporatethemselves
results. And in
a

very

structure to not

mental experilogical psychohuman

totallyunfit
way who does about the

handle

problems
much mind that has is true
been

broad wise

recognize how
of the

and

nature

told who

by poets, play-writers,novelists, and

never

metaphysicians,
existence Here meagre, of the

so

much

as

dreamed

of

the

psychological laboratories.
occasion
may

be seized the

to

remark

how

pitifully
tent con-

compared
human

with

rich, full,and
or

mysterious
of

of actual

lives,is that list

has

series
can

so-called

psychic

facts which

been,

or

which

be, subjectedto
and

experimental analysis. Psycho-physics psychology have, indeed, problems fully before

But
many

physiological important
in
or

interesting and
not be to

them, if

already firmly
much extended

hand.
even

supposing
of

these

problems
"

solved, satisfactorily

after

all,the

larger universal
undiminished involve

lems probin less

psychology
and in

remain

comparatively
These

magnitude

mystery.

nothing

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

57
and And revived

than

the

descriptionand
being which
"

explanation of
is called the

the total nature Human Mind. and

life of that what

a

tangle,
of in

involving not simply

as

sensations

images
but

sensations, determinable

respects quality,and
or

measurable also

quantity,
forms

in

time-rate

duration

in

time,

innumerable

subtle of tact

faiths, fears, anticipations,

or

instincts, and
blind renewals and

of

talent
or

so-called, superstitions,

impulses, freaky changes

re-establishments of

heaven-granted
and tary semi-volunand
or

good-will,varied

describab in-

and quasi-intellectual, affectional,

elements,
unconscious
to

to

say

nothing

of subconscious difficult is the

an

perhaps
life of

mental
"

activities
a

of kinds

impossible

describe,

what

tangle, indeed,
Nor of need whom

actual

this

so-called
or a

Mind!

it be
one

Aristotle, a speaking.
or

Leibnitz,
describe

Goethe,
the

is

To of

and

explain
child
or

actual

mental

life of Hans the

Bridget,
door,
much But the
or

of the the

at one's

feet, or
in

beggar

at

one's is

idiotic
a

insane

the

neighboring
ambitious

asylum,

too

great
the
"

task

for the most

"

psychologist.
the child and flow and

since idiot

psychologisthimself
is
no

yes,

even

less

certainly metaphysical
very
or

sophical philoof his

to

in mental
see

respect of the
was

structure

and

life than he also the is to

Aristotle the
on

Leibnitz, it is difficult
a

how

act

part of
at

scientific
some

psychologists
ceedings pro-

without

taking
role of

himself

stage in the

metaphysician.
the side of in

Suppose, however, fitting

"

that

metaphysics
the
mere

be

"

as

is

very

lightly emphasized
It is still upon

descriptions
avoid
more

of scientific

psychology.
the

scarcelypossibleto
side when of the the in
on

increasing important
of

emphasis
more

this

and is

truly
this For

scientific

function
course,

chologist psy-

attempted;
facts. in what and

consists, of

nation explawhat

the

to

explain
the

is to

show
as

conditions, and
what

regular
relations

sequences,
on

and

ing implicatbeings,

activities

part of other

58
the

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

psychic
desire,

facts

actually occur. explain

is to

Or,
show rather

to say

the

same

thing feel,
other.

in other
or

words,
or

to

why
than

think, or
in
some

will, in this way

some

It

to propound is,ultimately,

acceptabletheory respecting
of this
"

the the

nature

and of

development
that

"

to

which

all
are

activities

thinking, feeling, desiring,and willing

the

assigned. Suppose, then, phenomena triumphs

therefore the
to

investigatorof
the
recent

mental notable He of

is

greatly captivated by
to devote

of

psychology. psycho-physicsand physiological

himself in such
to

determines

the elucidation ways

phenomena promise
means, most

of consciousness of in

only

as

seem

tangible and thought,

of takes

verifiable definitely that the with

are

results.

This known

his

psychic facts, the

which
to

phenomena

consciousness

alone

all

psychological science
the

its start, character

be

explained stimuli,
of the and

the solelyby investigating

of the

external

histologicalstructure
more

and

physiologicalfunctions
the cerebral
or

end-organs, or
tracts, which
several

of particularly

centres
causes

afford

conditions, occasions,
of facts. the

of the

particularclasses
cannot

But, surely,explanation
observation
to be

of this sort
at

dispense with
nature

and

cation, certifiand
as

first very of

hand, of the very facts

of consciousness."
can

explained ;
defines

these

the

psychological science give us

immediate

"phenomena
But

only
of

self-consciousness
"

edge knowltion, observa-

psychological facts,
the distinct of

knowledge by
as

direct such.

that

is, of the facts of consciousness,

Here, virtually

again,

emerges

danger, and,
some

we

believe, the
of
"

inevitable
1

necessity
with all the with

assuming
facts.

kind
"

metaphysical hypothesis regarding mingles psychic

the

this But

Self

which

so

even

if the

gation investithe

proceed
as
mere

determination

to

regard
to
no

nomena phe-

phenomena
said of the

(of no

mind, and

mind),
of
some

what

shall

be

necessityfor metaphysics

sort when

and physical the complicated physiological detailing

60

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

sist

of

few

imperfect
and

and

wofully
to

meagre

perceptions, pieced
facts

always post factum

out

almost

always post mortem,

other future
never

by
the

crude

conjectures as
admit

possible perceptions.
verification have
as

And

conjectures
could

of
we

only if
never

we

perceive what
to

perceived,and
that science

can

hope

perceive.
the

More of

concerning
can

absurdity of
be built of
up

the

claim

psychology
between shall

ever

by establishing correlations phenomena,

any
one

two

classes of

known

of

which

consist

without brain-states, later

on.

metaphysics
to return

whatever,
to

will be said

It is when

enough here

the

indubitable

truth

that,
or

speaking
as

of

cerebral

conditions,or
of of

antecedents,
means

concomitants,
mere

explanatory
No that cate advohe is

psychic facts,nobody
to

phenomena.
science
"

physiologicalpsychology reallysupposes
"

contributing anything
without The

natural and

of

psychology
much of

making
to
can

use

of naive

uninstructed without

metaphysics.
this

claim

cultivate

psychology
met

metaphysics sj
than every the student in inferences.

scarcelybe
of

with fitly
or

anything

better What

charge
of

inconsistency
his science inferences

insincerity.
at every

physiological psychology actually accomplishes depends

are

advancing
These

step

upon

permeated

through
lead

and

through
the faith.
out

with of

metaphysical hypotheses, and

a

they
walk

toward

hope

knowledge
real

that

must

ever

largely by nomena, phe-

They

concern

beings
be

in which

changes, wholly
as
mere

of power
are

to

put themselves
to

in

evidence

assumed the

taking place.
cerebral

To

assume

possibilityof

psychology

as

u" natural
an

science," wholly without

The

metaphysics, is
no means

therefore

absurdity.
of the

but by insufficiency,
to

the absurdity,
and

claim

cultivate without
can

psycho-physics
be

mental experior

psychology however,
there

metaphysical standpoints
made

metaphysical assumptions exist,on

equally clear.
to

Here,
series of

both

sides,so

speak, a

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

61

phenomena
can

which
as

can

be

known For

as

phenomena,
:

and

which

be

compared

such.

example

In

discovering and

testing the laws

of illusions

of

color-mixture, of stereoscopic vision,or

of visual
can

perception,a

series of so-called in
some

physical
are

phenomena
observed

be

arranged which,
immediate

sort,

the
comitants, consame

and of
a

well-known

antecedents, or psychicfacts.
in the The

series of connected

thing is
of

true

of

investigationsundertaken
or

interests in

Weber's

law;

of

any

other

disputed principle physiologicalor

be
"

psycho-physics,in
On the

the

narrower

meaning
of
a

of this latter term. cerebral

we

contrary,

no

discussion

basis
are

for the

empirical principlemust
to
we as

admitted, unless slip

to
over serve

prepared

let

"

our

phenomena

into
as

the their
are

region where "bearers,"

inferred Nor
as can
or

need real

assumed

entities in

the

"substances" take

which

they

conjectured to
such
a

place.
of

continuous

series in the

physical phenomena
most

would M. of

serve

to

establish,even
has called

the

limited

way,

what

Flournoy

"psycho-physical principle dependence

at
as

parallelism," be gained
common-sense

without
as

upon

the

ordinary
has
in

realism

least every

a one

tenable,
knows

working metaphysical hypothesis. For,

who
any

practicalacquaintance
such
"

with

what

really takes
series is in any the such

place
never

conducting
as

researches, the
"

physical
known
"

given
as

continuous
can

it is
"

never

shape

that

it

be of

placed
it

parallel
consists

to

psychical
As
a

series, in the
series even, inferred and
or

form

actually observed always brought

order
a

phenomena.
very

that

is to say,

largelyof
ence exist-

conjectured changes
activities
must

in real

beings, whose

be

into be

consciousness, and

kept

in

consciousness, in
in psychic series, way.

to

compared
rather disturb

with than

the in

parallel
a

metaphysical
Nor does this

merely phenomenal
he is not

the practised

investigator,experimentally, of psychic phenomena.

For

thinking

at

all about

the

of possibility

estab-

62

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

lishingpsycho-physics as
rather

theoretical

phenomenism;
but

he

is

taking
Nor

the

ordinary common-sense
an

metaphysics

into

his scientific way. in of

researches, in
does he
"

uncritical
to cry out

wholly justifiable
to

begin
of

againstmetaphysics play the part

to critically

general,as
a

the

"spoiler

psychology,or
at

"Janus" of

showing

his teeth

speculativehypotheses, empirically determined

instead

endeavoring himself
own

consciouslyand
to

adjust his
facts. The and

metaphysics

the

of employing necessity

some

metaphysical standpoints
the

metaphysical assumptions
as

in

pursuit

of

scientific when the

psychology

explanatory
narrow

becomes of

still clearer

comparatively
to

fields

physiologicaland
a

physical psychois made

are investigation

left

behind, and
more

return

the consideration of

of the

larger and

comprehensive
we

domain the

generalpsychology.
of

In this domain

encounter

problems

knowledge,
and human

of self -consciousness, of
even

thought,
what
"

of ethical

sentiments of

ideas, and
belief in

of the

origin and

development
are

"reality." Indeed,

these
are

so-called so-called

metaphysical hypotheses themselves,

and systems of speculative

what and

Materialism,Idealism,Monism, Dualism,
elaborate the weird
"

all the most

tive reflecremote

thinking,all
from
at the

ideas, most

abstract

and

empirical data,
hands of undertaken

but

psychoses demanding
This
treatment

treatment

psychology? from,
we

must, indeed,

be

and

confined and
to

to, the

psychological
over

standpoint, unless
from the field domain of

frankly

intelligently pass
the But
same more

psychology
of

wide

and

all-

embracing
of

philosophy.
the which
must

in the very

tion explanawhich

of metaphysics itself, well

as

metaphysics
its say.

helps,as
of considered

of that

spoilsthe empirical science

have

psychology,this
as

science

Metaphysics,
a

phenomenon
to

of

consciousness, is
are

cal psychologiof then and

problem. explained.

Metaphysical hypotheses
be

successions

psychoses demanding

described faithfully

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

63

Now, for the explanation of many

if
we

psychic facts onflowing

faithful
some

and
stream

dencies, ten-

may

so

speak, in the
one

of

consciousness, even

when

remains

to the distinctively

psychological point
can

of

view,
as

ontological theory
or

by

no

means

be

regarded
all but

useless

insignificant.
be
not

These

facts, too,
as

like
occur,

psychic facts, must

also

only

described all that

they

explained, if possible, in belongs

is the entire
to

fulness

of

realitywhich Here, too, it

of the But

the

experience life,which
to
a

of the human the trend in

to

race.

total mental

psychosis,or deny
net-'

development
be

demands that work of any what of

explained.
mean

who
"

would
"

venture

men

by saying

I know

involves

ontologicalhypotheses?
of so-called

The

psychologicalanalysis
of those

state

knowledge,

of any "I

psychoses
shows that

properly described
all

by the affirmation

know,"
the

believed knowledge implicatesreality, envisaged,inferred,

"

in,

we

do

not

now

stop

to

inquire
true

as

to

manner

of

implication. Especially
act

is this

and the

obvious

of every is

of

so-called

seZ/'-knowledge ; everybody
the the

for

psychologist

simply ignoring what

he understands

means

by the word, unless

the selfdatum who he for
a

realityof
to take

self-knowing and
as an

known,
of

the

one

Self, to be involved
And of
"

immediate
"

experience.
thinks
at
a

another takes it

example giving
and

moment

describing what
at

place when
way

tugs
his the of
a a

hard

stone, and

last

feels

before

efforts,or
mountain's

climbs, however side,

which
as a

slowly

wearisomely,
two

correlation
no

between

series of in

phenomena
real world One of

needs

metaphysical hypothesis
and
to

being "working
real

effects" related

producing changes
What better
or

beings
even

itself ?

might

be the

disposed to ask, psychic

its
own

tory explanabelief in What that is the

hypothesis for realitycan

better the I which
be

fact of conviction

given

than

ontologicalverity?
or

explanation

of the

knowledge
wills

belief

of

men

and thinks, feels,

reallyexists,and

64

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

real

subjectof hypothesis

these

changing psychoses,than
is so? What
causes,

the

cal metaphysi-

that this that

"

better and

explanation of
active

men's and this

"

convictions work

they
the

are

agents,
that of
or

effects,
To be

than

metaphysical hypothesis
courage its
as

is so?

sure,
even

one's after

to

the

future

cerebral Lavoisier heart

as

psychology,
has
one

expected Copernicus
one's

arisen,together with
looks in this
over

great faintness
of well But
ever our

of

the of

assured

results

present
one

attainments wary of

line

science, may
in

make
as

metaphysical hypotheses
facts without
we

general.
are

to how

psychic

called
some

facts kind

of of

knowledge
an

to

be

plained exviction, con-

ontologicaltheory or
form
even

find it

impossible to
far from
to

the most

shadowy
true

conception.
In

general,
has
we

so

holding
do in the with this

it the

to

be

that of

metaphysics psychology, employed,

'

nothing
think of

explanations
when of

that

science, pre-eminently, rightly

the
most

speculative hypotheses
throw and
a

right order,
upon
many

flood
most

of

light

important
the with and

yet

obscure

of the facts. it may upon

For, after all,

strive the its
to start
to to

final aim

of psychology, however
close
nature

keep

to and

ever

return

facts,is
relations
we

^understandthe
other Soul timid

and

development, in
kind is what

beings, of
or

that And

unique
this
are

of being which

call the few

scorn over-

Mind.

all, except
afraid

psychologistswho
science and

morbidly
Even pages

of the

of in

physical

rabidly antagonisticto metaphysics

these upon of the forms

psychology, really scarcely write suggested by

or a

believe.

psychologists can
any

half-dozen

problems
of choses, psy-

the

higher
the

and

more

complex
that

discuss

nature

of

psychology

and

its relation the

to
same

metaphysics, without thing.

This whole and

showing
be

they reallybelieve

subject will
more

made

in clearer, especially
a

its of

broader

significant aspects, by

brief discussion

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

65

the nature
to

of

philosophyand
the of mental
to

of the relation in which

it stands of
to

psychology as phenomena

and descriptive life.1

state

explanatory science
an

the

It is not

easy the

matter

define sciences sciences define

out

philosophy,or
;

its relation these

one

to

particular
when the

especially, perhaps, in attempted,on

the

later
so

days

have

hand,
other

to successfully

themselves, and
every

yet, on

the

hand, have
all

reached

in indefinitely

direction and

taken

forms possible and its

of

experience under
Indeed,
way, uncritical

the
so or

protectionof long
as one

their

method consults

exactions. in
an

merely

history
the

merely

cites and

compares

great

authorities

in science
to what
use

and

one philosophy,

gets only a confused

to

conceptionas By
a

the latter historical

aims discipline criticism and

accomplish.
the
a

mixed and

of

analysisof
ultimate

content

aims

of the

sciences, particular togetherwith

of judicious recognition of human obtained. assistance The At in

reason,

the
a

deeper needs
learn

and

tions aspiramay of be real

result fairlysatisfactory may

any
our

rate, we

enough
shows

to

be

present pursuit.
rational
more

history of
been

progress
or

that

men

have

always

disposed to
certain
nature
"

less

of

reflective of the

inquiry being
of

concerning things,of
be
meant

problems
of if

of

knowledge,

the

themselves, and of the ideals of

duct. con-

Philosophy
"

by it the fruits of such reflective inquiry

and
more

is

an

older

permanent
were

interest

than

science.

Vague

and

as unsatisfactory

its

conceptionand
yet

pursuitamong
of what vague
we now

the ancient understand

Greeks, the conceptionand pursuit by

"

the sciences

"

were

more

and in

unsatisfactory.The philosophy, and

are science, more

present alleged lack

of interest of have full

the

relatively great
real.
are

amount

interest

in

specious than

As

we

the particular sciences already indicated, of

1

themselves

the
On

most
this

interestingand
in
see detail,

absorbing speculativetenets.
the author's
"

subjectmore

Introduction

to

phy," Philoso-

L-iv. chapters
5

66

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND absorbed up in the

Under
no

the

guise of exorcists
its of

of

philosophy they have

have thus
set

little of

and surplus capital,

business

while philosophy,
to

displaying the only," over

to

sign, "This
doors.

temple
Two

is dedicated
or

science

their

three

things relative
ventures

the

restless
reason

longings
are,

and

new perpetually

of

human

however,
such
"

clear. tolerably

Men

long for and

seek perpetually call

"

an
as

acquaintance with
shall

what

they

are

pleased to
of

reality

withstand

all the

assaults

critical and
devotion for

vestigat scepticalinto truth with

Science
one

cannot

professits
scorn

breath, although uttering its

next

metaphysics with
same

the

breath, without
human mind.

manifesting this
Even the word

longing
has

and
no

quest

of the

"truth" the
naive

meaning
of of
common
me

whatever

except with
and
are

reference this

to

impliedconception
utterances

reality ; speech

upon
as

point the
For

suggestiveas anything can

the of the mind, is

well be

"Tell
"

truly,is
an

it

really so?"

conception of
and
"

truth,"as

ascertainment

held universally
tal extra-men"

to

implicatethe correlated extra-mental being

transactions
to

which In

men

think

the word

real

is most

applied. appropriately
of certain
or

spiteof

the reiterated all

protestations
they ask for
sequences which this
most

devotees
to

of is the

physicalscience, that
uniform

claim

find

collocations formulas

and

of

phenomena,
express

and these

the

mathematical
and of

nearly
for and

collocations
of of
no a

sequences,

desire be
moved re-

assumption
from the render science

knowledge

cannot reality itself. To word science

body

science physical

remove

it

would
_

longer what
; it would

the very convert dream. the aims

signifies,
into the

system of knowledges

individual dreamer's

half-consistent

Only
know

slightacquaintance with
of the sciences particular entire structure
as

and

the

plishments accom-

is necessary, and

however,

to

that with

their

is underlaid

trated interpeneno

assumptions which,
little

sciences, they take

Even the

pains

to

verify and

pains

to

understand.

primary

68

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

them

all their

powers

of

observation

and

inference.
own

Thus of

chemistry regards certain

unification and
; thus

phenomena
with which from

for its the

we one

purposes

biologydeals

group

of obscure the abstract

complex phenomena
life. the the

derive

conception of
But
more

sciences particular the

more

are

pursued
obvious

in

prehensive com-

and
numerous

penetrating way,
subtle
can

become

the them.

and
one

connections then be
as

which claimed
to

exist between
to

Not any

of them
sense

be

particular in
it deals with

such

of the word
are

imply
the

that

phenomena
laws other On
so

which

not

inseparably linked

in, by objective
of those
names.

and

by mental

with principles,

phenomena
different

sciences

which, nevertheless, bear

can

the
as

contrary, they
to

all be build

arranged, however
up
one

roughly,
upon
other; anmore

show how

how

they

themselves

and

they
that

all alike real world for

imply

some

higher
all the

and

perfectunity for
in itself, of the

to which

groups

of

phenomena belong. Thus,

the form well
as

example,
"

modern

tends physiology ex-

called

general,"over
life ; modern up

the

phenomena biology;
more

plant life
form

as

of animal

chemistry, in
into under the

called molecular

"physiological," reaches physics

strives
as

modern definite

to

reduce

mathematical of the

formulas,

determining
of

ing chang-

relations and of

molecules, the phenomena

modern is cerebral

chemistry "general
former modern which
to the

physiology;
"

physiology and
with the

nerve-physiology
handmaid mistress
to

scarcely content
would household of

position of
her and

psychology, but
out

gladly turn
mind;
that

quite
is

of the
to

psychology
for

showing,

good purpose,
as

the view

regarded micro-organisms
reasons

with explicable, in
terms

respect

their

behavior,
"

of

undifferentiated from the assumption and

bioplasmic "stuff,"needs
of
a

help everywhere
in
even we

"psychiclife
into

the find

smallest the
"

simplest
"

living forms. turning

Meanwhile,

scientists

selves thema

philosophers of

the most

high-and-dry

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

69

priori sort.
their
own

They
doubtful

come

forward

to virtually

maintain
even

that of

recentlydiscovered
and basis eternal

and principles, be allowed

some

their most

hypotheses, must
truths. of their have

the supremacy
even

of indubitable
to

They
been

are

ready
ethicoing comfort-

dispute,on
to the

the

discoveries, all the

hitherto
most

religious convictions
Hence that

that

heart, however
some

to unsatisfactory

the

of intellect, of Clerk all

man.

for justification

the

sarcasm

Maxwell mechanics

already two acquired lapse

of

of the Newtonian
an
a

principlesof
and will

have sufficient
a

priori character;
the third

that

given
become The

of

time,

doubtless

priorialso.
growth
to
ever

very way

knowledge, then, calls

needs of human which
reason

attention from
ever
"

in which

forceful

those

philosophy vainly
science the
"

springs afresh, and

to

it

however said that

; but

strives is

satisfy.
"

Mr.

Spencer
"

has of

well

only

the

partialunification they
more

knowledge
considered each

particular sciences
to

themselves, when
sustain
"

with

reference excite
a

the

relations for the

toward

other,
"

demand It Mr.

complete
unification

unification of

of

knowledge.
which, says
true

is this

complete
is

knowledge
rather is it

Spencer,
this
more

philosophy.

The

that

toward with

goal

reflective
a

thinking

ever

strives,
it is this

though
which in all

never

than aim

partial success;
of
reason as

constitutes the
current

the final

it is

expressed
it

systems

of of of

philosophy. help
toward

Here

is,

then, that
stretched sciences. offer

the
out

synthetic arm
with this
an

philosophical discipline is
the

offer

particular
even

But

help

it

cannot

render,

cannot

without intelligently, of the its

itself

comprehending
Yet

the

ples princiitself

particular sciences, and

upon
can

ing constantly acknowledgby behaving

the

dependence
neither
own

them. do
a

aright, philosophy
sciences
can

work

which
nor

particular

properly undertake
not

accomplish. fitly assumptions

It finds its

material,

only

in those

70

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

which itself in

underlie

the

particular sciences
and

and

to which

it must also have and

can

give a
most
as

critical

yet conciliatory treatment, but

these sciences of minds

those

general principleswhich actuallyexemplified in

all this material the

discovered of

the world

things.

With

before

it,philosophy
its
own

continue function.
because

bravely to attempt
It
can

discharge of

supreme

give

not speculativeunity (speculative,

it is bare

speculationdisregardfulof fact,but
of the facts after subordinate of of
man.

because

it is the

highest synthetichandling
a

they are

grouped, in
to the

preliminary
as

way,

under

principles)

world

known

by the mind
is the work and

In and

brief,then, it
criticism, so

philosophy, by analysis
the

to discover
as own

shape
shall and

principlesof
serve as

the

particular sciences
for

that final
reason,

they
the

best this

material is the

realizing its
of

aim;

final aim
most

supreme

synthesis of

highest and Or,

to
a

complete
same

unification in
a

knowledge
way,

itself.

say

the

truth

different world

Philosophy
and based

seeks
as

unitary conceptionof
as

the real

that shall be

freed,
upon
as

far

from possible, facts of nature is, not

ternal inand

contradictions

all the

of human
to

life. But
construct

inasmuch
an

its business
or

latively specurather work of

abstract
as

ideal

world, but

to understand

the

world

it of

reallyis, the primary grouping

them
to

ascertainingthe facts, and

and verifiable sciences. unification of This is

in well-ordered the various

more

generalizations, belongs merely

to say

ticular parplete com-

that

the

philosophy
of the
come

reposes

upon

the

basis

of the
in this
sary neces-

partial unifications
way
can

particular sciences.
into, and
with toward
some

Only
the But

philosophy
constant above

keep within, actuality.

a

and rises far

close the

contact

since that
a

it is

sciences
to frame

unification

complete,it
of all

makes

bold the

conception of
each
be

Unity
ticular par-

Reality, in
For that

light of

which

of the the

more

principles may

subsequently
of

better
as

stood. under-

understanding

the

world

it

really

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

71

is which of formulas the world

alone

will
a

human satisfy
mere

reason

is

no

mere

ing gather-

facts, nor
more or

grouping
must

of

facts,as
To its

such, under
understand
\

less

approximatelyexact.
know
must

we rationally, even

import;
their and of

fully to

understand
to critically

the

facts,we
the the

know

significance ; generalized phenomena,

understand

assumptions particular groups

in the

experiencesbelonging to
we

must

be

able

to

view

them

light of universally
elsewhere defined of those

applicable ideas.
For such
reasons,
as

in

brief, we

have rational

philosophy assumptions

"the

progressive

system
to the

and

which generalizations
as

belong
a

ular partic"

sciences, all regarded

forming

Unity

of

Reality. it|
to refuse

Philosophy, then, necessarilyincludes

to admit

is

necessarilyontologicalin metaphysics.
To

its aim;

deny this is

the.

of philosophy, as distinguished from possibility And

even

science, at all.
shown from And

science,

as

has

repeatedly been naively,

to be
"

already, cannot
mere now

however distinguish itself, without

day-dreaming
the
"

claiming
and the

ontological.
indeed,

more

intimate in which may,

peculiar
science made of

the^o
chology Psy-

quite unique
stands
to

relation

psychology^

philosophy
a

be briefly,

clear.

is

sort

of universal
more

propaedeuticsto philosophy.
than is stood ordinarilyunderit is not

By

this

something
the term

is meant

by
a

"propaedeutics."For
up
to

simply
its

as

preliminary disciplineleading philosophy, that

any

the

successful

study place
true

of in

the

science

of

psychology holds

well-arranged system of education.

Nature's
are

It is also

that
"

in

school
out

of
to the

reflective

thinking, where
of
reason

the

problems
that hand connection

given

unfolding powers
of rational

by
a

which

guides the
the and
two

order is

development,
Those which solution
reason

between

maintained. strictly
over

problems
for
us no

of

being

of

conduct, reflection
but

has of

merely speculativeinterest,
in order
to live the

some

which

is necessary,

life of

at

all,

72

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

themselves
our own

start

forth life.

inevitablyfrom
most

the reflective

study

of

mental

It is in the effort to

explain
of

ourselves

to

ourselves
some

that

we

and intelligently of the world

persistently
and of

demand other

explanation
could of

things

minds.
as

Furthermore,
detail and array

be

shown

with

almost

indefinite

convincing facts, every

leads itself and
up
a

principal
upon

chological psythe

problem
very heart
most

to, and
number

lays heavily
of

of

reason

philosophical problems

important
does the

most

profound.
his scientific researches

In vain into the

psychologiststart
of

phenomena
to

consciousness, as
whenever him
over

such, with pursuit of

the

the these

determination
researches
seems

stop short

the

likelyto
He

lead

into

debatable
a

regions of
reserve

philosophy.
before

may,

indeed,
before

exercise

wise

here, with
there

respect to the presentation of his assured

the

whether results, But

public
one

or

his
"

own

mind. trarily arbi-

is, after all, only

reason

alternative, inquirieswhich
else

either it
to

to limit

in those

belongs to
pass
a

its very

nature

to

insist upon

making,

or

over

(if, indeed,
and the but

it is

possible even
the

to theoretically

draw

tinct dis-

fixed line between

the two) from

same

the

psychologicalto
What is it the

philosophicalpursuit of
the

inquiries.
which of

working of just this alternative

explains
the

confused whose it
more

theory
views
were

and

inconsistent
in

practice
the last

writers

examined which

chapter ?
clearer whose

Plainly,
and

is

just this, too,

consistent in the the that

guides the
the writers

theory
views

practice of
earlier

were

presented
doubt method

part of this chapter.

shows yond be-

Moreover,

history of psychological theories

it is and the of the character of the

psychological
of

employed,
thinker

attempted
toward

solution

problems
the tude attisible posOf

primarily psychological,which
of any in solutions of the connected

chieflydetermines
the

philosophy

different

philosophicalproblems.

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

73

this inevitable
a more

influence

there

is not

in all the than that

historyof philosophy
same

conspicuous example despairing

view

mind mastera

whose scientific treatise. critical and the

of respecting the possibility

at

pyschology
All the

was

quoted

the

beginning
and defects
to

of of

this thei

principal obscurities
of Kant
are

philosophy
in

largely due
of the
nature

obscurities laws of

deficiencies

his

views

and
a

phenomena
becomes the

of consciousness. the
more

Indeed,
the three

with

meaning
one

which

pertinent
of the defective

more

deeply

penetrates

doctrine that the

Critiques, one
affective

may the

safely declare

psychical experience,
the
no

lacking psychoses, especiallyof

great

kind,

of this for the

philosopher account,
character of his

in

small

degree,

defective
In

philosophical system.
emerge

particular,the problems of philosophy all

upon the mind in the and
to satisfactorily

and

force themselves

attempt thoroughlyto
the

comprehend
main lines

solve

problems of

; scientific psychology

and in

the

attempts, along the different

deal with scientifically this science This
tenet

of research

to psychology,
to

its problems all lead these

same

up
over

the

place

where

hands

problems
relations

to

philosophy.
to
more

ing respectof

the varied will A midst

now

of A

psychology
few of the

philosophy

admits

illustration.
be

important examples,
in
as an a

discussed
writer has

separately. repeatedly maintained,

treatise
assumes
on

recent

the

very

of

voluminous
this

psychology knowledge
In
some as

natural

science, that

science

already
is
at

existingand
no

inexplicabledatum.
For all the

sort

this claim
or

doubt

true.

attempts at ordinary knowledge

of knowledge possibility
to be known

science
"

imply tacitly
in

in

general,

the

actualityof something
some

and
a

the

existence

(at least
of the the
most

meaning
mind. and

of the

word,
the

as

cognizing activity) hand,

a

knowing

But,

on

other of

it is

one

of

important

difficult tasks
to assume,

truly

scientific

psychology, not simply

but

also to

explain, those

74

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

psychoses which
and

are

called
to

"acts,
their

or

states,of knowledge;"
as

this, with

respect

nature

complex
stream

mental of
sciousness, con-

phenomena,
But of this

their and

origin
laws

in

the

onflowing that, in
entire

the
ever,

of their

development.
the very fact but

here, as
form is" say

it appears

description simply,
and

of

psychosis, the
or

is not "I

"knowledge
when
men

"knowledges are,"
knoiv"

know;"

"I

they

mean

something quite they

has say
or once

ferent dif-

from

what
or

they

mean
or

when

"I

feel," or
faced this

"I When

will,"
a

"I

think,"
scientific

"imagine,"

"remember."

dutiful and

psychology being
of

complex
that

mysterious psychosis,it
the whole

is bound is

to

discover in

somehow
"

mind

implicated

knowledge,
and
senses even

memory, besides

imagination, thought, feeling,will, belongs

either
to

whatever
or

perception by
more

the than

to

self-consciousness.

Yes, something
in the For fact
"
"

this varied

content, as reached
content-wise. the

attempt
there is
"

to

regard

this
one

psychosis merely
may choose if
" "

however

to

express

conviction

of reality

here ; and
"

conviction is
no

of

reality
to be

be

wanting, why, then, knowledge.

of Aristotle This and

knowledge

longer

called be that

is true, whether

the

knowledge
or

Newton,
most

or

of the child

of the fool ; whether

it be knowledge

ordinary,

or

most

extraordinary, and
And he of hide

affecting
what his shall head
as

the title of the

so-called. science, specifically

scientific the and

psychologistdo
narrow

now?

Shall

under
a

and

drooping wing
few writers who where that

psychology
He
may to

pure and

totallynon-philosophical science?
are

do take that

so;

there

not

actuallytry clearly will

for

this this
more

course.

But

readers

think
a

see

is

precisely the place imperative

which

demand student need

something

becomes

upon

the

of mental for from

a

nomena. pheof

Here,

indeed, is where
undertakes
nature to

the

Theory
somewhat its

Knowledge
different

examine of

standpoints the

knowledge,

validity

76

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

psychosis
about and of

itself.

In

vain

do

you

talk

to

the

plain

man

sensations, and
eccentric

sensation-complexes,and
revived knows and
; he

localization, images
that his

and projection,

associated

merely past sensations,

even as a

well perfectly
not

experience,

psychosis, is
that it is And of
an

yet satisfactorily
of knowledge,

explained ;
"

for he

knows

experience
the

knowledge
to go
a

of
over

thing.
the

here

psychologistis
considered here

bound
as

again

ground
a

knowledge,

both is

psychologicaland
about

philosophicalproblem;
that
at

he

bound, in the interests of full explanation,to face the

the

inquiry,What
shall demand for

Reality of just
the
"

Thing

How, then,
where the
most

he, unless
an

he

pauses

the

place

explanation of
most

psychic facts
a

becomes which

imperative and emphasized

an

interesting,
form the of
a

demand

is

now

in

the

phenomenon
of
a

that

implicates
that is not
*

envisagement by
"

mind this

real

being
it to

mind,
Even the

refuse
more

to

consider
not

philosophicalproblem? problems
and started

if difficult, consideration

impossible,is
of the

keep apart
by the

scientific

actual

experience called
of that cluster constitute I
am

self -consciousness, and of obscure

the reflective

treatment

difficult of mind.

inquiries
"I know

which that

the and and

special philosophy
now,
"

here thus

thinking, feeling,desiring, planning,

It is Zand
no

doing
or

so.

other,whether
is;
now

mind and

thing;

here

and

not

yonder, where
well I
was

the other

not

then, when

I remember yes, indeed;

elsewhere.

Really

existing?why,
in the most

existing reallyand
manner

indubitably
in which
any

and simple self-evidencing alive

to

actuality can,
vain will the
as

the

very

core.

And

now,

again, in
of the

psychologist fence
to the

off the

questions

plain man
that
1

import

of his

experience,as
so

to the
a

truth of

exists,and
What teacher of

is known

to

be, in
found

wonderful

series

psychology has
as
a

not

interest in the

phenomena

of perception

by
of his

the senses,

matter

of natural up in the

science, drooping,until the burning

have

wrapped metaphysicalquestions pupils?

phenomena

begun

to stir the minds

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

77

psychoses
between useless

as

this, by attempting
as
a

to

draw

the

lines

tauter

psychology
the

valuable

natural

science of mind.

and For

the the

speculations of
science and contentful "I" that

the is

metaphysics
requested
to

thing which peculiar

What this
"

explain
series of the the
"

is

just this
and What and
trast con-

psychosis (or
assumes

psychoses).
"me;"
I
"

is this
"

to

know

me

that admits
to

that
as

it is known "I"
"

by

? be?

is it What

"really
is this with
some

be"

the and

knows unless in

itself to

being
"

"here

now
"

it involves the
"

then

and

there

which
are

same

"

was

When

such

questions as
total the natural ?

these
out

asked, in

the form

in which and the task

they spring immediately

the

of the effort to describe how

to

understand

psychic phenomenon,
science, reply without

will the
to

psychologist,on
of
a

pretence of sticking solely

so-called

resort

metaphysical
to be the

distinctions

Among
"

these

are

quite certain
"

distinctions

between

specious present Ego"

and "real
"

and

"

real tween beand is of in it of

present," between
space time
as

"phenomenal
time
"

Ego,"
space

and

as

valid objectively But

and

only

forms

of
a

psychoses.
either

such

language

empty verbiage without

quasi-appeal to
put
or

the arbitrament
a

philosophy.
without that

What

shall

find

meaning
essence

reflective ?

thinking

which

is the

philosophizingitself
Thus do the

psychological problems
of

started

by

the

mon com-

experience inevitablyserve
and
more as

perception
of mind. the

and the

of

self-consciousness of nature
r

to propaedeutic,

philosophy
these
to
more

the

philosophy gently
of them

Indeed, they do

something
branches of the

than

lead

inquirer
force interests

to

philosophical discipline. They

cultivation result
as

him of
a

undertake

in the

satisfactory

for his But

efforts to understand
even

the

psychic phenomena
this result
one

such.

to reach

out

toward

must,
vidual indi-

of course,

suppose

one's

self

capable
of the

of

transcending
the

consciousness,whether

perceptiveor

intro-

78

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

spective
nature,

form.
must

In

order, also,
resort,
not to but
a

to
a

have

philosophy
which
one

of

one

simple analysis of
sciences mind

the tell
must

object considered
us

as

Thing,
to have

to the

about
away

things;
from which like
two

and

philosophy of
to the

turn

simple introspectionof
can

self toward

all the

indications of other The

be

gathered as
of the

psychicalbehavior

beings.
main

branches of

metaphysics together
Real. But the
as

stitute con-

the

philosophy
discovers have
to

science

of

psychology
than
any

psychoses, no
thus the far realm

less actual

psychoses point
In its

which themselves
to

been of of

described, that
the Ideal. and

beyond attempt
cal

explain
and of the rise.

the

workings

ethical

aestheti-

consciousness,as
have their

such, the

problems
art

of the

philosophy
ics) aesthetscientific

of conduct

philosophy of
For the it has human
"

(ethics and
of
a

larger mission
as

psychology
and

is not

fulfilled until
our

described faithfully and

carefully explained
"

faiths

thoughts respecting
appear
so

respecting what
what

ought

to be

as

our

knowledge
of

reallyis.
others,
or or

Nor

does

this class

psychoses explain

separable,so
the think know
to
as

distinct,either
to

actuallyor
to

from theoretically, what

men

enable

psychology
to

beliove

ought

be And

without much

relation of what

to what

they

judge reallyis.
know
or

they are
be

entitled

say

they
in

infer

really to be, they

think
or

cannot

explained
to

without

relation
a

to what

believe

ought

be. and

Hence,

measure,

the

both difficulty,

theoretical

discussion, for of giving any purely psychological practical, how firmly No matter example, to the phenomenon of choice.
the determinist of
a

in

psychology
and

may

resolve of

to

maintain

the

attitude

collector

correlator of

udiced phenomena, unprejJust because

to
ceive re-

by metaphysical theories
indeed he for him his
to

causation, it is difficult

carry

out
as

his

resolution. he the is

regards
a

science from

natural,
hands of

tempted

bludgeon

the

natural

sciences,

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

79

wherewith
if at any amid
not

to threaten

or

assault the

"free
seem

spiritualagent,"
to raise
an

time

such

an

agent should
That in

his

head

the

psychic phenomena.
as

such
a

agent is there,

only

necessarilyimplicated phenomena,
forms of but also
as

rational

tion interpretavictor

of the
over

the the This

self-conscious

various

reality,

is

philosophicaltenet
tenet, too, it
as
an

of the

opponent
hard
to

of determinism. refrain from

seems

equally

introducing phenomena.
ethics,
the

integral

part of the explanation of the Thus, too,

eudaemonism which resolves of the
in the debate

of

questions between philosophical

in
or

and the

rigorism

between into

the the

view rience expewhich

feeling of

beautiful
and

sensuously agreeable
two

the
as

view

distinguishesthe descriptiveand nigh compelled

the from

and

regards

the

former of

unique, the
is wellbecause

explanatory
to take
a

science This
to

psychology
so

part.

is not

much

empirical
the

science of

is anxious

lift the

responsibility
over

shoulders it is rather

philosophy by coming
the science this the
cannot

into

its any and

domain;
line its

Decause

discover domain

clearly drawn
own.

between

philosophical
called from the

For
to

suppose describe

that the

psychologist finds
the

himself "I

compelled ought
"

psychosis

feeling
memory,

as

something totallydifferent
how he
as

expectation,calculation, or present experience

"

of the

urable, pleasto

can

then
to

fail to

have that

the which

more

ultimate

question suggested
and same? that which is

whether for

ought
is
one men

be,
the

sought
the

pleasure'ssake,
awakens

and

Again,
that in

if the them

psychologist finds
beautiful is refuse what he and

certain

taining mainand of

thoughts
and whether in

feelings which
ideal

imply
shall

objective,universal,
to consider
a

worth, how
of such

the import the world those

a

thoughts
But, of

feelings has
such and

basis
are over

at

large?

course, starts

problems
hands

among
to

which

psychology
ethics and

then

sophical philo-

aesthetics for their further

examination.

80

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

It of

that the is, indeed, only indirectly

in

attempted solution
to

problems
supreme

psychological science
is the But

leads

the work

effort at of the and

that

synthesis which
direction the of this
sense

crowning
does For both

philosophic mind.
lead in the in scientific different and

indirectlyit
of the

point
leave

synthesis.

it is
to

scarcely
the

highest
of

word with in

groups

psychologicalproblems,
and
answers,

their scientific isolated and

philosophical aspects
form. Here
"

fragmentary
so-called
as an

the

psychological treatment important.

categories
of very and
are

of the

"categories

becomes the

To

psychology,
the
most
; but

empirical science,
universal much

only

and persistent
to say

forms
comes

psychoses themselves
near

only

thus
are

to

saying
modes modes of is

that

the

categories

the

universal Some of

necessary

of the behavior of the and

of mind. behavior of mind of

a

them, however,

are

in the

inferential is
a

knowledge
which it

things ;

"knowledge employ
of with

things"
full

term

difficult to that forms

without intelligence,
as

implying

knowledge,
Thus the

considered

are psychoses (psychological),

also forms

of the

being
forward hard

of

things (ontological).
by the effort
of mind the in
to

interests

awakened

harmonize
pleteness, com-

and all,

to carry

the science upon

us

to its ideal

press supreme of

in

direction which the

of

that

unifying activity of
who inquirers, discuss
so

reason,

essence

synthetic philosophy
different
to

consists.
set out

It is not

strange, then,
the determination of natural
over

that

together with
in terms

mental often find

phenomena
themselves the
to

science

merely,
which For of

wrangling
the

the

problems
undertake. this and

it

belongs
a

philosophy of religion to
of supreme for task of real
to man's

it is

large part
find
reason a

branch

philosophy to
the entire

ground
reflective

ideals,
upon

to vindicate

right of

projectits
views taken mind

ideals

reality.
shows how

The

history destiny of

of

thinking
as

closelyconnected

are

the the

to

the

nature, import, and

human

(no

matter

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

81

how may and

much

pretence of being merely scientific

with

these

views

make)

speculativeviews
the
"

as

to the

nature, import,
without terms
"

destiny of
that the

World

as
"

Whole.
"

It is not
are

meaning applied to
take
over

Microcosm

and

Macrocosm

two.

It is not, of course, the

the intention
of to

of this treatise to underall the

speculativediscussion
of

problems

handed

by psychologicalscience

further
to

reflective

thinking.
the the

The

problems

Knowledge
of

belong
to

Epistemology ; Metaphysics (in

of the real

general problems
broader and
sense

Being belong
word)
; the

of the of

problems
to

being

relations

Things belong
of

the

Philosophy

of Nature.

Certain all these

points

view, and

even

certain

conclusions,from
*

branches particular
in the discussions

of

will philosophical discipline

we

be assumed "freedom of

which

propose. and

Although
aesthetical

will,"and

the

holding

of ethical

ideas,are
so, it would

activities
seem,

belonging to
these

the nature

of the the

mind, and
of for

naturallyfalling into problems

and

department
be reserved
to

the

philosophy of mind,
the

will

philosophicalethics
Under be

philosophicalaesthetics

discuss. is to trarily, arbi-

of Mind," as the term heading, "Philosophy employed in this volume, we separate (somewhat it is to be

admitted)

certain
over

class
to

of

problems
a

which
more can

psychologicalscience thorough examination,

be

hands and

philosophy for
solution the
most

for
are,

if solution, for

found.

These

problems
that

part,

started which

by the psychology of
is called
not

form

of human It

experience
is the

the

consciousness
as

of Self.

Self, bodily

however,
also
as

simply

known in
are

immediately
its relations

to to

itself,but
the
a

known scientifically And

organism.
and

although we
treatment

confessedlygiving
to

lative specuare

theoretical for this and

treatment

the

phenomena,
a

and

assuming
of ourselves

certain of

postulatesof things,we

theory
hold

knowledge

of

metaphysics
every
6

shall

responsibleat

step to the empirical science

82

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

MIND

of

mental

phenomena.
is

Indeed,
based upon laws

this

essay

in

the

philosophy

of

mind

deliberately
into the facts

previous
of
a

long-continued psychology.
the

researches To these

and

scientific for

researches

appeal
nature

must

be

made

right
we

to

speculate
has
"

as

to

the

of

mind. of

The

right
mental

believe

"

been all

earned

by

careful

study
view. of

the

phenomena
the author's

from

possible
wish

points
that the

of

And

it

is

controlling
conclusions

validity
be

the

following
face
to

speculative
face
with

should

constantly
of the

brought
science

the

conclusions

empirical

of

mind.

84

THE

CONCEPT

OF

MIND

every in

shade

of

philosophical tenets implying

obstinate

"

can

scarcely be

used

English
or

without

undesirable

theologicalassumptions
Mind
must

evoking
take its

theologicalprejudices].
into

Any

inquiry satisfactory
start

the

Concept of
of

plainly
effort to
to

from
nature

the
as an

standpoint inquiry is
then of
as

empirical by
the

psychology. explain,
the
use

Its very

denned far
as

set forth

and descriptively, actual

possible
to

those

phenomena

consciousness
as mean

which is
true

of the term

corresponds. Only
to

this
in

course

faithfullypursued (and by faithfullywe

to

form quent subse-

the
more

facts, and

true

all the

facts) can
discussion For

the

speculativeand
claim
consists

theoretical and

of mental of any upon

phenomena
discussion the

credence

respect.
of truths

the value it throws

in the amount inferred In the that

lightwhich
as are
a

import

of such

certainly implicated philosophy, it

no

in the facts. is

interests all the

in

of

sound

quite as important
than

truths the

(and
facts

other be

clusions con-

these) implicated
and

should

covered, dis-

examined, critically
as

systematicallyexpounded, psychology
that it the

it is

important
describe and

for

truly

scientific all

should

and

explain

psychic

facts.

The

exhibition

inferences and defence of the legitimate

ulterior

import belongingto psychicfacts, as faithfullydescribed explained, scientifically

"

avid

this is the
treatment may

Philosophyof Mind.
given by psychologists to
be called

But those mind will

"

if the

customary

psychoses which
be

properly
actual
to be
more

"concepts

of it

compared
"

with

the
"

psychoses themselves,
characterized fallacies. of these of view Two

be

found

we

believe and
even

by several

important
*or three
now

defects

important
and
common

of the

most

important
The

will
to

be

discussed. briefly shall

a

primary point
much

be

assumed It is

be

that

of scientific

psychology.
of the mental
current

most to
assume

important fallacyin
that the whole

chology psy-

of any the
mere

phenomenon
"

is described

and

explained when

"content

of

con-

THE

CONCEPT

OF

MIND

85

sciousness say, the

an

has

been

described of those

and who

explained.
cultivate

That

is to
as

larger number
science of the

psychology

empirical phenomena
Thus
statement
or or

habitually regard consciousness, and

as

the it
to

consciousness, merely "content-wise,"

were. a

descriptivepart

of the science

is limited

of what what what

so

particularqualitiesand particular associated particular forms

of

quantitiesof
of

sensations, sensations,

images

past
tained con-

feeling, are
or

in, and
total field the of

themselves

comprise
It of

constitute, the

consciousness.
"

is, indeed,
"

possible
so as

to

employ
to

phrase
all this

content

consciousness of

tually vir-

exclude

from

the

task

descriptiveand
have
no

tory explanato

science

considerations definite

that

reference the

answering
kind of

question:

What

is

particular
A of is

conscious

state, the
than B ? mouths
some

pyschosis, now
other

existent; and
an

why

is it this rather than

some

psychosis; why
can

rather
course,

Such of

psychology
of

always,
"What
to

stop the
left of any

objectorsby asking,
consciousness is

there and

phenomenon
content
course,

describe

explain, if,ex
definite ?
"

there hypothesi,

nothing
to

in

particular
and

left, no

remaining
also, no
its

be

described

explained

Of in

psychosis can
content
no

cally be scientifi-

treated content-wise.
to
no

neglect of
For
at
a

description and

explanation,
is

psychosis without
all. There
are are

equivalent
of
sciousness con-

psychosis
in and other

phenomena
need
to

general ;
with be

there

only phenomena
which their
concrete at

which be

have

such and if

no

content, and
reference described
as

explained

described

to

definiteness,
all.

they
Such

are

to

and

explained
are

admissions

the
course

foregoing
of those

very

far,however,
of scientific defect
a

from

justifying the
whom
we

students of serious

psychology fallacy.
It does of
not

have

just accused
careful

and

For

their

fallacy is, in
in too

its very

nature,

defect.
sity neces-

consist

recognition of
the

the

with dealing scientifically

phenomena

of

con-

86

THE

CONCEPT

OF

MIND

sciousness,
almost another all the and total

content-

wise. and

It

consists, the
if not
"

rather,

in

an

neglect

virtual
"

explicit denial equally belonging

all

of
to

aspect, a different

potency,

phenomena

of consciousness.

For

consciousness,
to be

every

makes phenomenon of consciousness,

as a

the demand
mere

considered

and form offunctioning, Phenomena

as

not

as

tion differentiaare

of
conscious

content.

of
as

consciousness

always
of
sciousness. con-

activities

truly

they

are

contents

Consciousness
"

is itself consciousness it is and

so

of

activity,
from of functioning.

fundamentally
lowest
to the

so

; and

all the way

through
forms

the

highest
of
a

most

developed

The

task

scientific

as psychology is,therefore,

truly the descriptionand

considered consciousness
"

explanation of phenomena
as

of

sciousness, con-

forms

of

active it is the

functioning (of descriptionand quantitiesof

the consciousness is not
at

function-wise the

"), as

explanation of phenomena

and particularqualities
as

regarded
In

passive

states
our

(of

"content-wise").
present
as

saying this,
any

intention doctrine
"

to fall back

upon
essence

metaphysical
of

of Will in the

the

ground
and

and

of all mental

life,
or

whether with

the

purely speculative form

more

Schopenhauer, given
elsewhere

modified

scientific
as we

character

to it

by Wundt.
is
a

"Will,"
without

indeed,

have it be in

shown,1
to

term
plex com-

meaning
the

unless

employed
the
course

designate a

faculty, developed involving all

mental The the made the life.
more

of of the

experience

and

primary
scientific
to

forms

functioning of

proof
cannot

which

psychology,
statements

faithful

to

all

psychic facts,has
be

give

for

like those For the such

just
proof

presented
of mind

here

in

detail.

philosophy
of the

appeals chiefly to
of The

empirical
and it of is

study

phenomena

attention,of conation,
conclusion,
as

discriminating
1

consciousness.

See
xx

"Psychology, Descriptive and

Explanatory,"especiallychapters xi.

and

vi

THE

CONCEPT

OF

MIND

87

by justified
forth in the is made

the

science

of mental

phenomena,
fuller the which

may

be

set

following quotations (for the

to

proof

ence referare

the

work

from

quotations

taken) :
"The

"

relation

of

attention been
. . .

to

the

conative

aspect of all by modern

that

conscious writers all

on

activityhas psychology.
even

much

emphasized then, it
is and rises

When,
attention

is affirmed

attention,

the that

most

primary,

influenced
is falls, upon

by
tributed disthe

conation, it
and

is meant

in re-distributed, of

constant

dependence
For, from

varying

amounts

which psychical self-activity mental of

states.

terize characthe is
most

the

different

fundamental

point
it appears

view, all psychic energy

in consciousness the
same as

self-

activity;
the
to look

the

energizing,
which between
comes

conation, the striving,of

upon and itself
as

being

attracted

to discriminate to

this

sensation
or

that, or
the

compelled
some

feel

some

bodily pain,
This

solicited

to consider
"

pleasant thought.
awareness
or

aspect

of conation
"

immediate

of

being self-active
mental the
states to

belongs

to all

passiveor impulsive
not

forced
as

as

truly, though
and is the

in and

the

same

way,

so-called in

distinctivelyactive popular
attention

voluntary
it

states.

Expressed
be attention And

figurativelanguage, impelled
or

may

said, If the
; 2"

forced, still
I submit
to

it is my the

yield

to

impulse;
or

force.

this it is
not
or

psychical yielding accompanied by

to

submission,
of

especially when
to yield or striving

the consciousness
or

yield,

to

submit

not

to

submit,

is the
1

conative

volitional

aspect of all my
presence be of

mental of in

life." the all

Or,

again: "The
must

aspect,

or

factor, of
in

'conation' all any

recognized
to

psychic facts, and

To be
"

development psychosis
is

psychic faculty.
"

the
to

subject of
be

always

speak roughly

doing

something.
1

Every

sensation

and

idea, every phase of change83 f.

and Explanatory, pp. Descriptive Psychology,

88

THE

CONCEPT

OF

MIND

fill

feeling, may
furnish
out act
; so

be

said

(with
with
a or

no

unmeaning
to

figure

of

speech) to
and
more

the soul
own can

challenge
express

arouse

itself

its
as we

nature,
obtain

its will.

Nay,
the very

far

evidence

concerning
with the

beginnings
of sensations affected active be

of mental and

co-etaneous life,

first of

having being

the

most

primitive experience
and
to

with

pleasurable or By

painful feeling,spontaneity of striving,may designate

. . .

consciousness, psychical doing

conation datum the
...

discerned. and

we

mean

primary
in All add such

indubitable

of consciousness.

All

to psychic lifemanifests itself

one

subject of
own

that

lifeas being,

of its fundamental aspects, its

are

spontaneous activity.

complex psychic facts

to

fully described
such
so

only

when

we

the

phrases

"

I have

sensations, and
and
so
"

recognize equally
this
or

and objects,

feel affected

this other
now

pertinent and
that
way.
. . .

necessary The

declaration,I
follows:
or

act

in

fully developed psychological

as

sion expresthat
or

for conation I

is,then,

I act
or

and feel
or am

I know

act,

"

this know

as

truly as
that

I see, the

hear,

pleasure

pain, and
the is identical any

I have For

sensation,

subject to Indeed,
if

pleasure or pain.
with
statement to

psychology,active
of

consciousness
. .

consciousness upon

activity.
.

based

purely psychological grounds explanation

upon, of
we

and

having
which

do with

the
as

description and
can

of facts

of consciousness, affirms of fundamental Yet in the least the

such,
continual

be

depended
here

it is that
as sciousness con-

presence

conation reach

activity. Indeed,
of all

the

most

psychic phenomena."1
intellection
a

again: "Primary
sense a

is not mental

so

much

faculty closely

of

being
of

form

of

life other

separable, at
most

by

process

abstraction, from
that very

allied forms conditions others in

1

; it is rather

which activity

furnishes related process

219.

to the

formation of

of every

psychosis as

to

the

stream

consciousness; it is the

of

and Explanatory, Psychology,Descriptive pp. 212, 215,

THE

CONCEPT

OF

MIND

89

elaboration
. . .

indispensable for
as

tbe
so,

formation

of

all

faculty.
must

Regarded

activity(and
that form of elaboration and
.

pre-eminently,it

be

regarded),

it is the

psychic energizing

which

accomplishes
life and
more

of all

materials, the organization

of all processes of mind.

. .

forces, the development of the total

Every

psychosis,
may
seem

however
to

elementary comprising it, feelings,

ness consciousside

simple
than for much

such
sum

psychosis
such

be, is something

the

of the so-called
a

elements

"

example,

complex

of

sensations, such

so

conation, as content,

etc.

Evert/state of
on

is not

only capable of being regarded

of consciousness, it
"

the

of
on

passivecontent
the side
term

must

also be
. .

regarded
The
.

consciousness. of active discriminating of the mind consciousness

one
'

very

'faculties which

implies different
discriminates

forms

of functioning

while
...

assigning
In criticism be said

them

all to the of the

subject of psychical states

it

popular figuresof speech regarded

as one as

scarcelyneed

that

consciousness

and objectively discriminated,

consciousness
two

regarded
it were,
cause or

discriminating activity, are

and the
same

only
"

sides, as
There

of

consciousness. those

is scant who

for

wonder,
or

then, that
even

chologists psy-

deny,

overlook,

unduly
should
"

minimize
no

this

conative

aspect of all consciousness

of
an

find the

dence evi-

of the presence
ena

"active arise

agent
some

in

phenom-,.'
extreme

of consciousness.
a

Hence

of the most studied of

as an

opinions of
science inferences

psychology that, whether

or as a

cal empiriand

rational ulterior

system

assumptions
mental
or

regarding the
thinks
to

explanations of
the so-called is there that

nomena, pheMind. ally gener-

dispense with
for wonder of the
so

Soul

Just

as

little
no

reason

people

take which
cannot

account

negative or agnostic metaphysics

an means. man

results
even

from

defective what it

empirical science; they

For may be however able little
to tell in

comprehend

the

uninstructed psychologically
1

See

"

and Explanatory," Descriptive Psychology, pp.

288 f.

90

THE

CONCEPT

OF

MIND

an

and intelligible of himself

as

defensible

way,

what

he

means or a

by speaking

having,
is

or

being, a
to

soul this be

mind,

what fact

he

does

reallymean
consciousness
aware

due chiefly

unassailable

of his and basis

of

activity.
this
construct

To

doing something, experience

on

to be

of

it,
"

is the

very their

the the

of

which, chiefly, men

conception of they
of

Self; and by being

they could, perhaps,

a

easier

tell what
content
no

mean

mind

with

no

definite

sensation,
form of But

ideation, or feeling,
agency of all
or

thought, than

with

definite this

conscious
so

attributable activity
as

to and

Self.

this,in
of

far

it is warranted shall

demanded later
on.

by the

phenomena
Another

consciousness,we

speak
often which

which important fallacy, but

profoundly
the

ences influa

of mind, the^^phTTosbphy defective

originates in
very
nature

psychological science, concerns

itself. any On the
one a

of

conception
that to have actual

hand,
Self
or

it is often

assumed
some how some-

conception of
of
a

Mind, implies
that

envisagement
to

pure,
as a

spiritualBeing,
statical and From

presents itself
one

itself

object (at least, if

strenuous

could

only think, in lofty, non-sensuous,

for its
own

fashion viand

enough)

contemplation.
all the of
most

this false and

ghostly psychology
and
a

emerges

high

dry
to

"doctrineof Subject
disport
itself before

Object, gaping
The

Subject-Object,etc.,
of

crowd

spectators in the
are

metaphysical
selves

show-room.
own

spectators

required
and of
sensuous

to

recognize their
as

concrete, warm-blooded,
in such

duly represented
This, of
course,

pale ghosts
and in

abstract
even

thinking.
many

Hans
more

Bridget,
the

and

another

somewhat

advanced

study
without
to

of

psychologicalphenomena
to

than

these, find it quite impossible

of
;
"

do.
"

Thereupon
make
in
a

the

advocates their

psychology they
think if

soul
and
can

rally in driving

turn

capture

hold

exclusive in

possession the theatre,

out to

only they
This feat

succeed

such

ghosts as

these. the

of

expulsion they expect

accomplish by

strange expe-

92

THE

CONCEPT

OF

MIND

that, really existing,give direction

the existence
as an

to

and
every

make
stream

possible
exists
; it

of the stream. succession of

a

Moreover,

actual

simultaneously existing parts consisting of

disturbances But
to
as as

exists, all

at once,

as

stream

sections the
a

with

varying depths throughout

misuse of the

and

different

of

surface

its entire

length.
stream,"
existence

it

involves

complete
states

figureof speech
"a

call the

successive any such

of consciousness and of totality

though
this
were

nency permafor of the

sciousness con-

realityof
"

implied
"

this succession. each

In this so-called
wave, to
comes so

stream

section,each
ceases

into
too

being only
that and
next

as

the

next
one

preceding
come

be;
so

did

preceding
the next

into its
wave

being ;

will

the next

yet
we

succeeding
matter

begin

to be.

Where, then, shall

ing reality answer-

find,no
that
or

how

closely we
a

search, any
Mind

to this fiction of
"

permanent

subject of changing states,

the
;

is, of
over

real

being,

for

something
ceaseless

more cession, suc-

than,
The

and

above, the passing being, in

states? of the

of the discussion

conscious

metaphysical problems
the

raised be

by

this

faithful in due

description of
time. For of such the
a

psychic

facts

will
one

attempted
admit the

present, however,
without description

may

truthfulness

any

great distress.
be tially par-

Or,

at

any

rate, risings of distressful

one

feeling may reality of

a

allayed if
in mind.

will
to

keep
see

two

or

three

important
the

truths

It is hard is to admit
or

how

the

Soul, if
any fulness truthself any

only

one

that

there
a

is such

loses reality,

of its interest of such

as

value

by

confession one's One

of the

general
ask

picture of
drawn.

experiences with might, indeed,

at to

one's of

has

just been

stream

of consciousness
as a

that for pure do

appeared
admission

the court the

of metaphysics of of

candidate this than

not

kingdom
kind ? Would

reality(and realityother
the soul

in

: What facetiousness)

this

you

then, indeed,
other kind

want
a

itself choose

to be any

of

real stream

THE

CONCEPT

OF

MIND

93

than entire

just
at

this?

Would

it

prefer to exist,
a

as

soul, in
or a

its

psychicallength, like
one

meadow

brook ?

mighty
mind

river,
But

and
our

the

same

instant

of time
to

it is not with

present purpose

minister the
cure

to

diseased
some

metaphysical agnostics,by
We wish pure rather
to show

of whole-*

laughter.
the very

that to
to

expect any

envisagement
mistake and

of the

being
of the
a

of mind of

take

place is
from

to

nature

process

conception itself;
but

this,not primarily from

metaphysical
view. demands of its the of such

rather is the
are

scientific and of mind the

psychologicalpoint of only
to

Nor

concept
upon stance in-

sufferer

when

made

consciousness of for the itself.

a

furnish, in proof presentation of

thing is
true

reality,some
an

concrete

realityas
every

object
"

The

same

concept,

of
as

concept of the

most

real material of pure

"

existences, as well

of

the most For that the

ghostlyconcept
indubitable itself

being spiritual
here form
a

"

so

called. is

truth psychological is

pertinent
of mental succession

conception

only
a

complex
under

functioning; it
of ideation one's and of

is

always

process other Let

one

involving
laws ransack
a

psychoses related
consciousness
or a

to each

of the
same a

life of way

thought.
for

in the

one's chemist
or

concept of
ransack of
some

horse,

dog,

tree,
for

star; let the

an

his

consciousness

his

concept of
; the
or

atom,

tion particular combinahis

of atoms

physiologisthis, for product

will
ever

concept of
"

some

bodily function
of these of

of

bodily functions,
come

and with

neither the kind

searchers

face

to

face

object which
realistic

he

seeks.

Here

is where has
as

the false
as

logical psychoharm
to
an

ism theory of conceptual

a

done has

much done

metaphysics
which
at

of

mind the

been

by

agnosticism metaphysics
based forced

denies

possibilityof having
of

any

all. the

Respecting
upon
to the

theory psychological
facts of
u :

conception,
we are

as

the actual

consciousness,

then

following conclusions

Concepts, judgments,

94

THE

CONCEPT

OF

MIND

and

trains

of

reasoning

are

themselves,
of them

in

actuality,only
life."
*

established

forms

of the movement

of mental
"

[The
may

description and
be

explanation
to the
"

whatever trains
"

they
of

concepts of, or
"

judgments about,

or

reasoning
life and

leading to
and

belong

morphology
actual

of intellectual

development.]
the

Or, again: "Conception, judgment, regarded

of words
as

reasoning must
in

all be
stream

forms the

of

psychoses
do
we

flowing
derive and

consciousness;
certain

rather

designate by
which

these their

successions

of psychoses of their
shown

characteristics

from

the

nature
are

sequence, the states in

of the laws (or fixedforms) which

in this sequence. which
"

by
the that
sciousness con-

of consciousness

Of

conception
to to hold

general, a psychological theory phenomena

"

has
us

regard

actual

of consciousness union of the

compels
the

its process

is

reproductive function
"

of

with latter

the
act

thinking function,
of

essence

of the

being

the

judging."3
of
we

Thus

the

psychological
to consist

of universality in
' "

the

process that
'

conception
are
'

is found

the

consciousness

mentally representing as
what
we are

belonging together,
and

'

as as

really related,
manifold; that
what is

is

given

in

sense

imagination
identical in

mentally
tion presentaand other into

representing as
as

experienced
time

in

various,
without

respect of place and

contents,

this To

variety
the
"

itself

being brought
to

consciousness."
"

discover which

peculiar character belongs

of the

of the of
sider con-

reproductive
the

function

process
must

conception, the empirical changes

that
go

science
on

psychology
of
as

in the
are

processes

tive representa-

image-making,
"condensation,"
ideas.4 While the and the

and

that

known of these
nature

the

"fusion," images
into
or

"freeing"

mental of the

psychological

thinking
all

function, of

activityof judging,

which

enters

and Explanatory, p. Psychology, Descriptive

2 4

430.

Ibid., p. 437.

"

Ibid., pp. 439 f.

Comp. ibid.,chaptersxii. and

xiii.

THE

CONCEPT

OF

MIND

95

actual
note
"

processes

of

conception,is
is
a

understood
"

only

when

we

that

judging, too,

process, of

to

speak figuratively,
is

and

that the

"synthesis

judgment

accomplished by
of consciousness,
waves

flow, in determinate

direction, of the
two

stream

intelligentlyuniting
stream
so

successive

of laws

this

that

they belong together under

"

the

which

govern

the

whole.

Psychologicallyconsidered,then,
ask wise
as a

it is

foolish

question to
other-'

whether
come

we

can a

indeed

immediately envisage, or
sort

to

knowledge of,the Ego, Mind, Soul, or changeless Being,

its
own
"

Self,
and
"

pure

and

of statical To
"

abstract such
a

object for

self-contemplation.
it would
as

realize

concept of mind
nature

be

necessary

to

change

the

essential the

of mind function
no

it is

cises capable of, and actuallyexercept con-

complex
is at

of,conception. But, then, the

these of any

of mind If
or one

peculiardisadvantage in being whatever

confidence

regards. reality,
can

is asked

to conceive

in this way, the

else

required to relinquish all identity of

latter
course.

in

unity, and
take the

such

being, why, then,

it is
a

one

only flimsy
which

But which
can

shallow such
a an

and

psychological science
as

propose else

alternative

this

either

no

metaphysics, or
the in

metaphysics
renders of mind the

the examination The

of fundamental all this upon time. and But

psychic facts philosophy treating of

not be

absurd. will be

bearings of
in
an

examined mind human

as

due

concept of
of
common

actual

incontestable
case

phenomenon
of

consciousness, the
a

must

prejudiced at
the

the

beginning by
of A

false

psychological theory
too

nature

conception itself.
which fallacy, third^ psychological the of often
nature

warps and

and tions rela-

dwarfs

philosophicaltheory
is
a

of the real

mind,

false
it
a

or

inadequate
never

view

of

knowledge.
knowledge,
If there

For

8e(f -knowledge, if not,

as

can

be

more

than

certainlyneed
1

matter

of course,

be less.
447.

Psychology,Descriptiveand

Explanatory, p.

96

THE

CONCEPT

OF

MIND

is any

one

subject in
the the
one

the

consideration has
cut

of which

speculative
an

theory, on
of

hand,

itself free from

on

nation examiother
sciousness con-

undoubted scientific obscured

psychic facts, and, descriptionand

the Hence
more

the

hand, alleged
has

explanation of
works the

important facts,it
on

is this

subject of knowledge.
of and which obvious

immortal
"

Theory
"

Knowledge,
Fichte's
soar

such

as

Kant's

Kritik
"

der reinen

Vernunft,

various aloft upon

treatises the

on

Wissenschaftslehre,"
far
too

wings
and

of

speculation in phenomena
mortal and

disregard of
Hence also in

actual those

concrete

of knowledge.

decidedly
of

deservedly
get
than
no

perishable essays
further in their

psychological science
the and

(?)which
factors the is

examination

phenomena through
it

to

recognize the knowledge

But

sensational

image-making
comes a

of that

of one's

self which itself is

senses.
a

knowledge
of the

psychosis;

mental
at

phenomenon
hands

demanding
student

description and
be found

explanation
And

the

of scientific

psychology.
in any

if the

adequate explanation cannot

or

psycho-physical
much the

physiologicalor
worse

statistical

researches,why, then, so
as

the

for their
sources

scientific

alleged satisfactoriness of psychology. It is

assumes

true

only truly that logical psycho"

science, like all science,

its possibility, like itself, the actual

knowledge,
But this
a

its

possession,etc.
assumed,
much mental
"

assumption
mental ! this
"

phenomenon
more,

is also

nomenon. phe-

Nay,
,is
we

and

more.

Knowledge

just the might

when

one

all

important
warrant

phenomenon;
mental

this is

say

with

the

all-embracing, perfectly phenomenon.

it you
at

patent, and
And

yet deeply mysterious,

you have described and all and

explained
"

find
as

yourself

to

have

described in it
"

explained
the factors

least

indirectly included
mental be life and of
a

and

phases
has
"

of

mental so-called of

development.
scientific those

What, however,
which
"

can
no

expected

psychology
called

satisfactoryscience

psychoses

acts

or

THE

CONCEPT

OF

MIND

97

"states

"

of

knowledge
the it be

to

propose?
or

If it the

inadequately nizes, recogfacts of all

edge, knowlthose for in

or

explains away,
immediate

denies

and

inferences
serve as a

implicated

facts,will Now,
without involved And that that

likely to
truths of is for
a

basis satisfactory

establishingthe

se"/-knowledge?
psychical fact
this
cannot

knowledge
it;
the

be denied of course,
at

assuming
in

assumption
to

is,

very

proposal
a

have

any

science
cannot

all.

self-knowledgeis assuming it; for proposal to

we are

psychicalfact assumption
the conviction with

be denied/ in all. and

without the Here very

this any

too

is involved
at

have

psychological science
how
a

again
all

met

with
pursue

inane

futile is the from how

proposal to
or

science

perfectfreedom
free with

metaphysical
from

ontologicalassumptions whatever;
futile is the

inane peculiarly science

and all

proposalto
the

logical psychorespect

ontological assumptions identity of

not

to

the !

unity, and reality,

For this is the of the

so-called

Self,or
it is'

Mind

(though
called

the

only) distinguishing!
I

feature
even

psychosis
as

"knowledge," "that

when

regarded

mere

seen phenomenon, necessarily

to be

ontological.
of knowing activity
the
cannot
or

The

be

performed
inference
of this

without

volving in-

envisagement,
falls in

the way

valid short of

of,reality. something
cannot

Activity which
less than

any The

is

knowledge.

object
exist

knowledge
mental

be

or presentatively,

or brought inferentially, representatively,

into

consciousness,cannot
known.
To
or or

at

all

as

object, tively objecreally,

mind. do
not

without

of implicating the reality be

an

that which

is thus is to be

object of knowledge
and

here Mental reach

and

now,

then

there,for
there so-called the may

the be

knowing
which of

activities

processes
as

reality,
"

such
or

the

having

sensations,
trains ing the holdare

of mental of pure and processes

images,

of

or feelings,

conducting of
or ideals,
"

thought, or
of

the creation of
mere

of bare

cherishing

beliefs,

but

they

not

knowledge.

98

THE

CONCEPT

OF

MIND

And whatever

to be

an

object of knowledge
be said about
"

is to be of

known

as

real ; of

must

objects
and

imagination,

thought
mind. from

and

of the "opining belief, the

the endeavor
as an

of the

Finally, when
the

activityconsidered
of

psychosis, activity of
as

psychological point self-knowing,

are

view,

is

so-called

its fundamental

characteristics When
or

knowledge knowledge
the

in

no

respects changed.

the

object of
mental its fundaknown

is the

so-called

Self, or Mind,

Ego,
and

as characteristics,

object constituted
in
no

by

knowing
very the and

process, effort

are

respect changed.
describe of and

The

to faithfully

analyticallyto
which
a

explain genuine
us

mental

phenomena
follow:

knowledge,

thorough psychological science

conclusions
"

requires,leads
by psychologists

to

such

as

"Two

important general

considerations
"

almost

uniformly

overlooked

concern

the scientific

description of cognitive states

are

of consciousness.
course

(1) They
From

reached the

as

the

result

of

of

development.
is
a

psychological point of view

And
.

knowledge

development.
we 1

(2) This

particular

development,which
of the mind.
the
"

call More form of

'

knowledge,'involves
"

ties all the activi-

particularly, knowledge implies

of intellectual

exercise

of every

activity.
the mental
is

edge Knowlact
more

implies the having discriminatingamong

than nable

sensations, and
but
to know

of

them;

something
and mental

merely
ways. but
to

to

be

sensuously
also is not
or

affected

in

various

discrimi-

Knowledge
know
not

implies memory
to

tion; imaginaimages, faculty

is

merely
with is

have

whether

identified

ence. previous presentativeexperipossible unless

is the which relating activity,

Again,
of

no

knowledge
of

judgment

is

operative; unless knowledge,

we

of the very process.

most

essence

prominent

in the

cal psychithe and the

And and

yet

rightly distinguish between

of

elaborate
we
1

highly developed logical thinking things

or

what

call

knowledge

of

Self.
509.

Not

and Psychology,Descriptive

Explanatory,p.

100

THE

CONCEPT

OF

MIND

reinen nunft For from

to
room

Vernunft," ")
and is
a

and

the

"Kritik
between

der

praktischen
and
as

Ver-

false distinction

faith

knowledge. separated
is

faith is conceived

of, by this great thinker,

opposed
be

to

knowledge regard
to

; and

knowledge objects in
the

supposed
that

be

removed may

with found

certain But of the

order

for faith.

undoubted

psychic
such in
must

fact,the
be stated and from When

obvious
as

characteristic
"

psychosis as
belief

follows

Knowledge

involves

reality ;
such. the

it is
mere we

just
know

this

which

chiefly distinguishes knowledge

or

imagining, remembering,
any

thinking,
as

as

object,it
as a

is not

merely

object for
some

knowing
that
we as itself,

process, know it.

but

'being' existing in
belief
or

state,

When
to

the

conviction

attaching
ciently suffithe
some

it were, clear and

may

the

realityof
one an

the

being

becomes I know

strong, then
say this with

may

say,

object, and
character be

emphasis bearing
belief.
. . .

proportion to brought
a

the

strength
in belief,

of the
contrast

The other

specific
since the it

of this
out

with

beliefs, may
to
'

by calling it 'metaphysical.' And

is not
nature

but belongs particularacquired belief,

very
'

of

knowledge
In

as

such, it may
without

be

called

rational and

and

instinctive.

brief,then, impossible.

this rational

yet

instinctive that

belief, psychological (?)metaphysical analysisshows

is In
...

knowledge

maintaining only
state to

that

metaphysical development
scientific

faith

lies at the basis

of all the
we

existence
a

and
as

of human

knowledge,
finds
"

fact

psychology
"

it,and
to

is

obliged

leave

it for

philosophy
If,
now,
as

if thus

possible
much
away

explain." *
discussion may be and certain
current nature

of

preliminary

regarded

doing
of

with

negative
and

agnostic conclusions
the process of

respecting the
also
as

validity of
a

conception,and
the

establishingon
of view from

basis which the

psychological science
discern

certain
more

points

clearly to
1

positive truths

respecting
514

Psychology, Descriptiveand

Explanatory, pp. 513,

f.

THE

CONCEPT

OF

MIND

101

same

subject,there
of and

is A

no

need

to

dwell the

long

in

further

details

exposition.

descriptionof
the
to include

origin,nature,
as an

development,
actual
:

of significance bound

concept of mind,
the life from
"

psychosis,is
That

following particulars
which
as

state, or

of activity,
to which

mental

this
"

concept is derived, and

with
or ever

it returns of content
"

it
same

were

richer

contributions
"

to the

state act
tent con-

is activity,

called

self-consciousness.
some

In

every

of

however, self-consciousness,
of is to be found. of
some

discernible definitely of

sensation,of imagining, Every

"

thinking, and
of

of

feeling

such
as

act
a

a consciousness is,therefore,

complex state,
of consciousness
are

state

having
all

such

sensations,
far
as

images, thoughts, and

state

feelings ;
can

and

these,so

each

be described kinds

content-wise. which
seem

Moreover, there
to stand in
to are,
a

certain

of sensations and
act

peculiarlyintimate
content

inseparable relatively
of

relation These

the

of

every such

self-consciousness.
as are

chiefly,either
vital

sensations

only

obscurely localizable,although they belong intraorganic and

found
to
on

to

peculiarly
as are

processes;

or

they
"

are
"

such

accompany
account

all the of their

so-called

pure with the the

activities fixation

of and

mind,
which

connection with these

tone

redistribution

of

attention,and
accompany
a

feelings of
or,

effort

customarily
are

processes; of

again, ful pain-

they

such

as

have

strong

pleasurableor being,
the

which feeling

for forbids",

the

time of

objective
so

reference

of the sensation-elements
or

consciousness,and
of these

compels
to the

favors,the subjectivereference
as

elements

Ego,

its states. in the of various

concrete acts

Furthermore,
(sometimes

of of be

sciousness, self-con-

either
one

these

different

classes
may

sensations

and

sometimes

another)

relatively

emphasized
Hence and

in the

complex
the

sensation-content of the

of consciousness.

different

organs

body get personified

but

identified with

Self, or

Soul,

only

with

it

as

102

THE

CONCEPT

OF

MIND

having
Thus

such

concrete

and

particularform
that stirred
"

of experience. joy or
anger
sorrow;
or

sometimes it is the

it is the "bowels
"

"heart" that
"

feels with

again
;

are

tite appe-

yet again, it is the

down with

head

that

is

loftywith
of

pride, or

is cast
on

humility, etc.

Different

individuals, too,
temperament
of self
as or cretely con-

account

of characteristic

differences

of

experience, become
denned How

customarily conscious
this

by different forms

of the sensation-content

of

consciousness. in
we a

psychologicallaw operates
by the
what the and
case

is illustrated If

very them
or as

interestingway
to

of children.

question
the "1"

find

out
or

understand they chiefly

tby

the both

"Me"

"Self," which

they
any

set

for

themselves declarative found

to

subject

object

of

sentence
are crete con-

of vary of

their its

self-conscious localization which

aware.

experiences, they
according
are, to

bodily being,

the

form for the

activityof
time

they

ness by self-consciousthe
"

With
arms,

"

that

loves and
set

they identify the embracing

the

the
"

swelling heart,
"

lips used

for

kisses ; with and fists, has

the the

that

hates,the
and

teeth, the
into which in adult

clenched the hatred

swelling

chest
were.

heart,

as poured itself,

it

So, too,
for

experience, that part being

one seems

of the

very

self of which

the time
to the

most
more

conscious,changes according
or

characteristics

of the

less

localized definitely Under

sensation-content

of the with
now

experience. particular larger part

my of my in
may

bodily
and the

sufferingI
with
now

am,

the in

very
my

self, suffering
abdomen,

the in
my

pain

head,
as
we

now

back.

Thus, too,
of the disordered

facetiously say, digestivecanal

disease of the

self-consciousness of his the

own

the dyspeptic is chiefly stomach

man

ness conscious; but

and with and

self-consciousness consciousness

of the of the

heart of

is the this

labored

irregular action Self, which

that of

organ.

Once

more, the

that

individualization of A

of

terizes characB

self-consciousness

from

is,

THE

CONCEPT

OF

MIND

103

undoubtedly, in

no

small For

degree
what

matter

of different Self

kinds
no

of sensation-content. less

each

is to itself is
some

truly different than what Yet, further, so changed may

time with

each the

Self is to

other

self.

sensation-content either in

of the

experience
considerable
may

of self-consciousness
or

become,

lapse
that

of

comparative suddenness,
by saying, "I
I
"

one

emphasize
Self from of the and

the

change
which

seem

to

myself ing changof

race-

another
age

that

once

was.

With

the

individual, the changing characteristics

race-environment,
and form the of

heredity
and forms

changing degrees
content,
which
or

of all

culture, this

the

belongs
diminish But

to

self-consciousness, may
and alter in

greatly enlarge quality.

any
one

in when

extent

complex
upon with

the

psychologist seizes
and identifies

form all

of
scious con-

sensation-content
content but

it not of

only

also all consciousness

one

functioning,and
instinctive he

then faiths

sinks and

in this

aspect of sensation
inferences
most

all the

implicated
of wonder that

of

self-knowledge,
defect
out

becomes

guilty
No

another

inexcusable which
sets

and
so

fallacy.

thinking
of

from

pitifully meagre
so a

psychologicalanalysis should
a

conclude
are

with

wofully narrow
recent at

philosophy
on

mind.

We

told his

by
own
'

brilliant

writer
'

psychology,1 that,
'

in

case

least, " the

to consist in the

Self of

selves, when
of the

examined, carefully
of these

is found motions
on

mainly
or

collection the head

peculiar
And

head,
the "our

between
as

and

throat."

this

basis that

conclusion,
entire

defensible, is ; scientifically
of

reached what

feeling
nature

spiritual activity,or
is is of
in

commonly
activities This Hence

passes whose is "the follows view" is

by that
exact

name,

reallya feeling of j
by
our

bodily

most

men

looked." over-

real

nucleus

personal

tity." identhe in

the conclusion of
"

philosophy that
no

"substantialist

the

Soul for

has

standing

experience,and
1

quite

needless

expressing the
i. pp. 301 f.

actual

James, "The

of Psychology," vol. Principles

104

THE

CONCEPT

OF

MIND

subjective phenomena
while "Transcendentalism the

of

consciousness is

as

they

"

appear

only
a

Substantialism and

grown
'

shame-faced, and
of the Now man's soul."
we

Ego only
venture
as

'cheap deny
he the

nasty

edition

shall

not

to

testimony
his

of any

consciousness

to where

localizes
a

dominant effort to the

bodily sensations
conceive sensations well the of the of such

whenever and self,

a

he

makes

concentrated

to observe

the effect upon of effort. All

bodily
with

concentration different different

this may
even

enough
same

differ with in

and individuals,
concrete acts

individual

of

sciousness. self-conto

Indeed, there
that great differences known localized exist.

is abundant But

testimony
the definite

prove selfof cedure profound

tent con-

to resolve

entire

Self,even
; and

"content-wise," into
is
a

any

form

bodily sensations,
this
stream
no

quite

unwarrantable be

less so, however

impossible it
from the of

to

purify the

of self-consciousness Even the author

a

all such

of sensation.

hypothesis just
that
over

cited, after "dallying with

and of above his

it for
"

while,"
is
an

admits
obscurer must

bodily sensations
"

there

feeling
edly undoubt-

something
be but

more.

Some
not

such

conclusion
a

admitted; and
of

only

feeling

of

"something
itself. For

more,"

however something different, of sensation-content

one

persistently any
assert

particular form just as

localized is
soon as

may

detects
or

in consciousness the head

the
and

sensations
one

"in

the

head,
to

between

throat,"
as

equally compelled
the

speak
as

of these the and

sensations

states even,

which

Ego has, not

all that purposes
as

all that

Ego is,
"

not

by any
now

means, For

it knows of

feels

itself here with

and the

to be.

complete
the and

identification constitution

self-known "Self whit the of

more

Self,or

forming
head than that

whole throat

of the
not
a

selves," these
competent
The in
utmost
cases

feelings are
the of them

feelings in
can

or finger-tips

in

toes.

be most

affirmed

is that

perhaps

certain

they

persistentlyaccompany

THE

CONCEPT

OF

MIND

105 It is

all the

individual's
to

efforts in

at

self -consciousness.
acts at

one

thing
we

say

that

all concrete
some

of self-consciousness

find

ourselves

having
and
are,

least
to
or

obscurely localized
say felt that these
us as

bodily sensations,
sensations identical What
true

quite another
or are

ticular par-

regarded
Self.

by

being,
is also

with

our

entire of all

very

is true

particularbodily all,considered
we

sensations

of

particular mental feelings.

These
states

images, particular thoughts, particular "content-wise," are

ourselves But whenever
we

emphasized perform change

as

in' which

find

the act
so

of self-consciousness. while and with and

justbecause
same

they

notably,
processes

essentiallythe
the every
same

underlying

intellectual

metaphysical faith, or
of the self-consciousness, their
now

leap to reality, goes images, thoughts,

ness,

act

with feelings,
as now

actual
;

concrete-

must

be I

regarded
here and

here

and

mine

but

they

are

not
to

all that be. For

"

know, feel,and
of that author

believe

myself logical psycho-

to

return

to

denial the

fundamental

fallacywhich
all

leads

just quoted
in all

to resolve

feelingof

so-called
"

"spiritualactivity" into peripherally

the truth I
am

located
cases

sensations

is that

actual, concrete
am

of self-consciousness active.
to

active, and
all that of

conscious and know

of

being
of

Never
mere

can

I resolve

I am,

myself

be, into

passive content
Whenever I
am

feeling,much

less catch with

bodily sensation.
in
a

I self-conscious,

myself, not only

some

state

of

being passivelyimpressed feeling, but

core

form

of

sensation, and
Indeed the

also

in the act of of
my
sciousness consome

doing somewhat.

and of and

centre

of self is the consciousness

functioning in
no

particular way,
to

of

being active
of

thus

otherwise. is not
as

For
an

talk

of

consciousness of

Self
of

that

really
as a

a activity, or
a

form

functioning,a
to

conation
an

well

sation sen-

feeling,is
selves

talk I

absurdity.
and

And
ever

that my

"Self

of

the

"which

seek

find, if

106

THE

CONCEPT

OF

MIND

search
and

is

the is chiefly successful, self. and of This

an

here Self is

and
no

now

concretely
is not is

actuallyactive
consciousness
at

For
act

self that
act

doing something;
not
a

of

which seli-consciousness,
an

is not seli-activity, "active itself

as

of

sciousness ^/-conand

all.

agent," actually here

active, is indeed
of the
no

now

active

and

knowing

cendental trans-

being, up aloft in the heavens Ithen

with is neither the thin is it

metaphysics ;
slime,
or

but

submerged beneath
of

covered It of

varnish,

purely empirical psychology.

is active
to

just that

active

agent which
self-known in

in

the

process

self-consciousness, and
called

be

active; and

it is
as

agent

because

it acts be of

being self-conscious,and, agent.

For
any

object,finds
find No
,

itself to
acts

active

analysis of
does not

I actual, concrete

self-consciousness
is

which

this

agent active
we

there

simply inadequate analysis.

that all
men

wonder,

remark such
to
scorn

again,
the

stare

at

the

expositionwhich
and then

psychology gives of

the mind

psychic
which

facts ; builds

laugh
such
to

philosophyof

itself upon In order of

psychology.
attain
any

concept of mind,
rather and

however,

cess pro-

reflective

thinking (or
basis of the

repeated
this

processes
must

of reflective

thinking)
the
acts

is necessary;

process

proceed

upon

concrete

experiences
The result what

had

in

the individual process

of self-consciousness. is to the

of this is actually
as

of reflection in

explicatefor thought

implicated
already
and is itself
been

concrete

experiences. But,
very

has

repeatedly affirmed, this product (the

a

reflective

ing think-

its so-called

formed and

concept of mind)
to

actually always anything

shall
as

process;

expect that
the

it

shall be

else is to

expect that, somehow,

be
a

concept

of mind

really not
the
acts true

concept

at

all. reminds
on

Moreover,
the which
concrete

view psychological

us,

all of formed, per-

of

self-consciousness,
the

the

basis
are

the

generalizations resulting in

concept

themselves

imply thinking activity. They

also

imply

108

THE

CONCEPT

OF

MIND

are

questioned
various of Self the the
as

either

directlyor
of their from that in

by

indirect
"

observation every
man.

of

the

expressions
differs

thoughts

man's

notion

of every

other
more

Since,
by
be of

however,
far than

concept of Mind concept of the

"

general is

abstract may

Self, more
of the

agreement

expected
the different different

to the

marks

"

former

concept than
different

latter.
races

Yet and

different different of

individuals, at
stages and
other

ages,

types of civilization,
institutes sive expresent differ-

schools

philosophy and

of the notions

highest
as

results of reflective the

nature

thinking,reveal How,
concept formed
; it

to

of mind. For of every

race

indeed, could
in the

this be otherwise mind of

man

than
a on as

so?
matter

is also

development
mind,
race.

implies
as same an

intellectual

growth
also

the
a

part of each
of the and

not At

only
the

individual,but
time certain indubitable
some

member

permanent
and that
"

faiths

assumptions,
of

certain
"

unchanging
are

experiences
for every It

knowledge,
the
to

factors all

the be mind
as

same

concept of mind,
is

by
and and

minds,

may of

discovered.
to
are

business

of the

philosophy
them

discover found the

these,

explicate
of

expound

they

actually implicated

relativelyunrecognized general also,it

which For the

in

growing experience
is the

mankind. In
/course
now

appears

clear what

natural
sues. pur-

development
the of

of the

concept of mind

children, and
of the
race,

in childish
more

individuals, and
and and
or sensuous

for the ments, elevital

childhood the

concrete

elements
a

bodily sensation
and Self. be true

of

warm

feeling having
dominate of

pronounced

pleasurable
For of

painful tone,
the process

imagination, memory,
the what

thinking, in
such
"

forming

concept of the
is known
to

velopment stages of deself is and each

"my

thought
of every

to be true

of the mind

of the other I
am

self than

me,

other
act of

than

myself.

then

to

myself, in
sensuous

concrete

a chiefly self-consciousness,

bodily self,warm

THE

CONCEPT

OF

MIND

109

with

some

kind

of

and feeling, other

doing something
are

in
as

fest mani-

bodily way.
to

And

selves in

conceived But

of
even

similar in this has upon the

myself;

so

also

of minds

general. thinking
is

low
been

stage of development, if genuine self -consciousness

reached, and
basis

if reflective

has

operated
For

the

of

self-consciousness, there
the

undoubtedly thinking, and

states to

feelingand
conscious

thought
of

of

"something
of

more."

genuine
of
an

self-consciousness reference in

implies acts
more

reflective

mental distinctively these forms made of

to

agent active
are

them;

and

functioning,too,
contribute of self
to

and self-felt, self-cognized, result in the form itself of that achieves. character

the
flective re-

total

concept
So

which

thinking

that, by

insensible of selfthe

degrees it

is

the likely,
becomes

of the concrete
;

acts

consciousness

changed
upon

and, in
basis Those

consequence, of these

concept of mind
acts
are

derived

the

concrete

becomes

profoundly
of
as

modified.

activities

which

spoken

peculiarlyspiritualbecome
is the Self known and vital

more relatively as

emphasized.
exclusive

Then

to itself

imagining, v
without the

remembering, feeling,thinking,
so

planning,
and

dominance

of

the

sensuous

bodily

functions. When the

ceases

human

being,

no

matter

how

young which

or

tored, untu-

relativelyfrom
in idea the

those down
or

activities with thinks of

an

size emphait were, for the

the and

bodily functions,sits
past,
some

as itself,

recalls
or

out

plans
becomes

future,
"

reflects upon

problem
self."

abstract

ter, characaware

if it observes so-called
to
or
"

itself

it self-consciously,

of

this

"spiritual
certain the these less

True,
"about

it may the but

still head

be and

forced

notice around than is not

sensations eyes, is
now or

throat,"
more

elsewhere;
the chief

the

thing "some-

part of the experience.

statable in
not

It
terms

real, because
On the

it is not

of

sensation-content.

contrary, it is
for the very

statable

in terms

of sensation-content

excellent

110

THE

CONCEPT

OF

MIND

reason

that "other"

it

really is
as

not
as

sensation-content, but
"more." in
more some

is

thing some-

well

Suppose,
that and

still

further, that

moment

of

dawning
somehow should

self-consciousness, in its yet

belief in somewhere

highly developed form,

all

or metaphysical leap, which reality,

surely

enters

into This

knowledge,
sure

itself be it is ism

consciouslyrecognized.
Transcendentalism of mind. But shows it

to be
manner

would

not,

take place in likely,

or

the abstract
as

of Susbtantialforms
"

recognized
it

of the

losophy phi-

might fitlycome actuallydoes

Self
set

and, indeed,
"

experience amply
such in way
as

that the

come

in

some

to awaken

consciousness

of that

distinctness

reality which against,the

as

makes whole will

every

itself off minds is the and

from,
and

and

lover

remainder

of other

of all

things. Here,
that

subsequently appear,
which And

jsecretof
scious self-conthat notions
men

feeling of
lives
can

loneliness have.

only
shall

rational

it be denied their yes,

have

these

experiences, and
and of other minds and and

that from

they get
them,
"

of

themselves and
women

plain men
women,

too, savage
of tender To in years, have

untutored those
not
more

men

and than

children

half

pos com-

mentis? express another it

the

experience
of Jean I

is

one

thing; and
is

to

the

words

Paul the

Richter

quite
in of
are a

thing:

"Never
now

shall

forget

phenomenon
by the birth
of which 1
was

I myself, never

till

recited, when

I stood

jmy

own

the self-consciousness, in
my

place and
a

time forenoon

distinct very
out

memory.

On the

certain

stood,

young toward
'

child, within
the

house-door, and
in
an

looking
tion revelastood
as

wood-pile, as,
like
me

instant, the inner heaven, flashed

I had
seen

am

I,'

lightning
; in

from
moment

and

brightly before
for the With the

that

myself

I,

first time

and

forever

!"
life all
as

development
and

of mental
"

sensation,ideation,
as

conation, feeling,
of this

thinking,

regarded
and

processes

life, processes

in consciousness

consciouslycog-

THE

CONCEPT

OF

MIND

111

nized

states,

"

and

with

the constant
we

accompaniment
It may be

of that and

ontologicalbelief growth
as a

to which

have achieved.

referred, the birth

of

self-knowledge is

regarded

considered, of all these forms resultant,psychologically

of

functioning.
"

So rounds From
As

he to whence

separate mind,
clear memory binds
may

begin,
in,

thro' the frame, that isolation grows

him

His

defined."

For of of

genuine self-knowledgeinvolves
determined succession

the

developed faculties
its

perception,of recognitivememory
time-consciousness,
to
some as

(with
and of

development
ence by refer-

clarified

form

of the

objective events), of
and will. This more"
motor

imagination,
than

reflective

thinking, emotion, bodily sensations

Thus much of

self-knowledge is, indeed, emphatically "something obscurely localized

concomitants. trained specially thus much and
; with
a

their

effects and it needs

no

concept of mind
to
we

powers of adult

of reflection

acquire.
cannot

Indeed, speak
On of the the defensible human

without
a

self-knowledge
human mind.
acts

developed highest,

basis, however,
most

of similar

of self-consciousness, and

comprehensive,
it is to be
a

thoroughly
as

concept of what

"Mind,"
To
"

all

minds

reallyare,
to

is constructed their utmost

"

by

processes

of reflective claim this

thinking, carried
there
new

limits. faculties

is
uses

no

need

to
same

introduce faculties. of mind

new

or so-called,

of the

The aims

philosophicalspecialist's only
and
at

study
what

of the nature

accomplishing
to

all human this

strivingin
is the

science

philosophy aims
the the

accomplish;
data of

highest possible elaboration

supreme

of the

experience, the
The the be. Soul Nor be is

interpretationof simply expounds of what

and the Soul irremovable

nomena. phe*

of mind philosophy
on

theory
to

of what
to itself

the any

basis

appears line

need

sharp
the

of

distinction

drawn

between

conclusions

warranted

by

112

THE

CONCEPT

OF

MIND

psychology biology.
sciences in

alone For

and

those the

warranted

by

anthropology
the

or

only
and of

as

phenomena
to treat

which

latter preted inter-

gather
terms

attempt

scientifically
known the in

are

consciousness,
as

as

ness, self-consciousof which stated mind. he is in

can

they

enter

data from

into

philosophy
circle in

No

investigator asking,
of what I

can

escape

the other be?

cannot

forever
terms

What know

really myself
of mind

are

minds,
For the

as

to

anthropological
at
a

and

biological
of mind these

sciences unless

arrive

real

edge knowl-

they

trust

the

individual's

self-knowledge,
and from which

to

which flow. But

deliverances

may

appeal,

they

may

this

highest point

knowledge
of

of

mind

is

itself,
more

from

the less

psychological
of of actual the
content

view,
to

process the

having
of the

or

according
mind in

degree
it is takes

development
It in is the

individual

which of what

place.

fullest actual other

possible
process,

explication
which the

implicated
of mind

such

an

philosophy going
to to

attempts.
process what every of

In

words,
and

we

are

now

try,

by

lytical ana-

reflective

thinking,

expound

mind
ally actu-

that

has
to

reached be. The

self-knowledge implications
and of

knows that

itself,
concept
as a

as

mind,

of series

mind,
of
to

whose

nature,

genesis,

development,
and

psychic
receive
a

facts,

psychology

presents
and

explains,

are

theoretical

exposition

development.

CHAPTER

IV

THE

REALITY

OF

MIND

ANY
mind be from Without

intelligent
is

discussion and in
what must

of

the
sense, borrow

questions,
if
at

whether

the is
to

real;
to

all, reality

attributed

the

mind,

"

certain

conclusions of

general
some

metaphysics preliminary
it is, of It is

and

from

the

theory
of
to

knowledge.
is
meant

conception
useless evident
to

what

by
the* which

"being
mind each
be is

real,"
real.

course,

inquire
the

whether
answer

equally

that

thinker's real? that will

reflection

gives

the
answer

question,
to

What

is

it to

largely
we

influence call
any

his

the

question:
to

Is,

then,
real?

which

"Mind"

also is
an

entitled
so

be

called gone in

Moreover,
as

if
to

inquirer
whether
or as

already
answer

far
can

agnosticism
to

doubt

be

given
edge knowlticular parmind in

either of

of the

these real

questions,
is

even

to

deny
over

that those of

possible

at

all,

debate

inquiries
may

which

constitute How

the
can

philosophy
one

be

quite
with How of mind
to
a

superfluous.
writer
can one

philosophize
of

company

who

rejects
a

the

possibility
in the

losophy. phiphysics meta-

discuss the
man

question
on

before

who,
all

theoretical

grounds

satisfactory
It would

himself,

abjures

metaphysics
to

whatever? any

be of
as a

unreasonable,
the

however,
of

expect

complete
in of
an

discussion

possibility

metaphysical
for of the

philosophy
discussion Such

general questions

preliminary particular
amount

necessity
branch
to

in

this would

philosophy.
two

expectation

demanding

voluminous

114

THE

REALITY

OF

MIND

treatises
to

on one

the main

branches
on

of

broad

as subject,

tory introducbranches.

treatise

another

of its subordinate
seem

This for of

order
one

of treatment,
on

indeed, might

commendable the construction

our

bent

proceeding most
all discussions demands of

in logically But the

an

entire of
out

philosophical system.
in

from

present
of
to

point

view

philosophy
How

mind have
we

spring
a

of the

psychological science
to this

answer fullyinterpretative

inquiry:
words,

shall

describe faithfully of human

and

satisfactorily explain
In other of of
a

the
it

phenomena
is the

consciousness?
of mind
as a

losophy phi-

the

supplement
branch
us

empirical psychology, metaphysical system, general

field of with ourselves rowing bor-

rather that

than has

as

derivative enticed

just now
We
a

into

the

losophy. phi-

shall

therefore

content

few

of the most of

necessary

conclusions The the

more

from

certain

other

forms and

philosophizing.
defence
be fitly

vation diligent cultidomain time. should

one

thorough
may what

of

entire another

from

which

we

borrow

left for of

And,

first, with

theory

knowledge
the

approach all particularinquiriesin

"~"lngeneral,this question just such
theoretical
desirable
a

philosophyof
its

mind

may

be

answered

by saying, With

theory of knowledge, of its nature,

its
as validity,

bilities, possiany

and

is assumed

in

entering upon
course,
as

discussion. for
us

Only

it is, of

eminently
to what

to

recognize certain
certain than

truths

that

view, fundamentally considered, actuallyis. Now, view,

on

nothing is

more

that

in fact

the

fitting
is not it

approaching any
regard to
a

discussion, philosophical
in

agnostic with
^harbor
so

truth

general;much
as

less does

extreme

negative conclusion

denies the
more

the possibility,

by knowledge, of reaching reality. On

it
assumes

contrary,
dencing self-evi-

the

very

truth, in yet fuller and

all

form, to which
of

analysis thorough psychological

^This

knowledge

draws

attention.

truth, when
be

stated fol-

curtly and

without

qualifications, may

expressed as

116

THE

REALITY

OF

MIND

uable is not
can

as

knowledge, and
serious
can

of

something
or

called valuable it.

"

reality
as

"

which

recognizable or
that
are

attainable

we reality,

scarcelyhave
"we

quarrel with
never

When but

it is

said,

however,
we

know
a

anything
statement

ena," phenomis either of the

most

invited
or

to consider

which

meaningless,
words it

else is

in

every

conceivable

meaning
of the

employs
of

squarely contradictory
each of the the of

obvious A few

facts

experience.
on

thoughts
No
one

positionsjust taken
words

must

suffice.

can

affirm

impossibilityof knowing
the

reality,in reality as
fundamental that in I know
same

such make

meanings
the of

knowledge
the I
cannot

and

affirmation

contradict itself.

undoubted,
tell you

facts that you

knowledge
and I cannot

know,

without the

assuming reality,in
as

this

agnostic proposition both

for
you

of possibility the

knowledge
some

and
you

for and
me.

me,

and And

also

sort, of both
a

inasmuch

you

are

always
I know my
own

"thing"
utterances

to me,
some a

and

I
sort

am

"thing"
of

to you,

unless

that

things in
as

reallyare,

I cannot
even

regard agnostic

communication Here

knowledge
its
upon

from

me

to you.

agnosticism,
the form
you
are same

in

respect of
as

theory of knowledge, splitsupon

which been
extreme

rock

that

idealism I
am us

in the real and know

"

of

solipsism has
real, as things
or,

always
and
we as

wrecked. both
as

minds, and
each
a

of

this to be so; otherwise there be

rather,
not
so

know
as

other

real,

is

much which

standing-place for
the vault

tip-toeto
into

found, from
dark

to

make

downward

the

abyss of

agnosticism.
But
as

for

knowledge
per
as
se

of

beings

per

se,
"

or

of

beings supposed
existence of edge), knowlconcern

to

exist than
as

(if this
or

uper
and

se

means

otherwise
"

actual

conceivable such of
se

objects being
no

to
over

such

knowledge
of

need

be felt

its fate at the hands

agnosticism. For knowledge

such

so-called

knowledge

being

per

is not

at all.

THE

REALITY

OF

MIND

117

This
mean or

declaration

is true

whether

the from
to

phrase be interpretedto
all concrete other

Being
modes exists of

that

is abstracted

attributes
or

activityin
itself. The

relation and

being,
other

Being
in in substituting out withactual

that

totallyisolated
use

apart from

being,

or itself,

by
an

of such
or an

phrases
attempt
as

results think upon the be

no

empty

concept,
in

to

thinking anything experience, for knowledge

"

particular

based
as

the

concept of knowledge
that this such

facts

of

warrant
"

concept should
there which

formed.

Being

per

se,

if any

being

be, is
we

somewhat either
to

about
care or

the
to

of knowing possibility debate. concede all this is

need

But

freelyto
to

quite

another
but

thing from phenomena

a

consenting
can

the

proposition that nothing

For
we can no more

be pure

known.

speak
of pure but

of

knowledge
as

of

phenomena
"

"

that
a

is, of phenomena
of the this

merely f
or

phenomena being
not

than
se.

of

knowledge

being,

of is

per

Knowledge
at

nothing
very may

phenomena

knowledge
to

all.

For

phrase "nothing
be) reveals
"

but" tion intentrasted con-

whatever (or its equivalent,

an

employ
with and
to

the

word

"

phenomenon
of

as

sharply
suggests

exclusive be

reality.
as mere

It

that
mere

phenomena
seemings,
does
not

are mere

considered

appearances,

apparitions.
"

It is thus
"

implied that Reality

the

belong
even

so

to

speak
an

to

object

of

sciousness, conas

when said

it is

objectof knowledge.
have

But,

has

already been
and

in another words

connection, the word

nomenon pheing mean-

all kindred

absolutelyno
is. And
mere

except
some

as

implying
the is

some

particularbeing of which,

and

being to which,
this word does reality, the the

phenomenon

all the more, appearance, the

when with of

sharply contrasted, as
it forbid
our

doing away
all into
as

with

concept
but

reality,or
On real

resolving of
with

nothing
mere

nomena. phe-

contrary, phenomenon
which the

appearance of ance appear-

implies

existence

contrast

is made.

118

THE

REALITY

OF

MIND

When,

however,
be

the

inquiry
whence

is

started, Where
our

is such of it

reality to
and

found, and
are

does

conception

we originate?

compelled

both

by empirical psychology
to

by the theory of knowledge

in

alike And

respond: Inknowlwe

edge and
the

knowledge
it were,

only.
and

thus

have
same

completed
ultimate

circle,as
This
but

reached

again

the

truth.

is the

distinguishingcharacteristic,and mysterious
fact the of all sound

indubitable
or

knowing,

that

it is either of real of

the

envisagement
of real

logical

inference

beings, and
these Not

happenings

in the states and

relations

beings.

infrequently, however, agnostic

with that is face

the

localization of the
the moment he which is

pains

of

the extreme face

to

changed

brought is, as
it

ontological inquiry

inquiry. Who, /were, the other half of the epistemological sort of realityis, indeed, could be found to deny that some
somehow,
and

knowable,
however

"

or,

rather, is actually known,

is

ever whenthis

there

knowledge
to

at

all ?

But

consideration
on

is almost

certain

shift
most
"

the

point

of view Now
"

which

scepticalinquiry
takes the
are

bears
:

heavily.
is

the
or,

inquiry
the

following form
we

What

reality ?
real"?

rather, What

to

understand

by "being

In

discussionoTsucn
to understand

aTPinqiiiry as
the nature when that the the

this it is of the of the

utmost

importance
from the
be

inquiry, and
is first is of
a

that

very

moment

inquiry

proposed.
such
a

It is to
nature

assumed
it can, at

question

asked
as

that

least,be understood
All

question

and

discussed. intelligently
concern so
as

ontologicalinquiry must
known,
terms
or

fore there-

itself with

reality as

knowable, and
of sense-perception,

capable of being brought

of

under

self-consciousness,memory,
"

imagination, thought,
some

feeling,will,and character,
terms

or

under

of all the other the

which

it is necessary and

to

use

in order From that

to define

sphere
either

of the known

the knowable.
to

another
to

point of view,
what

then,

we

are

compelled

say

inquire

THE

REALITY

OF

MIND

119

things

or

minds
or

really

are, per
an

as

"pure beings," "things-innot

a

themselves," inquiry.
and It To irrational

"beings
in the very
be

se," is

genuine ontological
attempt the absurd
itself.
to

raise such

inquiry is
name

to

of the and

highest reason
of

would, then,
a more

far

better

safer for

metaphysics
and

adopt
forms all it

form concrete, intelligible What

are

stating the
which

logical onto-

problem.
of

the

assumptions
be?

primary
we

representationand
and all minds
as

conception under reallyto

of all minds

know is

things

Or, again, What

are

reallyto be,
But
even

all

things and problem

known

to be?

after the
an

general metaphysics has been

its
answer

stated easy and

in

intelligible manner,
For in

is

by

no

means

an

affair. confused

metaphysical
several ways irrational

discussion

is often embarrassed these

unnecessarily. Among
to go
on

is the vain and

and

attempt
and

forever of

analyzing
reach

defining. Analysis
limits the and

definition
to
an

must

course

impassable
we

come

end

somewhere.
as

If, then,

analyze
in

conception

of

Reality,
in

such

reality is
its
we

known

and sense-perception subordinate

into self-consciousness, the

"

constituent
cannot

conceptions (
these residua of for
a

categories ")

analyze or explain
At this limit

of all
can

analysis still
to

further. immediate the terms define which

to
or

analysis, we knowledge
be

only appeal
is meant To

experience
which stand

of what

by
to

for such would

conceptions.
to

attempt

explain
to
we

further

attempt
is
more

to reduce

that But is to know the

is

simplest of
say that know and

all to that which

we

complex.
terms
mean

refuse

know

what

these

assert

that is

what

is most

complex,

but

do not
to know

what

simpler

necessary

to know

in order

complex. Metaphysical
the foolish unless
process.

discussion that the

is often

further
can

embarrassed

by

assumption
reached
as

nothing
result of

be

certainlyknown syllogistic complicated

con-

it be

conscious
more

It is often this

also assumed

that the
more

and

subtle

process

is,the

worthy

of assured

120

THE

REALITY

OF

MIND

viction

attaching to
of and

it is the

final conclusion. and

But its

in the

growth

knowledge, although intellection

activity
"

of inference
even

interpretationenter
we

into all

knowledge,
"

into that

which

consider

most

"immediate,"
is of
same

the

certainty of
connected

inferential
a

knowledges
to

always dependently
some our

with

superior certaintyfor
And
"

diate immeorder in

knowledges. dependence
for their That
1

consider
"

the

from

the
as

ontologicalside
the atoms upon

all inferred

realities

(such, for example, analysis and

known

of modern

physics)depend,

being known,
and

envisaged
of the

realities.

discussion

general conception of metaphysics implies,

real

Reality as yields the

as a

knowable, which

: following particulars Every

being is
be called

known

self-active of states, standing in manifold relations subject

and beings,

to

other

maintaining its right to

upon,
"

real

by
to

acting and
certain .and
no

being

acted

only,however,in of
its behavior
as

obedience such
a

laws

(or uniform modes

being

other').
in such
a

Undoubtedly,
unresolvable that both such words which
sort
"

sentence

as

the with

foregoing,several figuresof speech

indicated

conceptionsare
admit

mixed

up

call for and

of further

Among interpretation.
those

conceptions, or
a
"

are categories,

by the

subject" being

" relation" of states, " self-activity,"

(" in
Some

the

is
or

popularly said
permanence
"

"

to stand
"

"), etc.
"

of continuance of

in

time," and

change," implied.
"

whether

place(hence
the which
to
"

space

") or
their be

of states,are
"

also

If,however,
the them the be

meaning
is said

of the word
to

states," as applied to

being
"

be

"

subject

"

or

to

have that may self-

or

change them,"
in modes

demanded,

it is found that
"

same

transaction

is implied as reality of

which of

described
"

by
of law
" "

"

behavior," by
be
"

or

forms

activity
words

and
"

being
said

influenced is said
be to

other

beings
and

; while
"

like

(which
is

"

obeyed ")
in

formity" uni-

(which
when
one

to

discerned

the

"behavior")
us

tries to

comprehend

them, introduce

still fur-

THE

REALITY

OF

MIND

121

ther

to the

profound mysteriesof
try
to set about

all

reality. These certainlydoes

"

mysteries
not

science when any

may it talks

forth, but
"

solve,

the

nature

"

or

kind

"

of
to

being which
have. into For
some

particular concrete
the realities
"

realityis supposed
called kind modes
nature atoms
are

example,
to its

divisible

seventy kinds,

each uniform such

a

with

its

own

nature, according
But
to
"

supposed
of

of behavior.
as
"

any
any
a

definite

conception
and
so
as

belonging making
our we

being,
kind with
to

delimitingits being
no

and

it such

of its

being
"modes
same

and

other, depends upon

Thus
are

experience
recurrent

of behavior."

brought around

the,/

point in
modes mind

the circle

again : uniformity,or
of any
nature to

lar simiproves

of the behavior
a

being, suggests
of that any

and

to the
mean

permanent

being.

But

what

we

by ascribing a attempt
of
as so

nature

being is found
for its known do
or

only

in

the

to summarize

the

reasons

possible
atoms

modes behave

behavior.

Why,
while

for

example,
and

oxygen
atoms

they do,
it is their

hydrogen
similar
to.

nitrogen
? is meant modes

have be:

under differently
nature

circumstances what their of

Answer

Because
"

But for

by their
of behavior

nature," in which
found ? Answer

the
:

reasons as a

are

So,

matter

do fact,

these

beings
"

actuallybehave. Furthermore,
without which ascribed reality this
as

any

analysis of impossible to
and

the

conception
known,
same

of

law,"

it is
to

tell what
as

is meant shows

by the
that

things
the

to minds

conception is,in part, the

from which is framed.
are reality
"

result

of the
a

experience
for

that

conception of
so-called
to
"

nature
or

things and
not

for minds of each

The

law,

laws, of the being

in part interior
set
"

it ; and
any

they
"

are

thing some-

imposed
which
in the

upon," or
modes

over

above," the beings

law

obey the laws.

Obedience of behavior

to

implies a
source

formity uni-

which

has

its
same

in the

very based

being itself.
upon

This, then, is reallythe

same

conception,
we

the

experience, as

that

which

have

122

THE

REALITY

OF

MIND

already
however,

found

to

be

covered

by the
of modes of

word
one

nature.

Law,
to

always implies
it also relations
to

relations

being
of On
to

other under

beings ;
different

implies different
kinds differing modes variant
own

behavior

beings.

the other its varying

hand,

in

varying its
to the to true

of behavior kinds of

according

relations remain

beings,every
that those is to other also

being must
its
own

its

nature

; otherwise

it loses

peculiar claim
that it

really to
to

be.

It must,
to what

say, in all

does, both have

in relation

respect
which it

beings are
respect
there is

doing
to what

stands, and

have

it is itself

Law essentially.

reignsonly where
beings ; and

."both
as

and respect for self-respect of

other

this is

just
is

true

things as

it is of minds. is

it Now, finally,
1

absolutely impossible corresponding

*
"

to

tell what that

meant

by all this, as

to

anything
idea of

takes

without place in reality,

or

introducingthe
called,in
which which real.
may
now a

purposiveness ; being
to be

what the

we
"

have

elsewhere idea without of

confessedlyfigurative
to the

way,

immanent

belongs
it cannot

very

of every

thing,and
even

be

known

real, or
In

conceived

as

general, therefore, it
and subordinate

be

claimed

that

every

assumption
finds
most

conception which
necessary
to

metaphysics

by its analysisto be

all

reality, belongs
the

obviouslyand
is called
a

to incontestably

that

real being particular

were

which for such

the

mind. it could and

Indeed, if this
be shown that
are

place
physical meta-

contention

all these

assumptions meaning except

of .reality 'to act
'

conceptions
is

quite
from

devoid the known

of

as

such To

meaning

gathered
to
same

mind. other

be, to stand

in

to be self-active, relation, be
a

upon

being,to obey law,

be
"

cause,

to

be

permanent
to be

subjectof states,to
to identical,

the

to-day as

day, yester-

be

one,

all these, and

are

all similar valid for

conceptions, together with

real

the of

proofs that they

beings,are
1

affirmed
See
"

physical realities (projectedinto

to

Introduction

Philosophy," p. 247

f.

124

THE

REALITY

OF

MIND

experience which
treat

it is the

appointed
But of its

task

of

psychology
the

to

however scientifically, of such

a

difficult it may it is also mind

more

find the

plishment accom-

task.

right and
the

the
same

obligationof
and

the
to

philosophy point
out

to

examine

experience, and

ultimate sound

implications
of

in interpretation, and

accordance

with

views

general

metaphysics
The

of the

theory of knowledge.
reference kinds and
:

experience to which roughly be* divided into two

which which of other I
I

has it

been

made

may

is, first,experience

have have selves

as

with

myself ;

it

is, second, experience

of the

indicatingthe
minds. These

character
two
are an

experience
for the

or

are,

however, mutually
necessary
to the

helpfuland highestand
What is it alone

supplementary. They
most

both
answer are

defensible be
as

form

of

question,
with
to what

reallyto
may

all minds
me

Experience
as

myself
I know needed others
even

enable

to affirm

something
will

myself reallyto
to
as

be ; but affirm what

experience

witli others

is
to

enable
true

me

to

approbate itself
are.

that regarding the reality

in

all minds
we

Yet,

when

stated

this limited soul

way,

still find is
a

that,as

Tourgue'nieffhas
unless forest," But
man,
man

said, " The

can

of another the

darksome

we

lightit up
is
no

with

lamp

edge. of self-knowlin

Goethe

less

right in affirming,"Only
is also sound and broad

knows wisdom

himself."
in the

There

chological psy-

German
so

couplet,
"

"

Willst

du

dich

selber erkennen,

sieh wie

die Anderen

es

treiben ;

"Willst du

die Anderen

verstehn, blick in dein eigenes Herz."

And

now

what of

is that

experience with
may be and

my evoked
a

Self,that
and

nomenon phe-

which consciousness, the

studied

as

basis for

framing
?

of validating

conception of penetrating
the this

the

realityof
which who real is

mind

Thorough
it
as

analysis
by
no

and

psychologicalinsight present
affair those the incline
to

means

simple
both

customarily described,
"

and who

by

deny, and
mind.

by those
Both

stoutly affirm,
of

being

of

the

classes

contestants,

THE

REALITY

OF

MIND

125

minimize indeed, ordinarily the interests

is

and

thin

out

the

phenomenon,
Thus As

in
perience ex-

of their reduced
seen,
one

diverse
to
a

views. philosophical

convenient

"simplicity."
in

has

already been
as some

representsthe experience psychologist

the presence consciousness of of sensation-content the
about (localized

though

it

were

simply
a

peculiar form
or

the head talks

as

throat, perhaps,or between

it
were
an

two)
a

andjmoiher
pardoned
so

though
term.
"

envisagement of
"

ble simple indivisibe

,

or soul-being,

soul-" Both

stuff,"
these
vast
an

if

one

may

uncouth
too
"

views

are,

however, altogether1:
the

"

simple

to suit the
serve as

complexity of

phenomenon, (
plication ex-

not

to say, to

and adequate interpretation

of the

import
;"

which

properlybelongs,for
"7 have
as

reflective

thinking,
"I
men,

to

the
"

phenomenon.
was

am;"
on

and

meanwhile

been"

"

allv

questioningthemselves
in these three United

to their

knowledge
it

of what

is affirmed

find propositions,
as

impossible to
plained ex-

deny their truth.

so
an

respects their import, and

as

to

bring

out

their full content, and

we

they
the

amount

to

affirmation mind.
true

of the self-known the

moment

incontestable from

of reality

the this of

But

depart
find
to

sphere engaged

of

import, from
three know the

the.

sphere covered

by the full

content

these

we propositions,

ourselves
some

in

trying to
know with

unknowable,
the mind. what self

imagine
On the

perfectly
hand,
to

unimaginable realityof
is propositions
to know

other

full consciousness one's

is contained
to be, really

in these in

three fullest

the

meaning
When,
examined

of the words.

however, the three propositionsjust laid down

with

are

respect
as

to

the
as

kind

of

faculty,as

it were,

operativein them,
conviction
are

well

with

respect to the them,

here

strength of
ences differ"

which

attaches
to

itself to I
am,

important
and
now,

brought

view.

but

always perceiving or
and

thinking somewhat,
to have

feeling somehow,
must

doing something:

the

experience which

be

126

THE

REALITY

OF

MIND

described
to have

in such immediate

terms

as

this is to be the
"

self-conscious fullest

; it is

self-knowledge,in
then
and

meaning

of

these time

words. and

1 was,

there,
"

just

at that
or

other

perhaps

distant

place,
and be

perceiving
in

thinking
to

somewhat,
the these

feeling somehow,
which
must

doing something:
described such have it is to
the

have
as

experience
is to have of self
as

terms

recognitivememory;
in the been

edge knowlof

existent I have

past, in

fullest
"

meaning

these

words,

all the

meanwhile,
"

in various

places and
is

different

portions of time,
and
it

perceivingor
consciousness
"

ing thinkthis

somewhat, feelingsomehow,
a

doing something:
thens
a
"

statement

which, while
and upon memory
a

implies
basis
to

of self
and

here

and

now, rests

of self in

many and has

"theres,"
kind that which

different

different from

of conviction

attaching itself
the other memory,
two

its truthfulness For

not

belongs to
and

statements.

only
that into

self-consciousness may with

no

but

logical inference
into

be called great difficulty

doubt,

enter

this third In the

proposition.
attention

calling
under

to, and

even

emphasizing strongly,
of the three

important psychological differences

discussion, it
nor

tions proposi-

must

be
nor

remembered

that neither the lest ful-

self-consciousness
sense

memory of these

inference,in words,
One
cannot
can

of

either

three
two.

take become

place fully
nor

without

involving the
without

other

self-conscious
remember

developed

memory

and

intellect ;

without self-cognitively and inference

; nor

development

of self-consciousness
ing, reason-

attain and

knowledge by
memory.

without the states and

self-consciousness functions "I of mental "I

Yet

each

of

life and

expressed by
"I

the three
may

propositions emphasize
one

am,"

was,"

have

been,"
the

of these the other

of this may be

so-called
two.
1

to faculties,

exclusion

of relatively
1

For

the the

truth reader

view,

as

derived
to

from

scientific

study of

the

nomena, phe-

referred

the

author's

"Psychology, Descriptive

and

where Explanatory,"

it is maintained

throughout.

THE

REALITY

OF

MIND

127

For called here

the

that reality

I know is

myself here
and

and

now

to

be,
I

soy
am

h
I

~^

self-consciousness
now,

responsible. I
sentence
were,

know
as

that
to

and

thus
"

both

active
a

determined
that

content
in

of consciousness, the

this is
as

only

expresses

imperfect and,
which the the
use

it

temporally "elongated"
realities

fashion

of words the
or

for

always

tates, necessiself-

functioning and
In such
an

product
have like is

of immediate

knowledge.
and

act

state

self-activity, self-feeling,
attained
every

discriminating consciousness
of

the

ment achieveof
warm

self-knowledge.
this of the

And

achievement with the The

as

knowledge,
conviction
which whether

one particular

suffused

realityof
to be

that

which of
as

is known. itself

being
"

affirms

itself
as

aware or

existent
every act

regarded

subject
"I"

object
is

in

of

self-consciousness
that is known
or as

(the

that
"

knows, etc., or
not,

the

"me"
a

being, etc.)
of

however,

away far-

hidden

substrate

being.

It is

justthis
is here

ing, self-knowand
now

concrete, and

determinate
as

being

which

present
in
can

to

itself other

self-known.

In all such may what Self choose the which real has
as

language, and
to

whatever

language

one

employ,

one

only inadequately express

is to the
a

transaction

of of
or

self-consciousness it.
mere

every

experience
mere

To

describe

transaction, however,

state

of activity

definitive
"

kind, is imperfectlyto describe

it
comes
as

it

Self-knowledge
"

although
a

the

result

of

development
in
an

implies
and words

knowing

being

that

knows

I itself,
be.

actual have
no

indubitable
to

experience, really to
or

We

express,

power

of

thought
in

and the

imagination
attempt
mind
on

to

conceive, the
this self-known

absurdity
If the and

involved

to

deny
of

here-and-now-being
transaction the be

of the

in the

self-consciousness. side its

regarded
ter characdoubt
come

immediacy
which

indubitable

of the conviction
or

no guarantees its validity, can

denial

or us

hesitancy to accept
and

possiblyserve
confidence
in it.

to

between

it,to impair

our

It is

128

THE

REALITY

OF

MIND

philosophicalcommonplace, repetitionand luminousness, implicate the

understood
or

which

has

become

tiresome
its

by
own

almost that

obscure

in the

brightness of
No

avowed

doubt, denial,and hesitancy,all realityof

this
more

self-known announced ago, the

mind.

one

has

ever

clearly than Augustine.

has of fraction

dreds did, hunThis is

of years
no

Church-father

less true

since how

experimental psychology long (say,from

to
a

determined
a

approximately
six
no
or

second

to
;

seven

seconds) it takes

come

to self-consciousness

less
over

true, also,in view

the field of
"

of the

rapid wandering
of those which

of attention in

consciousness, or
"

changes
accompany make

the extent
acts

of the

grasp

of consciousness

of

as they self-consciousness,

accompany

and

an

important part
Nor
can

of all
case

phenomena
argued with
as we

of consciousness. this
"

the

be

witness

"

of selfto be

I consciousness,so

long

understand

its

testimony

confined the

simply
not

to the

self-known
to

"here-and-now-being" of
some

Self,and

to be extended

much inferred,
se,

less

envisaged,
substrate. of

pure

being,

or

being

per

of

an

unknowable

For, unless
no

its

guaranty is given in the very being

or validity can even
"

mind,
as an

argument argument
a

has any of any

have of any
succeed

ence existment argueach

kind.

The

"being
that

is other and

only

series

of mental

processes

according to
the

laws

of the mind's

intellectual is bound

procedure; premises
mind.
start
to

every

drawn, conclusion,logically
is

to its

only by \
finish in

living,combining activityof
assumed,
I the
me.
am

conscious

Excegtas it
existence
or as

and

have

been, from

the argument,

same

no intellect,

argument

has
we

validityfor
well
as

The which
can we

argument

by which

support,
self-known

that

by

try

to

controvert, the
nor

realityof
arguments
is

mind

neither

prove

disprove

it; both

assume

it. in this warm,

Yet, further,it
of the existence

only

full,and
that has all its

vincing ever-con-

consciousness

of self-existence real

knowledge
source

of so-called

things

and

THE

REALITY

OF

MIND

129 and existent the

to'

secure

defence.
no

If I my

am

not

really here
can

now

then
me

object of

knowing

claim it is.

as reality,

here-and-now-known
to

object that
mere

If it

were

sible posit is

as regard the object-Self

phenomenon
that the

when

an

objectof knowledge,
as
mere

it would

follow also. talk of

object-Thing
has

is known been
mere

phenomenon
is to talk

But,
any

as

already
as

explained repeatedly,to phenomena

knowledge
and
to
we
"

of
the

of that
so

which

is absurd
as

self-

contradictory. Indeed, just point of view, psychological

of consciousness the mind. of
an as

long

cling
the
a

and

regard only
affirm

phenomenon
the

such," we

must

as

bitable fortiori indu-

known

of (as "here-and-now-being") reality

For, psychologicallyconsidered, every

the

phenomenon being, as
of the

knowledge emphasizes
active

highest
the mind.

form On

of the

of knowing subject,

this form

mind's

functioning,with

the activities

involved
"

(inference,
call it what that
physical meta-

faith,assumption, or
you element "belief in the in"
or a

belief, reaching reality,

The
nature

will),all realitydepends.
which, while
"belief with

of

it is called

in the
"

subject a

reference to
it

becomes reality,

objecta "being real,"renders

character that which the Man for is known
to

impossible to give things

have any mind. is

the indubitable

which reality

preferenceover
At this

belong to
of all

point

ontologicalaspect
as a

knowledge

again
in

reached.

knowing subject is metaphysical

function. in the All form and the real of

respect of the
to

knowing being

objects are
his

given

him In

as

real

objects of

knowledge.
but than when

general, knowledge
less

realityare objectsare
to tear out

lates, corre-

no certainly

truly when
And the if
we

minds of the
act

they
of in

are

things.

try

phenomenon
of belief
we

knowledge

ontologicalpostulate (or
essence own as

reality)which
lose the real all

is of its very

edge, knowl-

do not lose

being
all

of

our

minds
once.

simply, ticism Agnosto

an

but

we

being
the

and

knowledge
the

at

here

pushes

explanation of
9

psychic fact

130

THE

REALITY

OF

MIND

extreme

which
outcome

does

away

with and

its in

essential

quality

and

essential world But of

altogether ;
in
one

losingthese, the
wreck.
as

whole

realityfalls
act

common

the

of

self-consciousness,so far
memory,

it may

be

sidered con-

apart from
the
was

implicatesand
which I know I

guarantees

only
"I

"here-and-now-being"
"

really am.
with than

is,however,
and

propositionwhich certainlywith
In time form its most and it is
no

is made less

scarcely
the

less confidence

frequency
form and

proposition "I
is,
In
arouse as

am." both

general
vague

this

ment state-

to

place,
of the and

indefinite.

this

its and

general
confirm is
act
"

likewise

most

impotent
mind. every in For

to

conviction

realityof

But clear

this and "I

conviction content-ful

experienced
of th of

implied
and

recognitive memory.
'92, at
one a

example:
of the with the

was,

on

July
upon

half o'clock in that the company obscured

afternoon,
A. B. and

the

top of Asama-yama,
of
not
a

others, in the midst

cloud hide

surrounding
very the
sore

landscape
weary

but

did

crater, feeling

and
a

with

lying most
with the wooden

of the

night
ridden of the
a

before from

on

floor of

tea-house, and morning

on

having

four

to eleven

of that and

saddle

Japanese
volcano's upon

pack-horse,
cone

having
I was,

thereafter

climbed
scene,

yet greatly exhilarated

by

the and

conversing

such active that

topics,etc."
and determined

there

then, thus

consciously
; it was

in content I know

of consciousness

was

there; and

all this

beyond

the

of possibility

doubt. On such

making, however,
an

a or

careful rather

psychologicalanalysis of
such
a

act

of memory,
as

series

of

acts

of

remembering,
"

the

foregoing,it

is found

that the different features of

moments

"

of the

the complex resultant,

a

different different indeed

the total

memory-picture, have
of the
"
"

somewhat it
was

originand
the
"

differingdegrees '92,"on
were
"

validity. That
of the month of the o'clock

year

th
a

day

July," and

that the hours

"

one

and

half

afternoon,"

four

of the

132

THE

REALITY

OF

MIND

sion ?

Then

the

memory-knowledge
; it too

is also be called But

considered upon
was

fit

subject for
the

discussion
upon

may

to

display original
of
can

grounds

which
"

it reposes. immediate for the those

the

knowledge, things or
be
no

so-called

knowledge,"
which

whether there

of self ?

Then

memory-knowledge
are

grounds superior to
nature

to be found

in the

very

of the

memory-knowledge phenomenon
nature

itself.

Still

further,however, in the psychological descriptionand

the of memory, it is

explanation of
notice that the

important

to

very

of the

complete memory-picture precise determination

a

(or, to speak
the

more

accurately,the
of

of

psychic
to

processes

is,to recollection)
on

certain

large
I

extent, itself subject to modification

grounds
"

of inference. that
am

Suppose
asked,
yama the and
one
"

"

recur

to

the

example just given

that you
a were on

How

do you

know and

the

top of Asamaafternoon
my

at

one precisely

half

o'clock

of the

?"

replymight noting
of my looked the

be

"

Because

I remember upon

lookingat
arrival."

watch here

hour

immediately
say
:
"

But

companions might
at your
were

I remember

that distinctly hour

you
as

watch

and

announced

this very

when,

yet, we

only half-way up
to argue,
"

the cone."

"And,

besides,"
one

he

might
a

go

on

it is very

unlikely that
of based

would

expose On

watch

which

one

valued

to the fumes

sulphur,"etc.
upon memory

hearing

this

contradictorystatement,
with
my own,

equally immediate
; I

and

the

argument
to revise my

urged in its
own so
ory-picture mem-

support, I might reasonably be induced

find might actually in it
it now
was

or modified,

obscured

that my

confidence original

partly gone.

Something

to prove so likely similar,though scarcely

occur

effective, might also

recall of the obscuring

with

reference

to the

more

accurate

cloud, the time however, I did

think the crater of flame aesthetical
not

of its appearance, feel

sore

its extent, etc.

That,
not burst out-

and

weary

exceedingly,did
and occasional

with

its horrible
not

rumblings
be

did impressive, it would

experience a high degree of

if not absurd, quiteuseless,

enjoyment,

THE

REALITY

OF

MIND

133

for

any
to

one

else

to

call upon

his

memory

or

adduce

ment argu-

prove.

In

then, general,
was

the clear and

vivid memory-

knowledge

of what
j

given originally to
as

knowledge

by

-consciousness self indubitable

considered, psychologically

respects the

content

of realityknown, approaches the original

"

itself. knowledge of self-consciousness

In the and

foregoingsentence
was

the word

"

approaches
ij or

was

used

this word when

carefullychosen,
are

fh"epsychology of
to
cover

memory,

its data
"

extended

so

as

the various

faults

of memory,

its
to

ordinary mistakes,lapses, cal pathologiof the

two

forms, liabilities
so representation,

confusion is few

leading kinds

of

that what that

case

reallyonly imagined gets

or none can own

itself tailing de-

recollected,
"

shows

of the statements vindicate and feelings of the

any
as

concrete

of memory Even one's

themselves

absolutelycertain.
not to

thoughts
time

might might
as

only get displaced in respect

them
in

exact

assigned
in

the
to
ever

past
that

stream

of
more

consciousness, but
or

also get its

assigned

stream,

less

definitely,
in it.

past, without
the

having actually occurred

of
our

Doubtless

degrees and shadings

and and

lower of
our

affective

nomena, phe-

the processes,
and

clearness,cogency,

order
our

ratiocinative

the elevation

purity of
been remember

aesthetical, ethical,
cases

sentiments, have religious

from what
we now

in many them

actuallyfar
candid

different But and calls

to be. to which
a

after

making

all

possibleadmissions
of the facts of
on

thorough

examination basis of

empiricalpsychology philosophy
not

attention, the

which

the

of

mind

placesthe knowledge
or .even

one's

past realityis

destroyed
much
as

impaired.
of the
concrete

This

realitycovers
I say
"

just
I
"

so

is

affirmed
to
some

mind and

whenever definite

was

with

reference Such

experience
the in

in the

past.
the

knowledge
of This mind

is

knowledge
is

still ;

reality of
act

object
still.
"

knowledge
known

implicated
mind in

the
"

of

memory

reality is
as

not

indeed, the
the

here-and-now-being
act

of

by

developed

of

self-con-

134

THE

REALITY

OF

MIND

sciousness

it is

the

"

then-and-there-being by
mind in the the of certainty

"

of

mind
act

as

representativelyknown recognitivememory.
be But

developed
conviction

of

ing attachcan

itself to the affirmation

is the

highest possiblethat
to

given to
It is

any

objectof memory-knowledge.
the

impossibleto put
not

proposal to
in

prove

or

disprove
terms

the that

of recognitive validity memory do

assume

general

into any
so

the

whole the

question,and accepted view.

could

evince Proof

the itself

absurdityof
cannot

all

oppositionto
a

proceed
it were,

singlestep
For the

without

of assuming the validity be trusted the

ing mean-

the act carry,

as

of memory.

unless

memory

to

meaning

of the would

premises and
no

of the

conclusion, not
the very

only

valid

inferences

be

but possible,

conception

of all that

to validity

inference

would

be

destroyed. Moreover,
the

synthetic activityof
in every

judging
involves

which

drawing of the conclusion

instance for its

is itself

dependent, both

for its character

and

validity, upon
inference
some

the assumed involve

a

trustworthiness conclusion But how is

of memory.
some

Every
to

must

from
one

judgment
what which

other

judgment.
without
"

to

know

ment judgmine deter-

to conclude

memory

of the How is

grounds
one

this the

question of
of

what of

"

to

conclude, with
to

rational

conviction the

truth

attaching itself
term

the

ticular par-

character

conclusion, without

memory

of the which the such

point
process memory from
"

of

and starting, moved

as

of the middle
can

through

How it

argument

be tested

without of
"

makes
same

to repeat possible to

the progress

thought
view "re"

the of
"

grounds
process

the

same

conclusion,
for purposes

the of

the ?

of ratiocination

fication veri-

Now,
fuses in skill, involve
1

it is true

that

the and

blind

leap
the

to

conclusion
"

which
"

with
a

1 perception

guides

display of
way, does

tact

and
to

nearly

or

quite unconscious
of

not

seem

the verifications Comp.

"

recognitive memory.

The

form

of

and Psychology, Descriptive

Explanatory," pp.

318 ff.

THE

REALITY

OF

MIND

135

inference
an largely

sometimes

called

"

instinctive
movement

"

is

undoubtedly
with

unconsciouslydetermined
that does of
not

of the mechanism

of ideas its correlate inference

involve necessarily It is not,

knowledge
neither
we are

reality.
are

however, of such
but

so-called is it of
a

that .we

now

speaking;

merely mechanical
under
a

movement

of the ideas that The other which of

speaking
of
rea'

the

term

recognitivememory.
one

consciousness
as

connection
or

of

judgment
a

with fact

judgment
must

its

//

son,
as

ground,

is

psychic
of the
that

be

recognized
It is all the
!

"""-v.

highly

distinctive

work

human

intellect.

upon

this consciousness of science

inferential

knowledge, with
of itself
can

fair fabric But the

and

of the truths

philosophy,reposes. depends
be upon the*

of validity

this consciousness it the

validityof recognitivememory;
either
memory. to

never

employed'
of such

prove

or

to

disprove speak
of

trustworthiness

too, when Plainly, it,and

man's
resort
source

we

improving by good
man,

memory, memory,

ing clarifyor one

correcting poor
be taken
"

memory

memory must

by that of another
to

the

appeal
and

in the last

this

same

mysterious
the

ultimate

of

authority, namely,

to

knowledge

of the

past

The moment, however, that we by recognitive memory. to call the memory-function by the term knowledge,^ agree its
was

and ontologicalsignificance the

case

guaranty is established,
"

as

with

the immediate the

knowledge
any

of self-consciousness.
concrete act

Whether memory
"

particulars of
with
some
"

of

and
can

only

degree
my

of

and particularity

concreteness

I actualize
"

as being-then-and-there,"

given
the the

in memory
"

be

more

or

less this

defensible I that
as
now

as

particulars,
remember is is

fact that
same

I was"

and
must

that
be

that was,

regarded given as
a

indisputable. It

not indisputable,

because

it is

matterbf

proof which indisputable

the

may

be

successfully maintained
to and to

by

syllogisticprocesses
it is

arguments againstother contradictory

because
assume

; but

implicate the past realityof

136

THE

REALITY

OF

MIND

Ego

is of the because

very memory

essence

of memory
even

as

form in

of

knowledge,

y and

cannot

be

called

out question with-

this How fact of

same

assumption. unity and

of identity memory,
we

the

mind

are

concerned
sort

in the and

knowledge by
is is

and shall

what

of

unity
on.

identity this fact

now

concerns,

inquire later
the
"

What
"

interests

us

simply this, that

theri-and-there
all have
act

realityof
memory. 7 of the This find How know
no

mind To

indisputablyimplied
h recognitively

in
to

recognitive

remember the

knowledge
of memory.
to

being in

past of the subject of the

is

is the truth
an

which
to

reallybrought

out
as

by the effort
the

answer
a

such that

absurd
was

questions

following:
in the

could itself

being

not

actuallyexistent
How could
a

past

as

existent

in that
some

past ?

being with
itself when
but
as

past know
in its that the

by memory
own

other what
we own

being
is

than

existent reaches

past?
of

For

memory,

it

development knowledge

which my
"

call

knowledge,
as

just

this,
"

experience
the immediate is the

involving knowledge
of my

my

"

then-and-there-being just as ;
"

of Self in the act of self-consciousness

"

knowledge

here-and-now-being
But if limit the doubt

scepticism and
on

agnosticism

are

to be

pushed

to the

utmost

epistemological side,and
or

the

condition

of

uncertainty
is to

or

denial

regarding all memory-knowledge

it is not the

be

maintained, then

past realityof
;

mind

alone the

which

drops down
my

into the dark which

abyss of nescience
into
mere

it is not

of reality

mind
"

first vanishes

phenomenon
and
most

of memory:

it is all

reality. But

it is first
as

the reality of things. Except irrecoverably

on

they
wife,

hang
sun,

dependent
moon,

memory,
;

with

its faith

and

knowledge,
"

and

stars

birds, beasts, and

"

fishes ; the M.

children, and
is
so

all
to

humanity past save),

which
"

(the beings
close

Flournoy
the

desirous

all
ever

are

engulfed in that bottomless

behind
ever

pit of

non-existence

follows

present being affirmed

and by self-consciousness,

swallows

THE

REALITY

OF

MIND

137 of the For

as

them

all
on

as

fast the
"

as

they
to

come as

forth their
"

out

womb

of

nothing
else has

way

nothing

tomb.

nothing
in the
berer's remema

its

then-and-there-being guaranteed
the very
as

implicated
the

inseparablyin
same manner own

nature

of

recognitivememory, being
of

the

past self-known
I
"

mind.

/
'

But
tween

the the
on

proposition"
present
yet
"

have and

been" the

during
remembered

the

time
"

be-

I-am

I-was,"
of the

f'r

reposes

other

and

different

grounds.
upon

gically Psychologrounds
from

considered, this
consciousness

proposition rests
to
a

belonging
in which

quite different

order
or

phenomena
memory I say, the
"

either

self-consciousness
What these 1 do

recognitive
mean

are

chiefly emphasized.
been
as

when since
an perience ex-

I have

in

existence

twenty years
had
on

time
"

when,
? And
a

I how

now

remember,
I
as

such what

do

verify, or
this?

grounds

believe, such

statement

and Epistemologically and the

considered, ontologically

the
way

import
"

proof

of existence from the

continuouslyall
remembered
" " "

the

through, as
the

it were,

to then-and-there-being

known consciously order of discussion

here-and-now-being require a quite different

from On that followed hitherto. of the

beginning an
proposition
"

examination
"

meaning
ever
"

and I

of validity

this the
"

1 have in

been," since

was," up till

moment
"

covered from the

a

the

knowledge expressed by saying,

of the power of reflective of
a

lam"

point of view of empiricalpsychology,it is

found

to involve

largedevelopment
the

thinking. Faithfullydescribed,indeed, the

consciousness which

phenomenon
Let the adult

proposition states plainlyincludes

conviction.

strong and
average

quite

irresistible

of

but intelligence,

without
or

special cultivation
Have then
you
an

in the with

analysis of self-consciousness
the

special acquaintance
you

problems
all the ? and

of

philosophy,be asked,
since the first
to greet likely

really
ber remem-

existed

time

thing

which

he will be

the

inquirywith

incred-

138

THE

REALITY

OF

MIND

ulous

smile

or

vacant

stare.

This

is not of the

so

much

because because called view mode

stream in

he cannot he
cannot

comprehend comprehend
at

the how

meaning
the

questionas
can

actual

fact the

be of
a

question
mental of

all. is this

But

what, from
fact? It

point simply
flow

of of

psychology,

actual certain

is

procedure, a accompaniment
it cannot be

determinate

in the the
"

consciousness, involving complex activities and

of rational convictions. As

rious myste-

enon," phenomall

described faithfully

without

noting
of

these
concrete

activities ; its form also. of the

description must
the activities, may

include, besides

the
victions con-

accompaniment
be forced
account

Or, perhaps, we

into consent
as

to

take
most

the

convictions and

especially into
permanent
to

among

the

important
that
"

of the

activities.

What,
1 birth

then, is it
is
one

which the

consciousness

actually gives
"

expressed by
of the
most

proposition,
and fact

I have

been of

"

Plainly,
"moments" of nitive
an

obvious

important

the

of this

complex psychic
number

implies the possibility

acts

indefinite On Your
"

and

variety of
asked, What

of recogbe
mean

memory.

this

point, again, let

when
"

consciousness do
you

consulted.

plain man
been I remember

by saying,
answer,
over
"

I have

? will

almost

certainly proceed
and
such

to

Why,
"

that I was/" years ago, in

this
a

over

and

again. again, even

and hour I

Once

I was,

place,under
thus and different

such
so

and circumstances, thinking,feeling,

planning

longer

ago,

was

elsewhere, under

circumstances, with

markedly
by.

different
more

and thoughts,feelings,

plans ;
but of
an

yet again, much

or

recently,or
the
same

yesterday, or
I that tell you many other

two

gone

I was,

it, as

remember, distinctly
I
am sure

existent recall

at these

points
sions occa-

of time

; and

I could

yet

many

when

I should

remember distinctly and

in

that I was." the consciousness determinate

"

This of of

of recognitivememory, potentiality

it, is then
mental

prime

"moment" the

that

flow been."

life which

warrants

conclusion,

I have

140

THE

REALITY

OF

MIND

necessary

in this connection
stream acts to be

to do

more

than

call attention widens

go
on.

to

the fact that the

as

bridged itself
themselves
"

ceaselessly
All these

the successive
acts

of memory
"

very

of memory

are

moments

in the

onflowing stream.
those

It is the

of thought, with distinctively, faculty

phases of
pany accom-

metaphysical assumption (or ontological leaps) which

its functions, that

bridges over
the that

all gaps

in the

knowledge, reality
is in

by self-consciousness
of
no over now our own

and Here from

recognitivememory,
manner

of the

minds.

of its

procedure
in
as

respect different
the
to

which every

it follows real
as

bridging
known
to

gaps

that the

lie between
same

being,

be, and

real

being

remembered process

have

been.

Indeed, without
its beliefs with

relyingupon

the of

of reflective

thinking, with
and
warm

accompaniment

ontologicalpostulates
cannot
even

conviction, we
or

speak
any

of

any

continuous

real

being whatever,
and
to

of

realityas
of external
to

belonging to change

motion

in the world appears

objects. If,for example,

same

perceivewhat point B,
B and

be
now

the
at

similar being (that is, the sufficiently

being)

the

point A,

and the X
now

then line A

at

the

still later say: from "I A

at

the

point (?,in
that the
same

(7,1 may
all the way

know
to C."

has been

in motion
at

Although
I that the

only perceiveit
B and
at

C, and

only remember passed only in

that

perceived it at
entire
a

A, I nevertheless

affirm confidently
over

it,as continuouslyand
line from A
to

reallyexistent, has
C. has in and
some

By

similar and

conclusion, which
but also

its basis not

ception per-

memory,
to telescope

inference, the
advanced

astronomer

directs his

another

point along the

; and

line of movement he has his he the than the

followed

by

heavenly body
sensation of existence.
to

when affirms
does

phenomenally
of the the

similar

he light,

knowledge
doubt several the

continuouslysame
the "this"

Nor

realityof
the

being inferred
and
now

have

been
any
"

in

positions between

"that"
"

more

of reality

being perceived"

and

here,"

THE

REALITY

OF

MIND

141

or

of the the

remembered being definitely

same

as

"

then

"

and

"

there."

With

persuasion of knowledge specimens

at

does

the

microscopist
This suasion pertake
are

examine

his

of animal when
even

and

plant

life.

is not

all shaken

important changes
when those

place in
such

the

object known
enters
even

; not

changes

of the most

and transforming character. startling

as

Indeed, all
not

knowledge
In

into the seeks and

theory of development
builds itself upon,
a

only admits
basis.

of, but

similar and that

spiteof changing states, in spite of

transformations of

wonderful

unexpected
neither memory which

character, in spiteof gaps

the
senses nor

immediate
can

knowledge by
science

knowledge by
with

overcome,

affirms
to

of
"

everything
it-is." In

undertakes investigation

deal

It has

really been brief,

per,

all the way without

through, from

the

it-was

to

the

this function memory,

of reflective science is

to supplement thinking,

ceptionand
the

wholly impossible;
goes

and

without is called dream.

"

ontological assumption
is

which

with

what it,

science,
Nor
are

nothing

but

the

dreamer's

well-ordered so-called
"

is it found

that the most in

agnosticof
warmth of

scientists when

lacking particularly
this

conviction

the

of validity

this metaphysical leap, ontologicalpostulate,

own

respectingtheir question.
If the of its

alleged knowledge
this form considered of
more

of

things is
the

called in

bearings of
of the

thinking, and
in

meaning
appear of the

were results,

it would detail, life and upon

many

that much
more

language

of

common

important
class
"

terms

of science

depend
"

it.

Of the latter
"

might
energy,

be mentioned
"

all that scientific talk about

"

tential po-

latent

"

etc., states, tendencies," strains,"

and instructs forms
us

with the

which brilliant

physics
relations

entertains

; and

as

well molecular intra-

pictures which
of the science

chemistry
atoms.

of

the

But

what, pray,
with

would its and

become

of the

proud
to

of
over

biologicalevolution,if
its gaps that

right were

denied For

bridge
who
can

thought
are

imagination?

deny

gaps

abundant

142

THE

REALITY

OF

MIND

enough
few

in it ?

And

who

can

deny
?

that

from

the known

as

it

|"now-is"
so-called of

to whatever

"thenmemory

was," biologicalevolution
The in truth
a

has this

stepping-stonesin
science consists

is that

almost

wholly

debatable would be

system

arranging

abstract
were

thoughts. Indeed, it
before rank
"

strictly ophy philostific scienof

if it justifiable

called to account

the bar of

(however
material

this

might
of

be

deemed
"

heresy

in

circles)for constructing a
realities out
to

then-was and

for the world

mythological
in known

imaginary beings.
this reality, science the his

Certainly,as
has
man

solid

ground

frail

standing indeed
he

compared

with

that which of reality

plain
own

finds when existence.

affirms

the continuous

soul's

When,
as

however, the grounds

to

on

which

our

conviction been from

"

poses reare

the

of validity

the

proposition"
"

I have

examined, they critically

on are

are

found
I

quite different
"

those

which
not

repose

the

propositions
but

am

and I

"

I was."
am,

They
very
not

only
of
me

different
act

inferior.

That

the does

nature

the

of

developed
/ But admits
was

self-consciousness

permit
of
remember

to doubt

; that

is

fullyguaranteed
been, when
called in

in the act I cannot

recognitive memory.
that I
was,

that / have of

being
as

question;
be

while gaps

to affirm

that I have actual the

reallybeen,
of

mind, during those

when

no

function

mind-life,no
"

psychoses to
this may

attributed
out not
even

to

subject,actuallyoccurred,
but which
a

turn

only

an

unwarrantable the basis

on

meaningless proposition.
of reality mind

Yet
as

thus

the

rests,

affirmed

by the proposition/ have

any

portant been, is in certain imcan

respects superiorto
the of reality
"

which

be

placed beneath
I remember of I

any

material

thing.
two

That that
"

I have

been," between
is
an

periodswhen
reaches
a

was,"

inference

which

high degree
that

but probability,
may
not

of

only. probability
have

It is conceivable

all the while

"

been, in any intelligible meaning

the existence of mind. In-

of the words

to

be," as appliedto

THE

REALITY

OF

MIND

143

deed, it is impossible to tell in what except

as a indicating mere

meaning

of the

words,

of possibility when
a

the renewal
as

of actual
we

which, being (a possibility

it is actualized
mere

renewal,

regard as
that /

certaintyinstead of
been

I can possibility),

affirm
to the

have

during those
states

gaps

when, according
It
was

no hypothesis,

mental

occurred.

the

impression philosophy
to
save

made

by

this

uncertaintywhich always only

of of
as a

led the Cartesian It desired

to infer that

the mind

thinks. But the

true

the tesian Carthe

of reality

mind

in this way.

the

argument

of the

philosophy saves
of potentiality
saves a

abstract mental

conception of
existence
or

renewal

; and

iti

this

at

the For

price
mind,

contradiction

disregard of|

psychic facts.
is not The
one

for all other

beings,bare potentiality
has in

worth

saving

at any

price.
similar

inferred
at

continuous least the for

of mind, however, reality

respect
can

preference over
material

any

reality
"

that
to

be claimed
to the

things.
X
at the to
same

It is conceivable
"

recur

illustration

already employed (p. 140)

end of any the

that

the

physicalbeing perceivedas
appear B the

line

((?),
it

although it
at

exactly similar
and A in the
to simulate

beings

remembered

points
at the

line, and

although
of
one

appear the
same

right time
from with
as

the movement
to

and be in

being
same

through
the

C, should

still not The

realitythe
which

remembered
at in

beings.

being
in appearance the and

appeared,
to

remembered have
at A

however i?,

similar

X,

may

been may

realitysome reallybeen
to

Y;

being which being,

"

appeared
some

have

yet another
that
ment move-

namely,

Z.
one

Indeed, it is conceivable
may
seem

however

continuously
same

observe line

the

of the the fact

may

thing along
been that
were

the
an

entire indefinite

AC, in reality
of
at

have

number

ciently suffithe

similar various observed of this

beings
sort

successivelyperceived
the line. Series
not

points along
are

of

nomena phemay

only conceivable,they
very

actually be

produced

without

intricate

optical appa-

144

THE

REALITY

OF

MIND

ratus.

The

same

conclusion
one

holds
not to
see

true

of the

continuous
"

realityof
however
one

any

thing

when

in

motion,
no

and

this,
of

it closely

is watched another

that

substitution

similar
a

for reality of

takes

place. Nothing, indeed, adjust ing regardand and

us

but

network

highly probable conclusions,which

the firmest
most

the

explanation in ontological
manner

ate appropri-

to

our

total of

experience, prevents things

world
as

from

the then But such

a

whole

world
a

momently actuallynew

quenched
realities.

replacedby

similar

of the

of concerning the reality

actuallyremembered
not

self,
a

supposition as
what precisely and

the
even

foregoing is
of
"

simply

to

high
For both
was

degree improbable,
this
means am

it is

absolutelyinconceivable.
act

is

the

recognitive memory
"I
was

necessarilyimplicates,
real I that
now

; and
case

I that of

the of

same

am."

In the

both
"

things
"

and which

minds, however, the

lies between
"

guaranty for the

" "

have-been the

the remembered
can

was

and that

scious self-con-

am-now,"
But for

be

found

only
results the

in

confidence reflective

which

is attached

to

the

derived

of much

thinking.
"

certain in whose the

points in
behalf

past life of the Ego,

can

namely,
evoked,
"

for those
we

recognitive memory by
this
an

be

have

guaranty furnished
the

absolute
to

of thinking impossibility the

"

contrary
not to

; and

belongs

of mind, reality

as

it does

the

of things. reality I should

to

I have

been,"
as

"

of this it is
not

impossiblethat
the "have-been" be covered

doubt,
cover a

so

long

I than

do

extend
can

larger area
"

that which

by

the indubitable

memory

I was." does
not

Who,
for its
own

however, that
sake

enjoy metaphysical quibbling

the claim
cover

will refuse mind

to

to extend
so as

of continuous

real existence and there

for the
never

to

all those
states

forgotten,
of which

perhaps

again
In

be

remembered,
in the

actuallywas
?
to

self-consciousness

past of mental
cannot

development
denied

general, the

term

knowledge
to

be
to

conclusions,with

respect both

things

and

THE

REALITY

OF

MIND

145

minds, that
which

rest

upon the

the essentially

same

basis

as

that

in reality of beings that only continuity it were, as are to be or reoccasionally, immediately known membered to have

establishes

been.

The

whole

body
An

of

physicalscience
we

consists do not
to

of think

just such
of
to

conclusions. material

agnosticism which
have
no

applying to
our

things,we

right

attempt What,

apply to

own

minds. said of those there gaps in the uity continmemory where

"

however, shall
existence

be

of mental
or

where

is not

only no
be

well-grounded inference reallywere

or no

of actual

but psychic facts,

to

there

such ?

facts existent The

more

subsequently
to this must
no no

remembered

inferred be

complete answer
answer

question

must

postponed.
:

The

which
are

be

given, however, is brieflythis

states,
existent of the
no

Where

there

mental

psychic
content

functions

actually exercised,
we

really speak
that
swoons plete com-

of

consciousness,there
of
a a

cannot

real
one
or

existence

mind. and
or

But

does

this

mean

when
away,

falls into because of

deep
blow

dreamless of disease

sleep,or
sinks be ? the

into

unconsciousness,one
if the words
"

ceases
"

really to
to

Certainly,
self-known
if I For
cease

real As

being

are

refer
no

to

reality of
from all

mind. the

mind,
and

exist

longer
of mind.

functions

activities

the

life consists of actual mentality ; it is the really being self-conscious, self-active, knowing,remembering,
and
as thinking,

realityof

mental

mind.

Bare
"

abstract substitute

of future potentiality

mentalityis
The truth

"

we

repeat

no

for,or

even

mental

representativeof,the real being of the mind.

may be

brought sleep to
disease
:

out

by

counter

question. Suppose
sciousness uncon-

the dreamless caused

return

be continued
or

the forever,
never

by

blow

to be

followed

by
ceivable con-

to consciousness

on

what

ground, and with what

existence
a

meaning,
be affirmed ?

could the the

the continued actual actual

10

of that

mind

Only

fact of

resumption of selfof the renewed

consciousness,and

connection

146

THE

REALITY

OF

MIND

mental memory,

life with
can

the

past mental
the inference
"

life
"

by

acts

of been with

recognitive
from which the
as

warrant

I have
"

beginning
the

until

now."

The

potentiality
strive to the

fruit of reflective
to account

thinkingwe

reason satisfy

in its
"

attempt
and the

for what

lies between

present

I-am

"

past

"

instead I-was," is the negation of reality

of its

equivalent.
It is in this

respect, then, that the

the mind
is contrasted

conception of
with
"

tinuous con-

for reality
x

the
recur

conception again to
I
now

of the

continuous
same

for things. reality

"

For

to

example
the

if I know the

that
same

the

thing Jf, which

thing
and
as

perceive at
remember
at the

point "?,is
the then I cannot

that

which

perceiving at
been in existence

point B,
think the

previous to point
A

that

point A,

of possibility
every

its not of the C.

having
line If X A. is

continuouslyat
some

C,
a

or

of

other
may

line

between
be to

and

composite being,it
by
circuitous
a

indeed from A

taken C ; and
or

apart and
it may
be

conveyed piecemeal, as
removed
to
some

it were,
and

unseen

path

then

brought
like

C ; while

meantime

reallydifferent
line A

but

seemingly
C. stated
"

body obviouslymoves
A the similar science
move

along the
of reflective
a more

result of

thinking is often
restricted way.

by

physics,in
A
every to

body
C."

cannot

from

C, along the line A

C without A and

passing through [That

be this it
can

between point successively

with proposition,

whatever
as

of for

ontologicalpostulates
all

involves, is accepted
no

true

things, there
discussion
us

doubt. for

The
our

interesting metaphysical
confidence in it cannot

of the the
over

grounds
this

occupy
to

at

present time.] If,however, the effort be made

carry

analogy
said

to

the

existence For
on

of the
can

the
one

mind hand

in
"

time, it
as

breaks

down

completely.
"

has the

already been
be affirmed

no

meaning

be

discovered
as

for

that proposition
as

the real existence

of the mind,

mind,
such

must

at continuing(to speak figuratively)

points

CHAPTER

THE

CONSCIOUSNESS

OF

IDENTITY,

AND

SO-CALLED

DOUBLE

CONSCIOUSNESS

THAT
was,
or

I,who
in
no

now

exist,am
how

the
many

same so a

as ever

the I that of my

formerly
bered rememmen

matter

past

inferred

experiences, is
with the
most

which proposition intense Both the the made and

generally maintain
conviction

indubitable of this of its

no

respectingits certainty.
the

meaning
conviction

proposition and
certainty reposes
little debate.

grounds

on

which
been

have, however,

subjects of
course, its
"

Any dispute over

with the

its

validityis,of

most

intimatelyconnected
On the
one
"

of interpretation of the

meaning. Identity
"

hand, certain
argue
as

advocates the grasp

so-called

of Mind could

though

of human the Self

consciousness
as a
"

by

some

supreme

effort

envisage
and

pure

entity,a being per

or

se, the

self-same

unchangeable subject
all the life and well-known
to

ground

of

the

phenomena,

through
to

changes which
On upon the that

actuallybelong
the other flux

mental

its development

hand, other

psychologistsinsist
such
an

perpetual
the very of lack

of consciousness, to
of

tent ex-

conception anything
even

change

loses

all definite with

meaning
which In the

by

relatively permanent
into contrast. that

change
mind,

itself may
nature

be thrown of

discussing the
of
we

identity which
the

may view
to

be that

affirmed have

shall chosen. also be

maintain The conceded

points of
maintained.

already been
view
must

rights belonging
and

these These

points of

THE

CONSCIOUSNESS

OF

IDENTITY,
the

ETC.

149

rights are
a

all summed

up

in this

one,

"

right

to

give

rational
as

treatment although speculative,

are

to mental
"

ena phenomquately inade-

they
"

described faithfully

and

however In

explained by empirical psychology. particulardiscussion,then, something

from wish
to

carrying again
be

out

this

must

borrowed
we now

general metaphysics.
borrow, after

The

conception which
and freed
course

it is clarified

from that
can

internal of
one
"

contradictions
or

by critical treatment, is of
"

self-sameness,"

identity." For, indeed, questionwhether spoken

of
as

how

discuss intelligently considered

the

the mind

is to
own

be

self-same, or
some

knowing
be

its

identity,unless
for these very
must

definite ?

meaning
the

first

obtained

words be

Here, too,
without have results

results

of reflective detail the

thinking
processes It is

accepted
the

retracing in
been reached.

by which

customary, especiallyin circles permeated

accompany the modern

with

those
and

prejudiceswhich
to pursuit,

physical science
the

its

insist upon

and independent stability with

nency permaations fluctuway

as

of

things as

contrasted
contrast

dependency
that all

and
a

of mind.
seems

This

is often stated the truth of

in such
our

to

of imply forgetfulness statable

edge knowlthere

of is much

things is
sound

only

in terms

change.
Greek

For

sense

in that view the

of the ancient

phy philosoand

which
so

emphasized
all character

changeableness,perpetualflux,and
as

unrealityof

things

in

contrast

with

the eternal
we

unchangeable
of of
in
man
as

of ideas.

if Certainly,

may and

speak
events
or

having

consciousness

of the character it is

the any

so-called way

physical world,
in this The the
and
or

nothing permanent
such

self-same
contains.

world, which

objective

consciousness is this mind

:

important psychologicaltruth
in

It is

only of

similar

things that the human

aware

is

immediately
of the

indisputably
the identical

;
an

'

all

ception con-

self-same

is
a

extremely
amount

subtile
1

and

complex affair,resulting from

large

See

and Explanatory," pp. "Psychology, Descriptive

274 f., 293 f., 447 f.

150

THE

CONSCIOUSNESS

OF

IDENTITY,

ETC.

of of
we

reflective

thinking, and
it

"shot In

through"
is

with
:

variety By sight
come

postulates. ontological
know the the similar ; but
same.

it might fact,

be said

only
even

by faith that

we

to of

know

And

this

is

more

indisputablytrue
those

things than
To

it is of minds.
senses

ordinary perception by the

"

things

are

called the
of states
or can

same,"

or

"

whose identical,"

successive
some

changes
idea,

be traced with
to
serve we

enough
the may their

of

conformity to

type, of change
In order

practical purposes

of identification.
use

that

re-cognize things,make

of
too

them, adapt ourselves

to

changes, we
exact
or on

must
even

not

be

scrupulous
if allow of the and often

about their

insisting upon
different
to be too

nearly
other in
our

exact

in similarity
we

states.

But,
and

the

hand,
mate esti-

ourselves

loose of

indefinite
we

permissiblelimits
of in their relations influence

change,

make

the serious
are

fatal mistake

confounding things that

and

really
needs,
this is

quite different
for his indeed

effects.

The

child that

the safety, the very brute

same

of mental

conviction

dog which

bit him

yesterday; although
ing snarlyesterday,
even

to-daythe
and which later. and

looks

and pleasant, His often

is not, as that indeed

showing
appear But
even

his teeth. like

is
are

lesson
not

those
same

things
comes

most

the

this lesson
more

less important for scarcely for his

his

safety;

it is

important
and of his

edge. growth in preciseknowl-

In both of
more
or

cases,

however, it is only the various

dissimilar
senses.

groupings
he its

less similar

attributes

of which

receives work

the

testimony
the
not

Thought,

with these

less cease-

of

underlays ontologicalpostulating,
conception of
a
"

various

groupings with
and does humorous order that
an

something which

is permanent
what some-

change.

This be

something" permitted
a
"

"

if the

tautologymay

is necessary rather
some

in than

anything may
appearance

be indeed

real
as

"

Thing,"
state to

simply thing.
To

to be ascribed

other

the uncritical

mind, then, it doubtless

seems

as

though

THE

CONSCIOUSNESS

OF

IDENTITY,

ETC.

151

an

unchanging
thus
to its

"

"

core

of

realitybelongs changing
as

to

everything.

The

attributes,the

states, the

modes
a

of behavior somewhat critical

of the external

thing, are
fashion,

regarded
essential
to

added, in
Little

core.

analysis
forms what

is

needed, however,
to

show
to

how its

and inapplicable completely figurative

or reality,

explanation,are
What
is

such and

of is

speech
known is
to

and
as

thought

as

this.

demanded,

actuallytaking place in
this
:

satisfaction
"

of the

demand,

simply
be

Every

(every " Thing

x

whatsoever), in order
"

entitled
in its

still to be called
run

(or the

self-same
as

"

thing),
cated be indi-

must

changes

only through
. . .

series such
on

can

by

x,

x1, x2, x3,x*

xn ;

or,

occasion

of its

coming
be that

into other relations indicated of every But

with different

the beings,
xf.

series may is true

y

by

x, xa,

z8,2?, a?
"

What

of

is true
z.

other
x

thing,
should

for

example
to

of every

and

every series and

if any
"

happen
the

break

off its proper

be

of

changes,
should series

especiallyif
to
run

rupture
the

sudden,

"

if it the

begin

through
;

series

yl,y2,y3,etc.,or
for the
become

etc. z2, z1, z3,

why,

then
x

(begging pardon
would have

apparent
y,

contradiction would
even no

in

language),
be
x, the

i. e.,

longer
a
"

self-same and have

thing.

That
must

is to
be

say,
formity consame

to be to

Thing,"
But

self-same here
we

real,there
come

law.

upon those

the which The

underlying and
us

unanalyzable conceptionsas
the last
its

met

in the

attempted analysisof
in
its

chapter.

real

identityof anything consists

in all itself,
to
an

this,that

fests maniself-activity
as things, forming con-

relations different idea.

to other

immanent has

In view

of what
;

just been
not

said, this important truth is change itself which

sistent is inconcharacter

apparent

namely, that it is

with of the actual

identity. On changes
or

the contrary, it is the very

or

observed denial

inferred of

which

leads either to
statement

the affirmation
no

to the

identity. This
beings than

is

less true

because

it is less

popularlyobvious

concerning the
of

most

stable of

material inorganic,

organisms,

152

THE

CONSCIOUSNESS

OF

IDENTITY,
But that
must

ETC.

or

even

of self-conscious be reckoned with with

minds.

not

the

atomic

theory

here,

"

brilliant of

metaphysical physics
and

hypothesis

which

the

modern

sciences

of chemistry (especially)

have

their justified and

most

sweeping cation appliwe are

? empiricalgeneralizations Certainly; of this that theory to reality

most

it is in the for which The

the truth

contending
force
to
are

is

forcefullyillustrated.
is found

compelling
ing here, accordatoms

of the illustration the very

terms

in the fact that

of

the

the hypothesis itself,

ever reality,

those

elements

of all material

self-same, by
all the In precisely

and combination, separation,

recombination

of which

changing

states

of

things are

scientifically explained.
.the real self-sameness for Certainly,
or

what, however, does

of the atoms about themselves

identity
of the
as

consist ? kinds consist of

each

seventy different

atoms,
in

considered

manent perthe

kinds,
"nature

it

can

only

conformity
atoms
can

to

"of and the

atoms

its

particularkind.
atoms
can

Oxygen
remain

remain and
so

oxygen,
on, to

nitrogen
end of the

nitrogen,
" "

entire faithful the

list of in laws

seventy,

only if the

oxygen

continue

ent behavior, in all the differof their kind

; and

possible relations,to
if the

only
"

nitrogen atoms
But
ean

in turn does
to

abide

ent by the laws of their differto

"

kind. No the
answer same our

what
be

all this amount this

in

reality
terize to charac-

given
of

question without
have
been
seen

recurring to

conceptionsas knowledge
the atoms
not

those the

which

identityof
The

the of
x

complex things
is x, in

into which and does

enter. y,

meaning
be
own

self-same,
The
x

become

only if x
to

governed

its behavior

in all relations

according
our

its

appropriate ideas.
not

metaphysics of
meant
some

conceptionsdoes
of
an

alter whether
a

by
star.

be

kind

atom

instead

of

stone

or

Or the

let kind

some

singleatom oxygen)
and remain

(some
be

individual and of

of representative named
our

called

selected

x;

then,

too, let the conditions

it
as

the character

knowledge of
be
sure,

self-same

unchanged.

Now,

to

science

THE

CONSCIOUSNESS

OF

IDENTITY,

ETC.

153

assumes

that

has

maintained

its

individuality, as

well

as

its and But

specific character, through

under it has define
an

incalculable
most

periods of time,
the laws

infinite

varietyof
this

trying circumstances.
to

maintained its
own

only by conformity
every

which stances. circum"

nature, under
all its

varietyof changing
in the it

In
now

transactions, so
in the water,
now

indescribablyvaried, plant,now
we are

in the

now soil,

in the

brain

of the scientist whose

"

conception of
remained

at

present

holding for true,

the permanent identical ? that

has all

the identical, But how

to

very

type of
and how truth the

amidst

change.
mind

self-same

Again
in the

is the

forced

recognize the
for that

only
of

ideal,as

applied for
we

the search

regulation of

limits of its admits

no

behavior,can change.
the

rest

our

which

Nor, when

the

exigenciesof
become

the metaphysics

and

physics of chemistry
with observed other
atom

heightened by
when Sir William infinite interior

enlarged acquaintance Thompson's, complexity

of
our or

facts,and
an

some

theory of
is

for the individual of

devised, is the character

No small
x,

conception mechanism),
with which
x.

identitychanged.
let
x

ever howintraand
as

small atomic the

same

(even if we
can

stand

for

some

unit

in the
one

vindicate

its claim

to remain
same

itself, except upon

the precisely the

terms
masses

those called But

belong
has

to

the

largest of
is indeed

material

if what

been

said

true

of the elements which all

of

material
are

and reality

of those
more

inorganicbeings into obviously

true

they
and
maining re-

compounded,

it is

of

organic

beings,with
their the
"

their greater

rapidityand
of all immanent the

varietyof changes
is called
"

capacity for development.

same,"
in the
some

Indeed, what

case

organicbeings,is justthis,
idea,while undergoing a
it were,

remainingfaithfulto
modern of matter

great
Thus

varietyof changes in
in any

pursuit,as
how

of

this idea.

physiologyshows

or nearly, quite, every

ticle par-

growing thing may

as

be

changed,
the
same.

and

yet

the

total

growth is spoken of

remaining

Here

154

THE

CONSCIOUSNESS

OF

IDENTITY,

ETC.

the unscientific similar relations

observer in space
as

trusts
as a

his observation chief the

and

memory

of

guide

in

the task

of identification. in of that

Only
vines, does
so

he

finds

phylloxera,for example,
within

similar sufficiently his he

relations credit
in

of space eyes
at

the substance conclusion

his

with

the

beings

different
can

aspect

the

different the
same.

stages of their If,however,

a

development
while
tree

reallybe pronounced
malicious
in his
can

he has for
a a

some slept, one

neighbor substitutes
refuses
to believe

poor
so

good

garden, he
same

that

different

growth
senses

be the that the

thing,in spiteof
occupy the
same
-"

the testimony

of the space.

two

place
minute

in

When,

however,

an

appeal
of

is

taken

to

the

and
"

comprehensive
as especially

observations

modern the

science, biological
of

supplemented by
powers

study

micro-organisms
rather than

under

the
"

higher

of the is

microscope, by embryology,

etc.,

the

impression
utter meant

greatly heightened

diminished, how
what unless
can

is the

of understanding impossibility

be

by organic beings remaining the self-same,

be

the

thought
some

admitted

of idea.

control This

over

the limits of is still of

change by
further

immanent the
more

impression
of the under ? this

heightened
is in

the

import
For

theory

development
what is there

considered. reflectively that reality into

mere

theory
all is that

does

not

change
"

then, Shall,

realitybe change
to the state
us

resolved
no

change,
ideal ? their full

into real To

change

in

real

being,or change of no
limits of
some

being,according
attempt
even

unchanging
such

to

as these, in inquiries

import, would

carry

quite too
We
turn

far aside
now

from

our

present line of thought.

the from
to

to

consider

identityof mind,
or

with

the

inquiry whether thought

forces

it is different
us

inferior For

to

that which the

or case

to

ascribe
or

things.

in

of

things, whether something

"over" and

organic
that

inorganic,composite
not must

tary, elementhat is

does

change, something
be

"above"

change,

postulated for

them

156

THE

CONSCIOUSNESS

OF

IDENTITY,
as identity men
"

ETC.

destruction,of the consciousness

of

based

on

valid
scious con-

grounds.
since

Thus
"

we

frequently hear totally changed

These
to

saying
or

with

pride,
so

I have
ago.

in this

that

respect,
have and

long
to

self-recognized changes
to faith, to opinions,

may

reference

knowledge,
or

emotions
and

sentiments,

to

the

most

deeply

laid

purposes

plans.
which is

Indeed,
does

even

the

popular estimate
"

holds

that

the

mind

not

develop

and
some a

development
idea
"

implies change,
far forth

change according to
its claim
to

fails
in

so

cate to vindiEven

be

real

mind,

any

worthy

way.

character, and
which
may
same

that called

vague,

indefinite

background
affirms

of tendencies

is

inherited

dispositionor

temperament,
itself to every be the

greatlyalter
individual selves
same.

; and

yet the mind

mind, distinguishingitself from things)

What
as

other
one

(both
and many

and

abidingly, in change.
The

some

sort,

the

is called of such all

men

conversion religious slower

affords tions altera-

instances startling that

are

forced

upon

of life, or by the discipline with that

some

that of

are

effected voluntarily purposes and

in accordance

reversal

underlying
passage arise
to

plans, or
different

naturally follow

from
or

through
from need

the different

stages of advancing age,

that

markedly
mention there

environments,

are

too

familiar In

here.

all these the

cases

is,to

be

sure,

another

way

of

garding re-

matter, which
the very
are

emphasizes
of

the

influence

of such With

changes

upon

consciousness

itself. identity its

this,too, all

familiar
as now

enough

although
its

highly figurative
to

character,

considered
under

in

relation

the

physical meta-

problem
observed.
more

discussion,is seldom
of

sufficiently
less

Men

not

infrequentlyspeak
are

themselves, and
more
or

frequentlythey

spoken
is not

of

by others, as said, He
"

greatlychanged. completelychanged
was.''
are

Sometimes
; he
more

it is
at

even

is
man

(or I am)
that he

all the and

same

When

the

fundamental from those

obscure

ings bodily feelconsciousness

markedly

different

to which

THE

CONSCIOUSNESS

OF

IDENTITY, disturbances Great

as, for
an

ETC.

157

is

accustomed,
of

more

or

less

profound
take

of the

sciousness con-

identity may
in

place.
"

and

especially
when
or

abrupt changes
one

the

environment first time riches

to in

example,
in the

is landed
one

for the from

Oriental
or

country;
reverse

when

passes
;
or

poverty,

direction fellows

when

the

accustomed
"

associations different On sudden for

;
a

with

one's

are

greatlyaltered
of this

produce
and may

but

important
to
selves" our-

disturbances from

consciousness.

"coming griefs or long

time

overwhelming
and has ourselves
been

tunes, misforlook far

the world otherwise

we are

than

their wont

things are
in the

and different,

wholly changed.
bearing of
the such alterations consciousness of

The

identityupon
permanent
and

metaphysical problem, where

the
extreme

they

become

reach be

limits later under

on.

of their effect upon But in all the

more

will personality,

considered
as are now

ordinary cases,
appear
at
once

such that

consideration,it should
than diminish the

changes heightenrather
the consciousness For this very of other

and reality described and

validityof
understood.

of identityproperly
conscious

recognition
and this
sciousness con-

of the alterations standard of

implies a
can

standard be
no

comparison ;
than the

comparison

same

of
to

which identity
or

seems

temporarily and
can one

partially
be
scious con-

be

confused of

impaired. How, indeed,

is not the the

being changed who

and
same

also conscious

of

being,in
the of

some

sort, one

being
? for

that is self -regardedas consciousness

not

identical
"

subjectof

change
"

This

being
such

the

subject of change,"
"

and it is i", of

another, that

am
manner

changed
that As

involves the
two
as

the
cannot

consciousness be that divorced. it is I

in identity

long, then,
this
so

I know and

that

am

changed,
Self is affected
"

"

that
now

veritable

continuously existent formerly to

have of

really
from

circumstanced, disposed,and differently

it remembers itself lost the

what

been,

I cannot
con-

be said to have

consciousness

identity. The

158

THE

CONSCIOUSNESS

OF

IDENTITY,

ETC.

sciousness

of

change involves
arnid all

the

knowledge
of environments
"

and

the and

tion convicinternal

that I am,

changes

states, in
clearness

some

import of the word,

self-same."

Indeed, the
of the
are

and

comprehensiveness
and the in

of one's with the And

knowledge
which breadth and

particular changes,
felt, measure
of one's power loss
no

keenness way self. and

they

unimportant identifyone's
of reflective

depth
the

to

nothing

but

complete
and basis of

of self-consciousness

recognitive memory,
as

of the

power

thinking
Self

exercised

upon
can

self-consciousness that

and the

recognitive memory,
as

destroy

knowledge

of

self-same

which

is

implied in
In view the

all actual

exercise

of these

so-called both of the

faculties.

of the statement of the mind's

just made,
affirmation

meaning
No form

and

grounds
at

its self-sameness of
or

become

once

apparent.
furnishes
an

First,negatively. knowledge,
core

consciousness of inferential,
to the so-called

the

either

immediate
as

unchanging
Self. be
or

of existence
of
no

belonging
"

The
may

consciousness
not be
"

identity
dead of

ever whatof

else it may
an

is

envisagement
of
some

unalterable
a

after self-being

the

analogy
with

lump being
it

of

material into of
new

entity,or
external variable that
a an

some

atom

capable only
other

moved

relations
states.

beings, but
Such

incapable
not
a
"

internal this very

"

And,

indeed, has

been

shown such such

analogy is misleading?
atom," would
be
no

lump,"
;

so-called abstraction Nor

self-same
no

existence

would, indeed, have

which identity which
to any

claim

to

be existent mind knows

at all.

does the

individual ness self-samein the

itself to have, and of

is the
as

only

worthy
In need
men

being

attributed
some

mind

mind, consist
as

being recognised by
same.

other

than
we come

its Self
upon

being

announcing
to be

this truth

considerations

which When

explained with
one

further

detail. have

say to
a

another, " You

"

greatlyaltered,"
most

or, "You

are

totally changed man,"

in the

they
and

frequently
Such

refer

to

changes

bodily condition

states.

THE

CONSCIOUSNESS

OF

IDENTITY,
indirect

ETC.

159

changes,

of course, of

have
in

only
so

an as

bearing

upon

the

self-sameness
or we

mind,

far

they

are

indicative

of past

present alterations
note
we

in mental

traits.

Frequently,however,
abrupt alterations of

with

joy or

sadness

the great and

which and and

in the mental get indication, forms of mental

we

disposition, tendencies,
our

actual

functioningof
trace

acquaintances

friends.
as

Again,
a

with

genuine psychological
alterations
set forth.

and interest, of

fruitful

psychologicalstudy,the
and

mentality which only,however,

and of mental

biographies, dramas,
when the

novels

It is

proofs of
in such

actual form
a

ness, self-consciousas

recognitivememory epochs
of and of reflective

to

bring the continuity

different of of

activities into

sort

of

development, and
a

thinking with
to be

its achievement

conception
an

Self, seem

permanently lacking,
"

that For

actual
as

loss of so-called

is deplored. personal identity

recurs,

now,

the

saying significant
Self-same he
no
no

This

person
no

has

lost his mind." the

same

longer is,for
is

he is

longer
members, re-

to
or

himself; he
thinks

longer
into
an

or self-conscious,

himself

actual

and

yet conceptual

"

for-self-being." positiveimport
is
not

But, second, the

as

of such

tions negative declaraFrom there

as

the

foregoing
conclusion

obscure. particularly follows

the is
no

negative
other in of of

it

positivelythat
such memory. and for the

consciousness actual
any

of

identity than

is No

implicated conception
by

self-consciousness whatever
be

import
"

words,
is not
to
a

"

sciousness con-

identity

can

gained
of the

which mind

gained
of
"

subjecting these thinking.

be and self-conscious

activities Therefore
to
"

process

reflective
to

and indubitably positively

is recognitively
to

remember
-same. self

be

scious con-

of being identical and

what is meant
was,

So that in order mind

to tell

by being
and
was

the

same

(as
so

mind) that
it is

formerly
necessary of memory,

yet before
the processes
to

that, and

on,

only
and in

to describe to

of self-consciousness
to set

subject them

and analysis,

forth

160

THE

CONSCIOUSNESS

OF

IDENTITY, other

ETC.

words

of (to be verified,
same

course,

only by

minds

that ca* what is

repeat the
found
to

processes
in

ill their these

consciousness)
In the
"

be

involved

processes.

narrowest

meaning possible
the

of the word

"self-same," then,
a same warm
as

and

this is

meaning
"

penetrated with

and
minds

irresistible conviction,
are

no

the being is really

self-same

that
same. so same

does Real

not, by actual mental

self-sameness
"

make activity,
are

itself to be the it is I
a

as

minds

capable of

form,
the
am

to

speak, of
to
same

for-self-being.*' Or, again,unless

am

am

myself,I
to
or

not

the
no

self-same being. And

other

if I my

the

myself,then impair
to
us

being
the bar

can

deny
reason.

ness, self-same-

its

standing at
out
over

of

Further

draw

the the

import

of this

conclusion

would

only take
and of

again

already well-worked
states

field of psychological

analysis as

applied to
We

of self-consciousness

recognitivememory.
the

should
"

only find
as

ourselves

again rehearsing familiar

facts,
are,

such
in the
oneness

how process of

the

knowing
selfthe the
ject subas

subject and
existence

object known
into
a

called how

consciousness, woven
of any
cannot state be

vital

being;

implies a being
as

that

is

subject of
this and

state, and

considered
as

mere

state ; how state

is self-known
mere

only
se

in the

some

concrete

not to

being
must

per be

how

of activity
as

self-reference

the the

subject
process

considered
to

to belonging potentially to
as

of
any

coming

and self-consciousness, may how be discriminated

the
one

passing
act

through
validates
a

phase
whole
mere an

that

of
and
as

self-consciousness the of
"

; and

belief, or
as

conviction,warms

so activity,

to

prevent its being felt

converts

process

thinking, and envisagement by

same

thus Self

it into

self-

knowledge,
and An
now,

of the

here actuality,

of the

Self. the
act

analysis of
to
as

of

recognitivememory
described, the
"

discovers, knowledge
now,

in addition of the Self

what

has

just been
in the

existent

past,
to

then,
the

as

self-

conscious, and

referringall

states

self-same

subject

THE

CONSCIOUSNESS the Finally,

OF

IDENTITY,

ETC.

161

of them
most

all.

very

conception of identityin its

in
no

refined,ultimate
by going
it would
over

terms, is realized

other

way

than

again,in imagination and thought, these

of self-consciousness and
to

self-same what
to be

processes

memory.
are,

And than
no

be

be

identical

as

minds

other of which

capable of just such

can

is something activity, be possibly formed.

men

conceptionwhatever By repeated conception of

comprehensive
acts

of this

kind,however, all
than
a

form
once

some more

their and

which personal identity

more

is at

vague

this. certain

Memory

and

thought
mental

avail to

produce the pictureof

which
my

of continuity
as

development
As of their

is ascribed
own

to the Self

its life-

history.

I remember

experiences in the past, the

of essential charI
can

consciousness acteristics is well

in respect similarity in
a

emphasized
I

vivid way.
same

Many times,as thoughts

have and I

remember, have
ago did

1 had

the

feelings ; re-formed,

long

form, and
same

since repeatedly

the essentially
in especially

plans. My

and disposition

tendencies, complex

the

realm

of affective
; my
"

phenomena
and

; my

emotions of
and

and
and

sentiments
of

habitual
are

ingrained modes My

action

conduct,
somewhat

consciously remembered
same. peated re-

recognized as
states of
content

the persistently
as

consciousness, whether
or

regarded in the

aspect of
all

in the

character marks with

of

functions, bear, amid

of

changes, certain
does this has
to
seem

permanent
to

cially similarity. Espeto

so

be true in

respect
the
a

much
a

of
scious con-

my

being as
intent with

been mould

taken
it

charge by

Ego,

with

according to
of all this
a

formed consciously
the
narrower sense

plan,
"

respect
As of

to

my

in character,

of

this word.

aware

by repeated
of memory

and

com

plicated acts

reasoning on
may
same

basis I know

and
to

self-

I consciousness, all

affirm

that

myself
of

be, amid

changes, the

being essentially unchanged. secondary knowledge closelyin

11

This

inferred and
more

tity personal identhat

corresponds

its characteristics to

162

THE

CONSCIOUSNESS

OF

IDENTITY,

ETC

sameness

which of
as a

is attributable real

to

things.

The

Ego

is

ceived con-

being, of

many

changing
as a some

states

and both Amid

manifold

different

and activities,

yet
follows

being

that

consciously and

unconsciously
it remains

law.

changes of its ideas

within When limits this with
seen

permanent,
some

because idea.

it is held

by the power
which identity
may

of

immanent

may

be affirmed of

of minds is

is

pared com-

that which

be affirmed the

things,it
several

readily

that the former

has

preference in
self-sameness

important

regards.
First,things have
a

known

only

as

they

are

perceived and
that minds and

remembered

by minds.

If it be

not

assumed

of their percepremain, in the essential principles tion memory, faithful there

to

the
no

same

unchanging

laws

of

intellectual
sameness

then life,

is

guaranty for the identity or

of any

thing.
in

Second, things have

and

realityno
as

sameness,

no

identical the and stated

terms
trol con-

permanent being, except

existence, and
that which In
some

they
the

conform

to

of mental of
terms

manifest

immanency
it be

is inconceivable vain do

unless

in

of mind.
to

physics,chemistry,
conclusion what
in
as

and The

biology
terms

strive which amid

escape

such
to set

this. the

they employ
all unless the

forth

physical world,
are

changes, remains

really the
what

same,

absolutely
to

meaningless

all material

is reality

admitted

be the

expression and
after the

subjectof
be

is ideal. self
as

to Third, actually
manner

known

to one's

the

self-same,
and
most

of every
"

self-conscious, remembering,
to

thinking mind,
indubitable the form

this of
act

is

realize On the

the
one

highest
hand,

and
to

identity.
which hand of

dispute
to the
even

validityof the
on

ascribes
to

this self-sameness
to

mind, and
conceive
are

the

other

try

vindicate

or

to

of any

other

kind

as identity

belonging to mind,
inconsist-

alike absurd.

Fourth, instead

of

change

and

development being

164

THE

CONSCIOUSNESS

OF

IDENTITY,

ETC.

"

catch,"at

the

best.

For

it is

only the Ego that, instead

in every
act

of

"

is actually present eluding cognition,"

of selfhas any

consciousness, self-knowing and

claim
to

self-known, which
in
case

existence,or
Just
to

to worth

of existence
as Self,

it validates

its claim.

know

the

actuallyand
that

concretely being,is
self-same. There
is
no

self-conscious, remembering, thinking,here-and-now

to be
a

self-same is
"

mind, and

to
"

know

you

are

For

this word

nigh

thee ;

it is not

afar off.

salvation
as

for the

entitycalled soul,in
the

such

ghostlymetaphysics
the

this.
In

the
"

lightof
double

foregoing discussion
"

phenomena

of

so-called
more

consciousness with their

become, if in certain aspects against the metaphysical

other less

formidable of

threats certain
in in

tenet
so. are

in personal identity, these

aspects much
or

About

phenomena
more

general,two
interests of mind.
more

three

remarks

necessary, than

even

the

of

psychological
first,the

science

of

the

philosophy

And,
careful

phenomena
with than
new.
a

themselves
to

require much
the exact

scrutiny
facts,
means

view

ascertain

facts,and
are

all the

they have
Similar
ago

yet received.

They

of

course

by
;

no

phenomena
been

are,

indeed, old enough

that
more

they might
to receive.

long
In
at

have

subjected to they
have

logical thorough psychobegun

not

analysiswhich
their all
more rare

only
and

of late

form, however, they have

yet been
ment. treatare

collected systematically
In

subjected to expert they are

abnormal
very rare,

their most
as

extreme

form
to

and

to

be

regarded
be

belonging
the take
as

and of

pathological
will
doubtedly un-

psychology. While, then, obliged to

and
so

philosophy
be

mind

their
it
can

testimony into
ascertained
can

the account, what that

just
such In

so

soon

far

testimony is,their bearing

as

and

weight

properly be only
it should remarkable
as

belong to
that

rare

and this

irregular phenomena.
historical fact also be of the most have
we

connection

with

noticed of

apparently in
double
.

none

cases

so-called

consciousness

yet anything

THE

CONSCIOUSNESS

OF

IDENTITY,
formation The
"

ETC.

165

like
even

complete
as

set

of data

for the
case.

of

judgment,
true

respects the individual

same

thing is
of all

of all the in the

phenomena

of

hypnotism,
cases,

part of which

indeed,
double

most

remarkable

these of

phenomena hypnosis,of
old the

consciousness of

actuallyare.
all varieties

States of the

degrees

depth
and

and

extremely complex physiological

are as as

psychologicalsymptoms,
But it is not until
to

historyof

man.

very

recently that
any scientific

hypnotic phenomena handling by psychology.

experts
in

have

begun

receive

competent experts in cerebral

physiology and
on
"

Up

to

the

present

time,

even

the

part of these
down
"

themselves, the
or

temptation

to

plump

physiological
that fit

psychologicaltheory,with
certain

coarse

general outlines
cases,

only
often
to

aspects of the
For

rarest

has

been is it
are

quite too beginning

current

triumphant.
how that

example, only just now

and

appear

inadequate
no

misleading
remains

the
over

statements

trace

of

memory

from
a

the

preceding hypnosis ; changed

and

that

the

hypnotic subject is
in the

totally
state

wholly self-forgetful being

unnatural abnormal desire

of

hypnosis, etc. Through

the of
"

the not
more

to observe

and

emphasize
cases

rarer

and

extremes

of the

reported

double
to the

consciousness," many

other

phenomena
been

which between
too

serve fitly

bridge
most

the

apparentlyimpassable gulf
all writers
matter to be. A

them much

and

ordinary experiences have

Almost
on

quite
have

neglected.
this have is

hypnotism
candid and defect

been

guilty of they
may observation
are

no neglect,

how

thorough
Its results than

intended
common

similar

of scientific

enough
rather
more,

in all the

sciences.
in

not any

less,but
of the

disastrous of

psychology
All

in

other

sciences

observation.
become

observers,

when
to

they

allow

themselves

to

absorbed the

in the effort

discover

the strange, the unusual, chiefly mental

abnormal, the
accustomed to

magical, the supernatural in

find it. And
no

life,are
But

doubt

it is

reallythere.

if it is

really

166

THE

CONSCIOUSNESS

OF

IDENTITY,

ETC.

there, it is in realityaccompanied
much and
tone

by, and
to

coupled with,

so

that
matter down

is of

ordinary, accountable
familiar

known

law, normal,
and
and

experience,as
outcome.

greatlyto modify Repeated

far

the theoretical

more

toward finding out searching observation, directed definitely of ordiis not what nary pathological, namely, the evidences
"

self-consciousness every person maintains

"

and

memory,

on

the

basis

of which

to himself

his
to

own cases

unitary being and

of

self-sameness, insane data double

must

be

given

all

hypnotic

or as

consciousness, before

they

can

fitlyserve
be

for

generalizations. philosophical
must

attitude scientific Further, the strictly maintained double toward

or

steadfastly
of it be

in

the

examination What
or

of the this

alleged phenomena
is, whether
toward

consciousness.

attitude

hypnotism
sorcery, doubt.

toward
can

witchcraft,
be

telepathy
no

toward

there The

in this age attitude the

of

the world what from

reasonable

scientific

clings to

is this

alreadyknown,
firm

to the

explicableand
then combinations first the

explained;

point
and

of

standing, it
theoretical which
at

endeavors, by further
of known
seems

sions exten-

new

to principles,

explain
This

that
our

sight

to

be

wholly
for the of

new.

is,in

judgment,
take The toward

only right

attitude

man

of science

to

the modern

discussions

hypnotic
to

phenomena. wholly
new

of being compelled possibility

admit fully cheerfactory satisor

principlesin physiology and psychology we

No

admit.

fact
ever

or

class
to be

of

established facts, If any known

on

evidence, is
class
or

denied. under

proved fact

of facts

cannot

be
"

brought
as, to

physiological
facts

psychological laws,
be,
"

indeed,
be

many

undoubted confessed.

cannot

this, too, is

frankly

But,

on

the all

other the

hand, all the historyof the development of science,

most
even

sacred the very

rights

and

precious achievements
of science
as

of

science,
from

existence
mere we

distinguished
upon upon

wild

vagaries or
what

popular opinion,depends
or

holding

fast to

have,

think

we

have

; and

THE

CONSCIOUSNESS

OF

IDENTITY,
conquer and

ETC.

167

using
more.

this But

as

the

instrument

to too

possess the

the

if in
more

reaching out beyond, we firmly have,

new case

eagerly after slip from

case our

still dim what

not ;
"

and
we

uncertain

let the
to

grasp
one,

already

most

becomes

of it
on

getting something
becomes the
to at
one

to

add

the all.

body
As

of for
to

science
us,

rather hand ranks

we

of
not

losing
allow

then,

will

ourselves
we

be not

relegated
rush off of the

the
a

of the
in

because Philistines,
new

do

tangent

pursuit of

and

theories high-flying what

not
;

double telepathy, other

consciousness, and

but,

on

hand,

we

will not, afar

through
in

fear of

being relegatedthere
the camps of the

by others, wander

company

with

psychologistgypsies.
To
even

apply the foregoing cautions

the when
most

to

the

subject in hand,
of double with them show

"

abnormal strikingly

cases

ness, consciousare fully care-

all the and

phenomena
much

connected

examined than As their

duly estimated, seem

too

to likely

another

already
case

emphasized
case

abnormal of the

aspect.

in the

of the wildest

insane, so in the
a

hypnotic.
and the

Between
most

the

vagaries of
the

pathologicalsort gradations so
Such mental disordered
most

regular operationsof
innumerable down
can

sanest

mind, it is possibleto
as

an interpolate

series of
one

to shade
a

up of
no case

or

shade

from be much

into

the other. for

to
case

process

mediating
matter

accomplished
it may mind.
seem

every

faculty,
in

how

be

the

of

the

insanest what inmates

in

In the and

of the

insane

mind,

even,

is normal of the of
our

ing. regular is reallypredominatare more

The unlike It is

mad-houses of

like and

than mind.

ourselves

workings
all

both

brain

only

that

loss like

so-called

faculty which
minds,
and

guishes distinferences dif-

diseases its

progressivegeneral paralysisthat subject from

cheerful of other
"

afflicted

this,

by the continued
The confident

removal and the

even

of all manifestation

of mind. be the ished cheruse

expectationmay

that, as

science

psychology develops by

168

THE

CONSCIOUSNESS

OF

IDENTITY,
it will
more

ETC.

of the its way

modern clear to

inductive

methods,
of

and

more

see

explain states
in

hypnosis,with
and all their the with

their

alleged
most

phenomena
established

of double

consciousness
accordance all mind.
to

other

unique phenomena, hypnotism

is

empirically history of
lesson
men or

principlesof
is itself in the
to
a a

Indeed,

the

lesson very

this
"

effect; the

same

embodied

word of

hypnotism."

Few

of of

science
"

continue
"

speak

"animal

magnetism,"

Mesmerism

diminishingnumber
of brain and mind

persist in ascribing
to

these

peculiar

states to

occult

telluric the
are

influences,or
person best of the
to

mysterious

physical

effluences

from

experimenter.
states
more

hypnoses Physiologically,
the
any

likened

of natural

sidered, consleep; psychologically

they
known way. of Who and

are

satisfactorily explicableby
"

wellother and
changed, una

principleof
can

mental

suggestion
essential

"

than

in

doubt of the after

that the relations

a

nature

of brain

mind,

between' the two, remains

of

when,
passes, from
or a

single word
of

command,
same

or

few
goes

minute

of fixed condition of double

"

staring, the
consciousness

person
to

the

normal condition

single consciousness
? It may
"

the well

abnormal

be, however, that

most

so-called

single

consciousness, in its indeed, as

it were,
some

normal
up

form, always conceals (and even

and

is

made valid that

of double

consciousnesses,in multiple)
;
"

meaning
every
a

of these of
"

latter words double

"

and,

on
"

the other

hand,
is

case

or

triple

consciousness that

only

relative the

exaggeration of processes

customarily single
and for the

underlie

recognized

forms

of

every

so-called

consciousness. In of the the the

interests,then, both
we

of

psychologicalscience obliged
Our the
to

philosophy of mind,
a

feel

maintain
in

present

position of

reserve.

confidence

of continuity as principle
and to

appliedto

study, both
as

scientific

of philosophical, this

the mental

life is such of

to

lead,however,

belief,
"

the

explanation

double

consciousness,

THE

CONSCIOUSNESS

OF

IDENTITY, the

ETC.

169

when will

the be

facts

are

ascertained the extension

to

and

explanation is made,
than the reversal of normal

found

in

rather

principles already known body

now

apply to
in
a

the

activityof
way

and

mind.

It

is,then, only

tentative
some

that

we

sketch briefly of these

our

opinion

as

to what

of the most

important
One of
a

principles probably are. important

is connected
and

of the most mental way,

a
"

comprehensive
in the
a

of all

ciples prinin what

development,

both with

regulative and By

constitutive be called

organizationof
a

may

psychicalautomatism."
we

purely physiological
cannot in

automatism nerve-commotions

understand

those

initiated centrally be the

generally due
reasonable

(although proof
control the the

given
of
or

for

the very of the

"

conjecture) to changes

character

which blood-supply,

end-organs

motion,

as

distinguishedfrom
the central
now

initiated peripherally

reflex nerve-commotions

that, ascending by the centripetal

organs.

tracts, excite

The

term

psychical

automatism,"
certain

as

it will

be of obscure

employed,
that
as

may

clude properly inThese

are,

modifications and

consciousness.

however,
themselves

so

transient

they
it were,

either

never
an

get
act

analytically separated,
and

by

of the

selective attention entire conscious

"

discriminatingconsciousness
:

from

complex

or

else

they

are,

although perhaps
of the Self
as scious con-

moments

"

actuallyrecognized as
not

constitutive
to

complex,
state, not

consciouslyattributed objectsof

the

its

made definitively

self-consciousness.
some

Or,
selfmay

again, although attainingfor the instant

conscious
never

tinge of Ego, they

no

recognition and

of attribution
so

to

the

live in memory in that

afterward,and
be that

have which

place
"

ever what-

consciouslyself-known [Itwill
seen

Self the

is also known

as

self-same.

sphere
made

of the

matic," auto-

psychologically considered,
with consciousness. ascribed
to

is not

co-extensive

conation, although including the

But it does include
"

conative is

aspect

of

all that

ordinarily

wholly,or

nearly,

blind

impulse," to "instinct,"

170

THE

CONSCIOUSNESS

OF

IDENTITY, side

ETC.

to

"

tact," and
least

in
is to

general to
known,
and

that

or

sphere of

ourselves

of which

which, when

seems recognized,

strangest even
In covered the

ourselves.] development
automatism and of mental
becomes

natural

life the

sphere
larged en-

by
and

psychical
more

constantly
it
were.

more

highly organized,as potencieswhich

"

To

those
or we

blind

and unconsciously impulses, instincts, appetencies,

exercised half-consciously in
our

belong
"

to what

ignorance call the

are

nature

"

of the

species and
forms from
"

of

the which

individual, there
are

added of

certain

similar

residua,"
of the
conscious un-

the

acquirements
appear

previous conscious dropped

the
or

functioning.
realm of the
"

These

to have

down

clearlyconscious
"

into

obscurityof
"the

the

or

the

half-conscious"
are description

sub-conscious,"
course,

so-called. the
enormous

Under

this

also

included, of

number habits of
so

of

forms acquired impulses,appetencies, constitute nature." round of what

of tact

and

which psychic functioning the

"

is sometimes

called significantly
man,

second

So, then,
his
nor

every

when
as

considered actual

in the whole not

as well potentialities even

performances, is
he
now
"

simply,
or

what perhaps chiefly, himself it may

more or
"

consciouslyknows
automaton."
a

remembers
automaton

to be ; he

is also

an

Of this that is

be said,with ordinarily

meaning
"

something
"

than
I
am

merely humorous, either,

it." But

I have

it,"or

It has

me,"
"

again,we
with which from

may

declare," It is
have
much

not-me

it is indeed many
a

something

/often

trouble

and

sore

and battle,

which
or

I receive much
worst

as help or ill-usage,

either my because

best friend within

can

my

enemy.

I have

the

automaton,
at
some

certain

limits

(narrow
show then mination deterits
cessfully sucor

enough, indeed, ownership

again the
over

times) I
over one me

control

it,and
But

it

as

of my in

belongings. spiteof
or

automaton to

has

; for

my

fixed

depart, on
of

due

occasion
grasp

habitually,from
upon
me

ordinary modes
broken

procedure, its

is not

by any number

of conscious

idealizations

172

THE

CONSCIOUSNESS

OF

IDENTITY,

ETC.

time. been

Not

a
or

few
rare

brilliant

extemporaneous

speeches
the and with

have self-

made,

improvisationsperformed, when performer

The and the
was

conscious
as

mind with

of the sad

far away,
or

occupied
memories

it

were

accusing thoughts,

absorbing
account
no

all its

powers.

Ego
the

then

took

little

or

no or

of

its automaton,
to

automaton

made the

little

report of its doings

Ego.
an

But

automaton

haved be-

according
as

to its

office, as

automaton,

quite

as

tably credi-

did

the
a

self-conscious, remembering, and

reflecting
of formed, perbeen

soul. the

Indeed
in
so as

large part
much with with

of the

most

impressiveart-work
of art, has ideation of and

world,
not

all the various

departments
self-conscious

tive reflec-

purpose
seem

and inspirations and above

"

forms the work

us.

strivingthat
soul.
not
so

born

of

life beneath then

us,

self-conscious
was

The much

artist must

confess,
another has declare and

The

done

by us

as

for

by

within

It is made

only a pardonable
many of of these the rules
to

exaggeration which
workmen which ascribe
or

in all ages their has

themselves

ignorance
even

governed them,
the work

which

compelled
to
some

them

accomplished by
divine
as a

them Thus

indwelling
"

overpowering
imaged
me,
a
"

influence.1

the
or a so

automaton
"

"

becomes

genius, a daemon, yet related

Self
as

god,

another and

than

not-me," and
to

in
to

intimate

peculiar a
time In
to

way

the

self-known into it

be

liable at any

be

absorbed

again.
not

other

instances,perhaps
instead with of two the
or

much its

more career

rare,

the
a

chic psyof

automaton,

of

running
strata

in
so as

sort to

parallel course
the

self-conscious
more

Ego,

give

impression
A
recent

of consciousness

lying

undertaken investigation, authors of successful

to discover

by
comment

the

theatrical clear faire far il this

une

safe scientific
notre

makes generalization,

lowed folprinciples consciously unfit for a compositions,however of view. Nous point ignorons
"

the

esprits'yprend
bonne

pour
so

piecede theatre," says

one

author.

Another, M.
avoir ecrit
une

Pailleron, even

goes

comment piece,

to declare, as "Si quelqu'un sait,aprfes s'yest pris, qu'ilrecommence." (Bevue

Fevr. 1894, Philosophique,

pp. 228

f.)

THE

CONSCIOUSNESS

OF

IDENTITY,

ETC.

173

one

beneath

the other view

at different

depths,as Many

viewed

from for of

the the

superior point of
time

of

assumes self-consciousness,

being nearly exclusive

"

control.
"

cases

artistic,
the the

exhibit or religious inspiration so-called, military, of double consciousness in this form. Thus

nomena pherior, wareven

only
then but of

after his

frenzy in
has actual done

the battle has conscious

; but

subsided, and
and

becomes partially, what he the

"

by memory
is

ence inferwhich

the

consciousness
more

accompanied
as

transactions

scribed accurately deand with

that of

another"

acting in ways
to

impulses
mind. In
vincing conear-

only

very

imperfectlyknown
instances

the self-conscious the

extreme

it

requiresall
"

force of the most of eyeand

"

objectiverecords
witnesses,
convince
own or

the

testimony
in he did

the

changes
himself astonishes of its deeds

effected that the

external
in fact
so

things
behave.

to

the actor

Its in
a

automaton

Self

either

by working

relative
a

independence
or

control,and
which
at all

yet under

its eye, for

season,

else
account

by

challenge self-conscious
except by ascribingthem

thought
to

to

for them

this automaton. Similar

phenomena
so

doubtless

lie at the base

of that
to

language
the become

which results the

or so
"

has of

frequently been
"

employed

describe
to
"

religiousinspiration. The organ," the

Another
" "

Self is said

scribe,"the
the

mouthpiece," the
than
"

penman,"
"

even

pen," of

the Self. when he

Oftentimes has
a come

Philo

Judseus
a

declares

of himself his mind have from

to

write has

upon become

subject with
full ;
or

empty, all of
fallen from

sudden like

it
a

thoughts
like seed
become

heaven

shower his mind

of snow,
; he

the hand of
a

of the sower,

into

has

possessed
he has

Corybantic frenzy altogether ignorant

of what
to

under of the
was

the divine

impulse ;
the persons

become

place,of
and

present, of himself, and

said

written.1 human
1

In

general,according

Philo, in
the

inspiration the

withdraws
rer.

completely

before

Quis

div. haer. t. i.,p. 510.

174

THE

CONSCIOUSNESS

OF

IDENTITY, its

ETC.

divine ; the visitant.1 Extreme forms of

finite

soul

yields

up

place

to

heavenly
certain mental

cases

of

"

possession
the

"

or

"

obsession," and
sensations
as

insanitywhere

disordered

and

images

are

and objectified

so personified a

to
"

out constitute,
"

of part of the mental

phenomena,

sort

of

double
to the

which

is

recognized as standing in peculiarrelations

of course, be instanced for the in this connection. illustrations abnormal

Ego, might, why

the should and
same

But in

principle be sought
In
no

unfamiliar way

experiences?
for all that which
are,
as

unimportant
in the
case

principle becomes
dreamer

operative
he
a

of

almost

every of his of

portion of the
passes in

twenty-four hours
The those of the

daily life
dream-life

dreams.

phenomena

rule,so different from

and it is not than

waking
to
as are

life,so

little remembered that subject,

to
some

attributed self-consciously difficult to consider the Self with whom them

we

their real

belonging
made these

other
our

acquainted by phenomena
forms of

waking
which

states.

Sometimes, indeed,
it were, into

get themselves
recurrence

organized, as
different

habitual
more

present this other and much

in

purely automatic
from

Self

as

markedly
conscious

impulses,
and scious, self-conThus
some

habits, environment, and

purposes,

even

ideas, feelings,
more

the characteristics

of the much

and self-active, the

sort

reflective Self of is in
to

waking
and entire is

hours.
in

automaton,

that

realityours
possess the

yet is
time

comes not-ourselves,

during
in
a

which kind of

the

stream

of

dream-consciousness with the true

at

running,

daily succession
so

and

higher Self.
to
us as more

This
or

automaton,
less

far

as

known

all,appears
Self.

markedly
and

unlike drives

the self-known the

It holds

the reins in
an

by night

ricketycart

of consciousness
"

irregular, freaky,and yet perhaps characteristically tempera1

The

prophet is quite unconscious

cannot

of

everything he

utters

in this condition it ; he

of

ecstasy ; he
all yeyovus

^v

comprehend it,is indeed in utter ignoranceof De spec, leg., t. ii., dyvota. p. 343.
"

speaks

THE

CONSCIOUSNESS

OF

IDENTITY, the reins

ETC.

175

mental

"

way
"

; but

by day

we

take

into

our

own

hands, and
direct and the

character," self-conscious
chariot

thought, and paths

of what

choice is real

mind's and
our

along

the

true

good.
entire

Moreover,

waking
and the

life is characterized of the

by

sive succes-

risings and
automatic self-active

fallings in the dominance

psychically
one's self halfon

individual

and self-conscious, reflecting, does each from

one

spirit. Repeatedly
of and

catch

in the condition

being aroused

states

in which

blind

impulse

nearly passive association

or

spurred
is

by
sciousness. con-

feelinghave
unable with
to

almost Not

quite absorbed
one

the entire is

field of

as infrequently, or
can

aroused, one

wholly gulf
of

remember,
turned of the

only descry as
and

shadowy shapes,
the longing experiences be"

faces

from

us

fleeingtoward
or

oblivion,any
to

mental
"

images
The

other

these

states.

psychic automaton
the

has

been

playing the prominent part upon

it is

stage of mental

life ; and

conveying swiftlyaway
and moral

its

troop of actors, just as the eye

of the intellectual

critic turns

reflectively upon

that

stage.1
Another less

important
much

and

yet

most
more

suggestiveclass
advanced
a cases

of of

facts,which
double

throw

lighton
be
venture

the

consciousness, may
which
we

brought
to

under

psychological phrase, the

facts,when
of

principlefor
"

suggest the
This class

dramatic

sundering of

the

Ego."

and subjected to thorough psychologicalanalysis, in the

explained
of

light of acknowledged psychologicallaws, instead

to

enabling us
is found
a

dispense with
to

the

authorityof

ness, self-consciousin In
more

have

its very

only origin and significance

to
as

full

recognition of the activities of self-consciousuess. words, 1

I
am can

other

make

myself
to

seem

myself
two in
or

two
more

or

or selves,
1

able
of the

to appear

myself

selves,

discussion

phenomena

of double

consciousness

hypnotic states, from

that

the

and physiological consists in

an

experimentalpointsof view, which

in Max
"

concludes

sis "hypno-

induced artificially be found

Ego,"

may

matic) preponderance of the secondary (or autoDessoir's Das Doppel-Ich." Leipzig, 1890.

176

THE

CONSCIOUSNESS

OF

IDENTITY,
and

ETC.

only as
of the

am
one

capableof constituting myself,

and

appearing

to

myself, as
of double

the

same

Self.

That

dramatic

sundering

Ego, upon

which

many

of the most is itself and

startling phenomena
in possible,

consciousness

depend,

any

alted ex-

form, only for self-conscious

minds. In mental

ing remembercognitively

discussingthe
life, an
somewhat

nature must to

and
be

import
made which of

of such
to states
were

phenomena
referred

of

appeal
similar the

of consciousness
to

those

just
the

as

coming
less

under

principle
and the

psychic

automatism. "other-Self" the tant resul-

And,
more

indeed, "the
or

psychic automaton,"

created consciously and activities,

recognized as
in

of

mental mixed

creating "self-cognizing
the actual and

Self," get
mental When I

together
many
most

and

interrelated

in life,

curious

interestingways. place,think
and my

dramaticallyput myself
as

in another's

thoughts
it is both

his

thoughts,and
or own

feel the

feelingsappropriate to environment,
that This I draw
ment state-

that other's

imagined
my

known

condition

largelyupon
for material

automaton,
for constructive

of course, energy.

and
an

simply
human
to

involves

extension

of the of

principlethat
of life

all

of interpretation life in certain

I know

the consciousness into the

others,all entering into ing belongthe I

general,or
and of

form specific
upon

individuals, depends
remember mental
my

self-consciousness.
as

Only
forms

as

and Self,
as

regard
can

and

laws

behavior that

unchanging,
"

mentally represent others

queens,
or

than

Self,
the the

be

they kings and

of
men.

thieves
even or

and of my the
as

beggars,among thoughts about

side of the
"

children

This lower

is true

psychic life
the

of the

animals,

psychic

or plant-life,

doings
It is

of "mind-stuff" consciousness of
same

mind-stuft,or

quiescent and dreamy

"World-Soul." No
ter mat-

some

hypothetical reallyam
no

always
how

the

I what

that I

puts itself into that other.

that other how may
seem,
even

unlike
me

for the
to

time, to

to be ; and

matter

absorbed,

the

THE

CONSCIOUSNESS

OF

IDENTITY,

ETC.

177

temporary
other,-all

loss of all
goes

I may in that become self-consciousness, to self-knowledge, back to to self-feeling,

as no one

consciousness
all this The
or

of

self-existence
and there is

and

the

same.

It is

nothing ;
and the

third to choose. of this

kinds of

degrees,however,
are

"dramatic

dering sun-

Ego,"

many; the the

the
most

variety of instances
and interesting in which

is

almost

innumerable.

Among
the

are psychologically

performances
of

dren chilto

gestive sug-

indulge.
construction of

In the

development
as

early infancy the

the
power

Ego

self-known,and
an

and separate off this Self,

by

of lively activity imagination

projectit
young

into

another,proceed almost pari passu. plays

ill; she the

Thus
not

the

girlwho
to

part

of

the

patient does

simply
of her real

pretend

be

has, according to the

of her the
no

measure

past experience and

to be illis

the vividness

the imagination,
case.

appropriate to thoughts and feelings

earnest to really

To
some

pretend in
of the much
so-

be ill; and

doubt

called real illness of her

as

later years

will be Yet

fullyas
she to the

tence pre-

is this earlier called

play at
back

illness.
at

can,

by dint

of

be questioning, she is not

any
is

time

knowledge
the normal
a

that

really ill, but Me,

Nor when does made her less

really only playing by imagination,as

who the takes
to

part of patient. So

that, after all, the healthy and

ill

Ego regards
of other of doctor

the

sort

Self. prove

companion equal

the

part
of

herself

peculiar task

artistic

diremption imposed
a

upon stretch

her. of activities in
a

Or, by

scarcelygreater
same so narrow

similar break the

as

the direction,

of personality
as

the child may

a

itself up into two doctor

; for the

dissimilar selves
child
can as

are

patient and
to

same

play both
patient. Who

patient
that

itself

doctor,and doctor
the skilful and the successive with her

to itself

has watched

of the phases of consciousness, quick shifting of the little mother appropriate objectifications, doubt But here the the of what psychic reality
measure

doll,can

is thus

accomplished ?

of the

actual

diremp-

178

THE

CONSCIOUSNESS

OF

IDENTITY,

ETC.

tion of the

Ego thus secured

its
own

is to be found Self.
to

in the the

child's

vious pre-

experience with
makes which the makes
a

Both
as

process

which that
and
rec-

child
it
a

real

child

itself
as

mother, and

real mother

to itself

child,presuppose
Now

call forth

certain

development
and of these mind

of

of self-consciousness,

ognitivememory,
exercise known and and and reality without these

of reflective

thinking.
faculties has
been

it is in the

development

that found

all the

self-

of identity faculties

to consist ;

it would of the

be

quite as
to

impossible place
often
with
"

for such
as

dramatic

sundering

Ego

take

at

all

for the consciousness In dreams,

of Self to
same

approach perfection.
takes the is connected

too, this

psychologicalprocess
Its result do

place
answer

in

startling way.
the

to

question: Why impossible as

so

dream-images
are
"

absurd,
so

changeable, and
to

they
the

become

tive objec-

the and

mind,
after The the

real to has
true

dreamer, both
out

during the
immediate this tion ques-

dream

he

awakened

of

his
to

enthralment?
reverses

psychological answer
for all those of

ordinary impressions;
life and

images, both

those alike

of

waking
of

dream-life,are
is

originally
the

both

objectiveand
trained

subjective. It
to
"

only

critical
the

operation
native which
"

intellect, checking and

all objectify

correcting
mental

metaphysical tendency
in
sane

images,
from

waking
realities

life
as

prevents such
have
so

images
no comes

being considered
in
that may to the be

in dream-life And any

difficulty
about

validatingtheir
uncritical

spurious claim.
Self
;

it

in dreams
any

of its of
some

performances performances, object or

tary "momen-

appropriated
own,

and

other

its

equally its
other Self. and

may the

get appropriatedto dreamer,

as

other
a

For

says
own

Delboeuf, is

involuntary dupe
the the

of his

imagination,"as
and the

the

poet is
man

"

momentary permanent

but and

voluntary dupe," sundering of

et les

insane

is

"

involuntarydupe." l
the

Instances

of this dramatic
1

Ego

in dreams,

Le

Sommeil

Eeves, p.

91.

180

THE

CONSCIOUSNESS

OF

IDENTITY,

ETC.

emphasize happens highest and

often order ;

the

latter of these

two

principles. Here
what life, the
same

again, as
is rated
as

almost what

uniformly
is rated

in the mental
as

lowest

evince

logical psychodreamer
no
mean

principles. Psychologicallyconsidered,
becomes
a

the of

constructive other
even

artist

or

seer

and,

on

the

hand, the
the

the artist,

actor, the
man

spired inhis

prophet, or
states

ethicallyquickened
consciousness, behaves
a

in

of most

intense

moral

in certain

important respects as though in

The of this

dream.
be

experience of
truth.1

actors

may

appealed

to in

illustration

This

experience, indeed,
which throw of and

differs

greatly as perhaps
sonality peras

respects the completeness with

different themselves

and

equally successful
"

performers
all its

into the

with

changes

feeling and
the

thought,
Some
to

fitted to the

changing they

situations

development
audience

of the
actors

plot
"

which

for the time

being represent.
to

that they testify person

are

not
are

only

appear

the

be

the

whom

they

but dramaticallypresenting,
same

that the Their

they
time
own

to

themselves suffer his normal

woes

that very and

person his

they

for

being
true

in rejoice

triumphs.
shock,

and
are

self is absorbed
so

in the characters

of the
or

plays
tinct dislongs be-

they

acting ;
for

that it

requiressome
meantime
actors

other which

reason,

resuming
self.

the

selfhood

to this true

Other

claim,however, that they

reflective and consider critical

find it necessary attitude

not
as

to maintain

constantlya
they
must

toward

themselves;

themselves

being temporarily the

as

characters

they represent, but

of all these with
a

rather More
seems

always playing
careful show that

part.
cases

examination psychological
we are

to

here who

dealing simply plays

such
a a

tion ques-

of

degrees.

The

actor
"

part wholly without

puttinghimself
is

into it

if indeed

thing be possible
"

and hard, unfeeling, a necessarily

1

untrue

of representative
examination made

On

this Archer

subject

see

the
"

very Masks

suggestive inductive
or

by-

William

iu his work.

Faces

"

THE

CONSCIOUSNESS

OF

IDENTITY, dramatic

ETC.

181

that the

part.

Some

considerable
a

genuine

sundering
this

of

Ego

is

to indispensable

dramatic satisfactory

tation represen-

of the the other in the

person

who
actor

is who

reallyother
becomes
so

than

Ego.

On

hand, the

completely absorbed
and
"

part he is playing as
over

to lose all self-consciousness

critical reflective control who

that

the

projectedsecondary Ego,
to

suffers the dramatic his

own

sundering
in and

become other

so

complete Self,
"

as

Self such
can

is

lost finally powers

that such this

must

either have
automaton

trained be

genius as

that the
or

safelytrusted
fail of the do
not

with

important work,
either

he the

must

probably
In is is
a

highest
realized. less

success

by over-doing
of these

matter.

fact,we

believe

that What

extremes

ever

completely
of
more or

actually takes
intercourse
as

place
between
observe

kind
two
me

intermittent /
am

the the

streams

of consciousness. in the other

the

actor

that is

now

part I
who
my

acting.
so

am

indeed

living largely in
and nowhere
as

that

is
own

different
true

in I

and character,situation,
am

destiny from
in the I that world
am

Self. he
or

he
now

perhaps does
absorbed
more

exist less

just

except
him.

the And

completely in
of my and which

yet all the way

through

this

tion absorp-

Self in that

other,my

consciousness

is shot
and
me

through
thoughts
guish to distinis in

through with perceptions, feelings, memories,

are

of my

own

true

Self; and
Self ;

these

lead

this other truth

my
own

from

that true

although
in all

this other

true

Self

acting a part. example historyof

the his
a

Perhaps
achievements in the

the most

marvellous

the

possible through
of dramatic
we

this cultivation

of native

genius
novelist

power Of

self-diremptionwas
are

Balzac.

this author

told,so vivid

was

sensuous

imagination that the mental

his flesh

representation of
and
was

knife

cutting

anywhere

produced the keen

It

lance-like
not

pain that
in
some

ordinarily requires actual cutting.

one

simply
his

other

than

himself For he

that this
seems

man

had

the power

of becoming
own

absorbed.

to have

lived,as

expe-

182

THE

CONSCIOUSNESS

OF

IDENTITY,

ETC.

rience

while

settingon
of his
"

the

stage all the wonderfully varied Humaine,"

purposes of the whole all the with The
round

characters the

Com6die

of

and thoughts, feelings, dined with him

characters.

They
sat

him, sleptwith
room

him, walked
he worked.

him, and
rather
was

beside
as a

in the

where

he,

self-conscious, remembering, and

for the

stantly, Self,conreflecting

voluntarilyadopted
into these ideals
ran

purposes
as

of

his out

art,

so

projecting himself
veritable projections of

to

create

of the

selves

that

their

appropriatecourses
one

history

somewhat

with nearly parallel which selves

was

another, and
tified idenespecially
were, set
over were

with

that stream
as

of consciousness
own

their author's other and

Other

they
and

against each
all Balzac's the creative

against his Self ;

yet they

the recognized and creations,

well-loved

works

of

genius of this central Self.

instructive is the the for the

and Particularly interesting

same

study of

the

psychologicalproblem
and prophets, The very indeed basis

experience of

the ancient
erally. gento

Hebrew

propheticconsciousness experience which

a

of the laid in

belongs

is prophetic inspiration

certain

dramatic

sundering
ing standSelf, of
nion commu-

of the

Ego.

To

become

the subjectof consciouslyinspired, Other than

his
own

must inspiration
over

recognize an
and to

against this Self

-it; and
"

holding some
the existence
it is in the

form and

with this Other

yet, as

character that

of

lo ! it appears

that

Self

spired is in-

which (for inspiration and all), that its character

is external

is not
to and

at inspiration is determined

corresponds

by certain
to

of the

and thoughts,feelings, These

purposes

belonging
purposes
in

the

normal

Self.

and thoughts, feelings,

have which

organized themselves they

the
were

into another born.1 In

One view

than of of

the Self this

themselves

ence experi-

Hebrew
is and

prophets describe
as

their

state
of

inspiration

This

view

true, psychologically
elsewhere may be

all the show

;

phenomena
and this their
as

prophetism among

the

Hebrews
answer

abundantly
the

whatever whether

given to
natural.

inquiryafter

quite independent of ultimate more origin,

or supernatural

THE

CONSCIOUSNESS

OF

IDENTITY,

ETC.

183

as as
"

"

of falling

the of
an

hand

"

of Jehovah
"

upon
"

them

; or,

again,
a

the burden

coming
"

oracular
upon

word

or,

yet again, as

which
bear.

is laid

the

soul, and
"

which

they
but

must

lift up selves
"

and

Thus, too, they

enter
most

their

real

inferior which is with

and

sometimes
in

into

communication,
realistic their

described that wiser At other

the One

objectiveand
is in
not

manner,

who

them

as

better, truer,
is
an so

Self ; and

yet is

wholly

this

Self,but

Other.
plete com-

times
and

the process

of dramatic
argue and

sundering
with

becomes

livelythat they
disobey his

this

Other, plead

with
or

him, complain before

venture
can

him,
most

voluntarilysurrender
For
another

to

to

explicitcommands.
He
appears
as

who

resist the ourselves does

not

Almighty,
? Yet
even
our

when

Self, Ego

within
can

self-conscious

and

self-active

and It is
so

resist

Him.

necessary,

however,

to

appeal

to

phenomena,
those of

even

relatively extraordinaryand
of certain
to

as unintelligible

or dream-life,

forms

of the

aesthetical wonderful and

and

prophetic

consciousness,
energy

illustrate soul.

self-diremptive highly developed

of the
sciousness conone

of the human consciousness power. The

All intense
a

moral
same

affords
essential
"

startlingillustration
of all moral else

characteristic

is that of another." In Paul

thoughts accusing or
this the

excusing
we

recognitionof
" declaring,

characteristic which I I would

find I do "/"

the
not
sent con-

Apostle
but

good

the

evil which the law

I would
; but

not, that

practice."
law

unto and

I find another
my

citing (another Self,in-

consenting) within
until of my I
become
"

members,
I
am

bringing
law do
a
"

me

into rather

captivity. Ethically considered,

than
one,
one

regularly two
the alone
;

with

and

yet
the
sonality. per-

by virtue

ethical rational

consciousness

I attain moral

highest
Kant the

form In

of

unity

"

the
same

unity of

recognition of
"

the

unique phenomenon,
other

and personifies

this objectifies
a

Self, and

gives
The

it

significant title of

categoricalimperative."

en-

184

THE

CONSCIOUSNESS

OF

IDENTITY,

ETC.

tire Kantian

system of ethics is,indeed, based

this ethical double
to

upon

figurative
The
nou-

of interpretation
menal

consciousness. of realities

Self, belonging
and
even an

the world

that
"

are

comprehe in-

impossibleto understanding,
attitude
to

free,

and
a

yet standing in
which and enchained
"

of necessary
"

respect toward

law

it is bound

keep,
two

and

the

phenomenal Self,
nexus

caught
two

in inextricably these
am

the causal

of

ural nat-

world-order,
are

I ; and

yet somehow
must
ever
our

these
serve
as

one

in that the

unity of apperceptionwhich
solvent, for all that I
to
can

the
even

menstruum,
think

know

or

myself
to

be-.
or

It is not, of
to

course,

present
the

purpose
"

either der fact

same

defend

correct
"

the
we

positionsof

Kritik the

Praktischen that its

Vernunft

only

call attention
upon
tially essen-

to

psychologicalbasis depends
sundering of the Ego which
and

the

dramatic

is characteristic

of all awakened Its

a

developed
even

moral

consciousness.
as

priorism
of mental

is

or justifiable,

explicable, only
And

such
to

forms the

functioningare
of
in the
man as a

found moral

actuallyto belong being.

"

essential

nature

all the sions concluyou

metaphysics implied
as

these
name

phenomena
of
"

call the

to

reality by

or postulates,"

what

will and

"

is valid the

only as recognition
these
man

is

given

to

the

persistency
in this tinctly disof

of significance the

facts. psychological takes himself

to
some

Whenever ethical

plain
he

in hand
extent two

way,

performs
one

act

dramaticallyseparating his
The
or
one

Self into

opposed selves. punishes

"

judges,approvingly or
the other.
course,
"

and disapprovingly,

rewards

Estimated the
the

by the ethical
that
"

standard,

which
sort

is, of
of
"

standard
one

alone the

applies in
higher" and
to
summon

this

transactions,
the lower before
"

is called former
an

the

other
the

Self. its

The

undertakes of

latter

bar, with

assumption
"
"

able unimpeachthe
"

veracityand authority.
which Self is the

Not

unfrequently does
me as

"

higher

Self

call the

which
"

is the lower
"

by

many

opprobrious terms

(such

knave,"

fool,"

THE

CONSCIOUSNESS

OF

IDENTITY,

ETC.

185

"

sinner,"

"

slave do its

")

; and

it will

not

readilysuffer dispute as
Self

to its

rightto
to to

this.
own

This
scorn,

higher
to

promptly

condemns bility, sensito

the

other

the

scorn

of all moral

incarceration More

in

prison,

to

the

gallows, or
awards the

the

fires of hell. universal

it praises, and rarely, the

prizeof
is any
man hu-

good-desertor
in the whole indicative

joys of
of

Paradise. human

Nothing
more

realm of the

experience

real and mind

profoundest being
to

of the

than

just
It is

this

moral activityof self-diremptive

vain

consciousness. the
as

quite

try

to

break

the force of

argument
the work

by speaking contemptuously of this experience

of diseased there is
or

imagination,etc.
And

Without of any

work

of

imagination
whether of

possibleno
of minds. is

knowledge

reality,

things

here, as elsewhere, the

question of sanity or
and of balance

disease

chieflya question of degrees

of the several so-called
we are

in the exercise

ties. faculnow

Besides, this is the very

point
the

for which
most

contending ; namely,
of mind which
most
a

that the sanest enforce into

and
same

ordinary states
those the

illustrate
must

and

as principles

be

taken and

account

in all It

explanation of
times

abnormal

extraordinary.
toward of

requires at

only
in

little

pushing
form

further

its extreme

possiblelimit
the Men
to

order in the

to make

this process of moral

dramaticallysundering the Ego,

as

consciousness, as complete

most

remarkable the

cases

of

hypnotic

double

consciousness. been found

of
as

have profoundest self-knowledge the entire system of moral of

"

speak
be

though

consciousness
"

could
"

best

described

only

in terms

the

good angel

and

the

devil,"
on

that contend certain certain be

in

within

the

same

soul for its mastery.

sane

Thus

occasions forms of

with

many

minds, and
than
two

habitually in
selves
seem

three insanity, below

rather and

to

interaction,both

above

the threshold

of ethical has that the

consciousness.
now

There

the bad is, first,

as objectified

Self, which
the
daemon

become in the
me

personifiedand
and possesses

is

it.

There

is, second,

186

THE

CONSCIOUSNESS

OF

IDENTITY, of my

ETC.

better

Self,which
contends
And

has

taken the

the

form
or

good angel,and
and

which
me.

with

daemon,

grieves over place of

others
cases

pities
one,"

there

is,third, the Self that is recognized as my

is

Self, but which

"

in perpetually and
on

the

the

"

torn

self-conscious

self-active still, though perhaps feebly, which

in

personal ground,
terrible almost between Those from
doubt

the

two

are

waging
latter

their

battles.
as a

Indeed,

certain

the

appears

helplessand
other have the the
two. most

disinterested

spectator of the conflict

the

who

examined

the

general field
view
can

of

tism hypnolittle

psychologicalpoint
two

of

have

that

principlesof
and

progressiveorganization
of the power find wide

of of

psychic

automatism

the the

development Ego
a

dramatically sundering
with life.
a

application
of
"

there.

Indeed, this field is closelyconnected

(but by inappreciable
our

gradations) waking
and
to

the The-

familiar very word

phenomena
"

ordinary

hypnotism

is
a

employed
somewhat

in designate,

rather

loose and

indefinite way,

and psychical heterogeneous collection of physiological But view when fixed

one

phenomena.
the

has

entered

that

field from and entific sci-

points

of

by

scientific the
"

physiology

psychology, one
also there. them demand appear
at

finds

principleof continuityregnant
however however

Its

phenomena
be, and
occult

strange

some seem

of
to
a

first to and

they give

may

strange
new

or explanations, psychological
"

wholly

metaphysics yield in
go time the

of mind
to

all

token

of

position diswill terests in-

to not

the

who patient investigator he does

willinglylet
of the

little that
or

know,

in the

unknowable

of the

still unknown. how the

true

Returning
of
extent

to the then, finally,

question
mind

trine doc-

the

known these of
no

of self-identity
two

is affected

by the
carried
venture

to which
cases
:

are psychologicalprinciples

in certain
to

hypnotic
new

double

consciousness, we
way.

affirm

In

important

In

general,without
of

the

operationof

these

the highest development principles,

188

THE

CONSCIOUSNESS

OF

IDENTITY,

ETC.

then, in every
have
a

intelligible meaning
of
"

of
"

the

words,
we

we

should
be

true
to

case

double-Ego
a

;
as
a

or,

rather,

should real

compelled
or

speak
Self

of such and
an

case

case
or

of two
a

selves,
and
as

of

one

real

automaton,
No such

dramatized
so

double 'objectified evidence But is

as

of this

Self. and

case,

far

the

yet sifted
such
a case
nor

understood,
we

has

ever

occurred.

should of

occur,

repeat, the
of

principles
the mind of
to

neither would

psychology
of far

of
to
are

the

metaphysics
The

admit
so

alteration
as

fit it.

solution have of the

its be

problems, given
into of
to be

they
of

peculiar, would
and

the

hands
or

speculative ethics
all

sophy philohave

religion;

else

hope

of

solution

would

abandoned. it not be

Let
or

thought, however,
would thus of
are

that

either

materialism
over

phenomenalism
the The human
any

gain any
mind

advantage
which
we

those been field be

positions in advocating.
of actual

philosophy positions

have the
never

intrenched
so

within

experience,
of attack.
; then

that

they

can

carried them and human is lost.

to

by
be

form

Or, for the moment,

it is not that the self-known from of without irresistible the

suppose

undermined
mind

reality
field of

identity of the

alone

is lost
sameness

knowledge.
For

All

reality and
is

every

kind

all
its

knowledge
own

lost ; and that

knowledge
and terious mys-

guaranteeing

validitywith
which is
a

conviction any then and and of existence becomes

or

part of itself,no
What is who
now

reality has
science

guaranty.
dream

called
is

the

of of his

dreamer
own

the And

permanent
not

incorrigibledupe
least, but
that
raw

imagination. completely, is
which
"

last fate

soonest

and

most

this

the

and
as

wild the

pseudo-science
"

regards
of
a

ledge knowand
a

itself inferred human

but

epi-phenomenon
be called

remote

phenomenon,
brain.

to

by

common

consent

CHAPTER

VI

THE

UNITY

OP

MIND

T
said

HE

nature

of
to
as

that mind that

unitary
is
so

being

which with little

is the

universally topics
to

ascribed

connected

ready albe

discussed,
in of this

comparatively
in

remains the

chapter.
and

Indeed,
the

considering
of

ness consciousdouble

identity
we
" "

phenomena
ourselves

so-called

consciousness,
the But
as

found and of
"

constantly
reference
to
some

employing
the mind.

words the
to

one

two

"

with

very the

use

these of of

words of
;

implies
the

conception
of mental
to

propriety
in of mode
terms

speaking
number

subject implies
in which

phenomena
the character for Here under this

it also

reference the

those of

special phenomena
speech
it
must

anty guar-

be assist

found. in
to

ao-ain, however, discussion,

borrowed
if

will be

clearing
certain

the

field

reference

made

ations considerWith
oneness

from

general
words
to

metaphysics.
when
we

what
or

meaning

do of

we

employ
Or,

affirm

unity

anything?

express what is

the it in

inquiry reality
each is

in that

more

definitely metaphysical
to
our

terms,
of

responds cor-

conception
Little how words.

being

one,

as

so-called

"Thing"
to

is it

one?

psychological analysis
shifting
and
as

required
the
are

make
uses

obvious of these

uncertain these

are

nary ordinarily ordibe end that is

garded re-

Indeed,
and

words

employed, regarded
had
in
as one

everything,
or as

every

transaction
to

may

many,
is

according

the

practical
united in

view. which

Whatever is
a

capable
to

of

being

synthesis
as

necessary

all

sense-perception
to

having

unity corresponding

the

end,

or

ideal,

190

THE

UNITY

OF

MIND

in behalf

of which

the

act
one

of
to
can

synthesis is performed.
visual be
as

The its the

table, for example, is

different eyes
"

perception,because
united of by activity determined
the

areas

and

aspects
and

imagination

judgment
the
some as

by previous
sensuous

experience,and
table
and

fused
"

with with
one a

mastery of

data,
The

being pre-supposed
same

end practical known very

to

in view.

is another

perception by skin, thing

if from

muscles,
that which
and

joints,
"

second

different

it is

as

known
is
one

by sight. And
and view. the To
a

yet the sight-table

table
we resume one

the

touch-table

same

the table

customary
is many
as

point
; and

of

physics, again, the

number of
in

it is

quite
view

different

things,
various

according
well-known laws.
an

our

point of

changes
is many kinds

pursuitof
and
; it

classifications To

of

physical properties
more

cal physi-

chemistry the
number

table

is, indeed,

indefinite Now

of different
cases

of so-called

atoms.

in all these

it is

indisputablythe
to the

mental

activity
But

of

synthesizingwhich
in be

imparts unity
unity which
have
"

phenomena. things,
to
as

what may

realityis supposed
and
to

that
to

the

things,
question,
wont to

In

answer

this
"

physics
refer
us

chemistry
that

the especially which in the the

latter

are

unity
remains of the

strictest
atoms

form

of

all the

possiblephysicalunity belongs to
individual
; the

alone.

Only

atom

one

throughout
are

all

changes

of relations

unity
which

things which
them.

composed
again the

of many of

atoms

is
atoms
:

wholly
What

relative to the compose

is
case

kind, number, and

But
as

relations

the

inquiry
event)
ception con-

returns

that the

real

(whether
be

being
atom,

or

as our

corresponds,in
of its the
can answer

of the
can

individual
no

to

unity ?
this

There

doubt

that in

pushing
of

to

inquiry,as only
which

far
come

as

metaphysical analysis
the been
same

possiblycarry it,we
as

upon

group
sary neces-

conceptions
in order In

those
to

have the

already

found

understand

realityand
can

the

identityof
the

things.

other

words, things

reallyhave

unitary

THE

UNITY

OF

MIND

191

being which
do

we

conceive with

of them

as

having only
the

in

case

they they
actual

actuallyconform,
to
some

respect
and

to

changes
the

which The

undergo,
presence
in order

immanent

idea. controlling

of some

ideal in the very be

a

being of

thing is
the

necessary

that it may
obscure

unitary being

at

all.
anew

Undoubtedly, important
which of

this is all very fact that

; but

it illustrates
a

physics

and

chemistry have
as

cal system of metaphysiput into

assumptions underlying them

is
more infinitely

empirical sciences
mind. of the
a

uncertain is the pass

and

difficult to

terms

experience than
For when
we

metaphysics of
a

from

consideration

real

unitary
of the ?

being which
In question,
we

things and
what
sense

atoms

have,
I

to

consideration
to

do
our

know

myself
by
an

be

reallyone

may

at least

begin
has and
very be

answer

immediate

appeal to
course,

indubitable
which
be

experience.
man

Such in

experience is, of
becomes
"

that To

every

so-called
one,
as

self-consciousness.
a

really here
to

now

mind,

and

as

belongs
than of the

the

nature

of

mind,
; for

this is it is

nothing

else

to actually

self-conscious
in

just this
Self
as

exercise
one

developed
all form and
to

faculties

constituting the

to

itself in which do indeed

here

unitary mental

being reallyconsists.
of the which mind
as

Men and
as

conception
now

one,

known

to in

be

one,

is wider

than
as

this.
pressed exan

They

go

on

include
one
or

the its

unitary being of mind,

states, certain
or

in

each

of

powers

of

obscurely conscious
order. Thus

subconscious is

totallyunconscious
the
one

the Mind

spoken
the

of

as

being that
;
perience ex-

performs

also activities below

course, any
or

threshold

of consciousness

although, of
that

it is
one can

only

in terms

of self-conscious it is to be the

tell what

subject
ties, activi-

of subconscious,
or

of

unconscious, conditions, totally

for

states.

The

reasons psychological are

this limitation do not

concern

of the
us

psychologist's power
it

obvious, and

here. But
can never

properlybe forgotten that

it is

only experi-

192

THE

UNITY

OF

MIND

ence

with and

the

Self

as

actuallyself-conscious
such
terms
as never
"

that
"

both

nates origietc.

all justifies

unity," oneness,"
been

For is

conscious the
come

being that
case

had

self-conscious

(as
there

probably
never

with
to

all of any Soul known

"

the
or

lower

animals)
the
the

would
states
or
"

be

imagined subject of
subconscious Self must
to

any

or Ego, Self,

to

which For

unconscious

states
as a

could

be referred.

be
as

actuallycreated
such

unitary being, and

it be and

known

itself

by processes
which

of

self-consciousness, memory,
can even

and
to be

tive reflecthe
one

thinking,before subjectto
consecration
be

surmised

all states

however activities,

lacking in
be,
must

by this actual
On the this

self-reference there have

they
is
no

may

referred.
over our

point,however,
which

need

to

go

again
What knows

considerations

already sufficiently
which the mind

occupied

attention.
nature

is the

of this
now

unitary being have, can

the the And

itself here in
terms

and

to

fore, only be stated,therefor the

of self-consciousness. all the terms

on

meaning
What thou

and

of justification The

only appeal is
this
:

sciousness. to self-con-

last word be
"

subject is
thou knowest

know

est

to thyself
to

as

one,

when

sciously self-conthyself
essence

be

at

all,

that,and
With way

nothingelse
this the

is the

of the
so-

unitary being of
called real

mind.
no

great variety of
The the
are

faculties is in of the

inconsistent. upon

rather

is the

unity
act
more

mind

dependent
; the
as

exercise,in the
all

fullest way, every the

of all the

faculties ; for

they

implied

in

of self-consciousness

completer
here and with

their

activity,
onward
stream

truly one
Neither forms

is the

mind,

now

present, to
the

itself.

is this

unity

inconsistent

flow, in varied
of consciousness.
it has

of

manifestation, of the so-called contrary,all self-consciousness

said
"

On

the

is

"

already repeatedly been

; and
a

actually a
mental
state

process

of
an

becoming

simple,unchanging
evince the

(if such
never

were impossibility serve

psychologically conceivable) would

or

to constitute

unitarybeing of

the mind.

THE

UNITY

OF

MIND

193

The from
most

metaphysical truth just stated

the exalted and

may
a

be

made

clearer,
of the

psychologicalpoint of view, by comprehensive

not states

comparison

of self-consciousness

with

states

of

dreaming, of
It should

confusion be
serve

of

thought,of
contrast to

distraction that all

by pain, etc.
states

forgotten, however,
by
self-conscious

of the latter class may

our

emphasize
mind. On

the the

more one

self-known

unity,as

of separating by fixed psychologihand, the difficulty cal limits

to

the principles life may be used

a

of dream-life the Life

from

those

of

waking reality
But dream-

favor

that representation is

all human

life is indeed is nowhere

on

dream.

M"yd,

illusion ; and
or

to be

found, whether
to be
aware

for

things

for minds.

the
as

other indeed

hand,

of the
seem

of significance

life what that

state

dreams, it would
characteristic

to be necessary

to invoke

is not clearer
to the

of this life itself ; that distincter

is,to invoke
of the

and self-cognition
one

reference
more

Self,which

is made from
most

all the dreams.

emphatic So, too, the

sometimes release self-

by its conspicuous absence

return
seems or

to Self from
to

the confusion

of

thought
a

which

absorb

it is often which

accompanied by
and this

of feeling

of

triumph,
in

itself enriches And

same

deepens

the

activities. cognitive
as as

Self which upon very agree

is thus

known

one,

spite of
its

the
own

assaults

just made
do
not

it,proclaims
1

belonging to
so

unitarybeing the
While
we

thoughts which
with
so

have

confused
the

it.

Lotze

in

making
cannot

feelingsof pleasure
for the

and of

pain

essential

and

determining

development
the For
to

we self-consciousness,

wholly

overlook have.

heightening effect
no

which

these

sometimes feelings

experiences more
one

certainly
each
one

get themselves
knows himself
to
can

attributed

the

Ego

which

be, than
think

do those and
act

of for

pleasure and. pain.

me

If

the automaton know

1

without

lettingme
me con-

what

it is about, and
"

without

receivingfrom
ii., chapter on

See

the especially

Microcosmus,"
Will."

vol. i., book

"

Feelings,

and Self-consciousness,

18

194

THE

UNITY

OF

MIND

scious control still it cannot my

and be

instruction considered

as as

to what

to

think

and

to

do,

suffering my
and from
; but
seem

pains or enjoying contemplative

of

pleasures. Enrapturing joy

or

distracting agony
clear instead
two

snatch,

draw from

away,

the

soul

thinking and
it away from

voluntary action
as

drawing
of one,

so itself,

to make

it

instead all in my

they rather
and influence dramatic affective

concentrate

it within

itself.

am

pains

pleasureswhen
upon

they are
the

intense And the

and

pervasive in their
most

consciousness.

in the

complete

sundering of

Ego,
can

imitative

and
a

sympathetic

accompaniments

reach scarcely the

high degree of

without intensity upon

returningupon
affirm

Ego
own.

and

selves fasteningthem-

it,as being indeed

consider

its very

men But, plainly,

something
themselves
oneness

more as

of themselves

than
spect re-

this when

they

unitary beings in
which

of their mental
to

life. The

they attribute
to

the Self does which

not

by any
now.

means

all

belong
that

that

ence experithe for look

is "here and

It is not

then, to solely,
we

unity
an

of

as such, self-consciousness,

must

exhaustive

account

of

what

is meant mind.

by
The

the rather

customary
does this

affirmation affirmation
to be

of the
connect

unitarybeing of
the

present state,in which

other

I know

myself
ally actu-

here

and

now,

with

previousstates,whether
to

remembered
to have

and

attributed In that
man some

the

same

or Self, common

inferred

belonged

to it.

sort

the

conviction the life-history

undoubtedly maintains
mind of each
in

through
is
one.

its entire This

individual that
to

certainly implies
has of

confidence found
memory to

which self-identifying the essential

nature

already
all To

been

belong
; but
a

recognitive
consider

it also

implies something
to

more.

myself,as
is

present mind,

be

one

with

myself as

formerly
"

present and active in all remembered

past experiences, this

scarcelyanything
Self and
now
"

different

from

consideringmyself I, now
the and

as we

Self-same say, One

and

in those

past experiences. When

am

the self-same
our

being

then," we

do not

increase

knowledge by using

conjunction.

196

THE

UNITY

OF

MIND

for the

of description No

its real

character, of the actual

or

facts of of

consciousness.
"

subconscious

unconscious
so

core

being
after

rigid,uncompounded, unchanging, and

constituted this

the

analogy

of

pseudo-atom
be one, the
as

"

constitutes
a

unitary being unity

same

of the mind.

To

becomes

true

is actually to Self, in

live,here

and

now,

life whose conscious

very of Self

being,and
as

being, is the
self-active and

becoming
the
to
a

at to

the

time that binds is

subjectof change. unitarybeing

different one's
"

And
runs
"

establish and

unique claim

which

through
mental

together
necessary

all the
to know

moments
as

of

it life,

self

the

remembering, self-conscious,
a

thinking, and
mental No

planning subject of
lament of of the

continuous

course

of

development.
one,

however, need
dead
one nor

loss

of

hypothetical,
knows in others

inert, and
itself
terms
as

substratum is

unity, which
has

neither

capable
The the
as
"

being presented to
this actual
"

of

knowledge.
has also
act
so

being that promise gather

have and

unifying

actus, and

potency
new

of

constantly

repeating the
enrichments has that
one,

to

into every been

"

the repetition in

of

being
itself

which

evolved all the and

ences, past experiTo be

all the

unity that it needs,

can

unity,indeed,
of the be
to

the mind in any

comprehend
or

appreciate.

other lose

known this

conceivable

meaning

word,
lose need other

and all.
not

yet
And
care

to

would self-unifying activity,

be
or

if this whether which

can unifying activity one

retained,one
more,

is two of number

beings
can

in

any
as

meaning
to the

words mind.

possiblybear

applied

human

It does treatise

not, indeed, belong

to

to the

main

intent

of the

present

consider

in

detail the task

the

bearings of the

preceding philosophy
are,

conclusions of the mind. of ethics three

regarding
Such the
a

and reality, identity,

unitary being
the

belongs rather
of which

to

and

philosophy

religion. There
follow

ever, howthese

remarks quasi-practical

from

THE

UNITY

OF

MIND

197

conclusions

with

the

force

of

corollaries

from

main

proposition.
of the human First,the reality
as

mind

is not of

to be

spoken

of

though

it

were

sort
so

of fixed quantum
to

being
the

that is distributed

in
to every

one

lump,

speak, to
same

all individuals from

"

alike,and
cradle
to

individual Here
are
"

in the
as so

measure

the grave. of

often

happens

the
more are

popular figures nearly

sentative reprethe technical

speech

much

less

much figurative,

of the actual
terms

state

of the case, than

and

discussions

of

and philosophers.Popupsychologists lar

even

language admits
be of
a a man

of,and
or

encourages,
to

the exhortation
or

to
more

(a

real

mind But

soul),and
forms of

become

to be

man,

etc.

certain the

metaphysics,which
human what and life and
must

have have

been

born

aloof from

study of
to

concrete

allowed the

undue

influence interest

preconceptionsof important
a manner
"

be, in

supposed
of

of

ethical

theological
our

in truths,represent this reality

to contradict

rience expe-

psychical changes (of becoming more," "growing in,"

these of
an

etc.). With
some

forms

of

metaphysics
the

the mind

appears

as

sort to

unknowable
"

substrate, laying equally valid

claim

the title the

real,"from

beginning
life. On search

and

all the way

through
modern

development

of mental

the other after

hand,

psychology, wearying
substrate,has
a no

of the

something
correspond
a

known, presentable,and
to

describable,which
to

should of

this

turned soul.

the

cultivation

so-called
physics meta-

psychology without
could which find
to describe

But

if the

old-fashioned

terms, with
of reality its

recognizablemeaning,
soul, the hypothetical
to
new-

in

the

fashioned
even

psychology is equallyunable
the actual
a

find terms

in which
some

to describe

psychicalphenomena
for the soul. Both
too

without

hypothesis

of

real

being
are

alike, when
to

critically examined,
use

quite
cover

often

found

be

making
which be

of abstractions And

under

of current

of speech. figures be that is

why,

if the

claimed reality
concrete

for the mind and experience,

is

actually implicatedin

only to

198

THE

UNITY

OF

MIND

got anywhere

as

it is found
as

in such
more

experience,should
of
or

we

not

speak Why

of

one

mind
as

having

realitythan

another
"

not

speak
and

well of

adding to

subtractingfrom
without mind?

consciousl selftary volun-

designedly or reality of

and indirectly individual

intent

"

the

any

In

this

way

we

of speech which should, indeed, employ figures need

to
on

would

always

be

interpretedinto
other

terms

of concrete do away

ence. experiwith the which all.

But,

the

hand,

we

should

misleading influence
cannot

of certain

other

figuresof speech
of
we

possiblybe interpretedin
course

terms

experience at
can

It is of of

only in
to the

figurative way
But the real

that

apply terms
from is

magnitude

mind.

proposed figureof speech

is not the
use

is,at least,one

whose

meaning
it is
one

far away of which

our paratively com-

every-day mental Now,

for
one

life ; and

free from for

any

injurious consequences.
to
more

individual
to

become real

more

and

more

real, or
a

individual
not

be

than

another, is
of

kind

of

growth
one

statable

and

measurable
not

in terms one's does

sive purely exten-

magnitude. expands
one's mental any
one

One

does
or one

expand
one

mental
not

being

as

limbs

lungs ;
extends

extend
estate.

one's But
perience, ex-

possessionsas
may,

one's

landed
upon

by

process

of reflection what

the

basis of
a

clearly enough comprehend

and

it is to live of

larger
sity inten-

yet larger mental

have which
are

life.
to to

Here the

all terms different

dently quantity evi-

reference attached

degrees of

our

conscious
terms

sensations, feelings,
have reference which also

and

conative

impulses.
consciousness

But
in

these the

to the

great differences

variety of elements
as

criminatin dis-

discerns

existingin varietyof

the different

mental mental

states states

; to the ;

time-rate
to all,

and
a

these

complex
ing accordand poses pura

and, above

standard

of values

to which
are

certain

thoughts,emotions, sentiments,
entitled "To
to to

regarded as

higher or
"

lower may

places in
not

scale brief

of "worth."

live

more,"

what

this

phrase

come

mean!

THE

UNITY

OF

MIND

199

After

having
terms
we

once

recognized what
of

that

is real
to

is

fied signilife of is

by all
the

quantity when
affirmed
an

applied
that
same

the

mind,

feel
can as

in adding justified be of the

itself reality

nothing
different kind.

which

mind,

or

of two

minds,
the real

attachment
as

of

fixed, unchanging
sists conreality

On in

contrary, inasmuch

all mental

feeling,knowing,
and both

and

willing,and
all processes
content

inasmuch of becoming

as

feeling, knowing
that

willing are
the

imply

and self-activity
"

of consciousness mind
must

passivelyregarded,
all

of reality
a

the

is, under
be realized all.

circumstances
in its
own

and

forever,

which reality
to maintain

peculiarway,
the

in order

at itself

Therefore,in
are even

only meaning speak

not, as

in

which

terms

of

quantity
of degrees.

at applicable

all to the mind, it is not of its existence

only permissiblebut
as a

necessary Souls
are

to

matter

respects quantity (however alike they

the

may

be word
more

as

or respects quality,

characteristics
real.
"

to

which soul
to

the be

realityis attached), alike

real,as
a

For

one

than soul,

another,
matter to

this is not

simply perfectly real, by

acts

it is actual possible,

of fact.

Only psychical
reflective thinking who
come

beings that actuallyattain

of entitled is
to be

making themselves
and real at all.

self-consciousness, recognitive memory,

are

called

Those

to

that which these them

richest, highest,best, in
most

the life that all the

consists between

of

acts, are
and

real

of all.

And

way

the lowest

there exist innustages of real mind-life, merable

gradations in the possession of this priceless reality.

It is clear, therefore, that the final and interpretation the

sphere of
is reality The have

ethics

furnishes both
physics meta-

the

highest manifestation of the

not

of mind.
a

For
an

mental

simply

or

chiefly
ethical

gift ;

it is also reference
; as

achievement.
was

popular exhortations,
of
course an

to which

just made,

import

has

already been

said,they embody
naive

not

only the
almost

results of

practical wisdom, but also those

and

stinctive in-

assumptions which

so

often

"

however

unconsciously

200

THE

UNITY

OF

MIND

"

hit the very

an

heart

of

truth. philosophical and

Metaphysics,on
life of
sages.
duct, con-

taking

ethical turn
multitude

applying

itself to the
but

joinsthe
too, in the
name

of unlearned

genuine
Would'st

It,

of the most

profound

and
"

searching analysis,
thou have then

issues its warnings and

exhortations.
be

reality ;
win and
never now

would'st

thou

real,as minds

alone

can

be,
is

"

it for best. have hast

;

will, that thyself. Think, feel,

Live other

which For

highest
wilt thou

most, and
in reality

thou kind

art most

real. this
same

thou

than

which of it.
a

therefore
no

get and

keep

all thou
or

canst

For,
;

indeed, there is
and there is
no

other,knowable
that has any

imaginable,for
as

mind

other

value

estimated

by

the

standard

of mind."
a

Second,
similar of the that
can

similar

train of

reasoning

leads

us

to inevitably

conclusions mind.
be
-man

regarding the unitary being, or

no

real

unity,
vidual indi-

This, too, is

rigid and

fixed

qualification
to every

assigned
in the
same

to all individuals
measure

alike, or

at

all

ment stages of his developinfluential in the estimations

to character
to

from of

the cradle that

are

to the grave.

Here, also,popular figures

speech

most

prevalentand
have

and

maxims
at

which
same

reference
most true

and

to

conduct,
facts.

are

the

time

the fundamental

They reallyset forth what

more

philosophical analysistruly
with less

finds,much

and forcefully, than

do

misleading

use

of

figurative language

the

scholastic axioms
The
cross man

of certain

accepted philosophical systems.

motives, of divided
obscure, and
moral the and

of

conflicting perpetually

purposes, dominant

of

shifting,
and which all his is

irreconcilable
not

of opinions, that

mental

has distractions, mind

"

highest unitary being of

man,

is

capable. only
an

"A

double

unstable

in

ways,"
In taken

he has

inferior

degree of the unity which

characteristic

of mind.

discussing this question at length,an

to the

appeal should
from From the

be

conclusions legitimate

that follow

actual,

matter-of-fact

historyof mental

development.

the first

THE

UNITY

OF

MIND

201

this method
not

treatise of

has

made

constant

acknowledgment
the

of We

this
are

procedure as
in

the

method. only justifiable

to what

engaged
must

inquiringas
to

unitary being
of

of the
as

mind what

be, or ought

of all experience be, irrespective the

to

it

actuallyis.
a

For

metaphysics
abstract

mind,

as

we

view

the matter, is not

cobwebs

spinning of
a

theories of
can

out

of mystical

; it is

treatment speculative
a we

psychical facts.

No

advocate

of

psychology without decisivelythan

been do from

soul

rejectany language
and
as

more

promptly

and

such

has
"

already (p. 163) subject Ego,

and etc."), which

quoted
found

Mr.

Thompson

(about
to

whose
was

substance
so

is unknown

unknowable,
an

even captivating

ent adher-

of cerebral
not
a

psychology like
similar forms of

Professor

James.
are

This, and ready

nounce to deas

few
as

other

theory,we

heartily(though perhaps
in another
"

in different
"

language)

"

strangelyenough
: 2

connection is
a

does

this latter
grown
'

writer

Transcendentalism
and

only
'

Substantialism and of
"

shame-faced,
of the
"

the

Ego only

cheap
out

nasty

edition

soul." of

For
"

it is not

the

soul

consciousness,
unknown may
are

out

time,"
"

a eluding cognition,"

forever
nonsense

and

unknowable
a
"

substance

(whatever
whose
in
"

such

mean),

pure the

Ego," etc.,in

unity our

interests

concerned.
as
a

On

contrary, it is the soul

consciousness, and
not

self-

known
movement to

subjectof consciousness,
and in flow of

since "eluding" itself, its real

a

is self-activity

life,
"

coming

be

time, and
we

always being
The scientific it

itself of

time-process,for unity, and

to

whose

unity
we

contend. upon

fact

that

its

nature,
its

rely

psychology
to

to establish

; and

remoter

implications

belongs

philosophy

set

forth. After and this the

attention is recalled

to the

only

correct

point of view,
from
; but

journey of metaphysical speculation is begun

of

point
no

view, the
arise

difficulties may the vain

still be effort
to

many

they

longer
1

from

overleap

the

See

again "Principlesof Psychology,"

vol. i.,365.

202

THE

UNITY

OF

MIND

limits of the
are

knowable.
to

They
of
a

are

rather

such

difficulties

as

comparable

those

traveller thick

at times

threading

his

way
are on

through deep
not

forests of
a

and

jungles; they certainly

stand in mid-air

like those
own

lunatic

endeavoring to

his

unstable

head.

Now, the psychologicalstudy of the

life shows that
"

phenomena
to

of

mental the

the
to

unity which
Mind To
"

belongs
is

the

subject of
of
not

phenomena
and
as

the

actuallya
infant

matter

degrees
one, not

of

development.
not
a

itself the

is

for

yet it has
to

arrived

at self-consciousness

; it has
a

yet
of

come

be

self-known
to

Self. observer

"IV of the

is indeed

unity

livingorganism
entire of its assured
a

the

physical aspect
the future is

of its

life ; to' the

observer

thoughtful of
as

course

development
so

human

being, it being.

tially potenthis
his

self-conscious, and

unitary mental
observer,
on

But in

unity is potential only.

own

The

reviewing
infantile

imagination
and

the

past succession regard them

as

of the
a

states

of

consciousness, may
of

continuityof

related inter-

reciprocally dependent states, which plan.

may This inchoate then

already give
low form life. the cess proinfant

token

some

organizationof psychoses
as

the observer of that He

may

consider,for himself,
every continuous the

unity which
also

belongs to

mental

enlarge his conceptionof

a

unitarybeing of
continued the
one.

infant of is one,

by projectinginto the future

similar

organization.
he

But

thus

far,in saying that

will become

only

means

that the infant of the

as

In the

enlarged meaning
assert

unitary being
mind exercises be said

of

mind, it is
whom the

only

"

we

again

"

the

to itself,

unity is attributed,acquires and

itself
one

the power

to make

to

that itself,
no

it

can

really to
of mind

have is at

such
once

unitary being. Indeed,

more

other

attribute

distinctive this

and

more

completely subjectto development unity.

Clear

than

attribute somewhat

of

self-consciousness
; and
as a even more

is,
so

a relatively,

late

development
the

the mental

grasping together of

past

continuous

life-

204

THE

UNITY

OF

MIND

is the

rulingprinciple of
is pursuit, The
more

mental
a

development. The
plan,and
the
acme

scious, self-conof
means

intelligent adoption of
for its distinctive

selection of
man's

of

ment. developthe

comprehensive
the

this

plan,and
But

the wiser

selection

of means,

higher is

the

standing of

the individual

in the scale of intellectual

development.
sentiment
seem

ends

suggested
to control

by

aesthetical

and of

ethical human

adapted
the latter which

large spheres
from the very that the end of

activity ;
mandate its

and

especially,
sort

nature

of the
own

with

it sanctions
a

promises

has satisfaction, But of meanwhile conscious

at least

phenomenal

supremacy.

the and end

of principles unconscious should be chical. psy-

of relativity, and continuity,

habit, forbid
as isolated,

that it were, when

any from
we

consciously accepted
the entire both life,

bodily and
all these
we

And in
aware

regard
of of

the

working

of

ciples, prinlife
own

every the

detail

mental

development,
in the ends

become

that far

import

final purpose

mental
on
our

extends

beyond

the conscious
stream

adoption of
of know

part. In
not
so

other
as

words, the
a

consciousness
not

appears,
nor

much

current
as a

flowing we
current

whence

whither, but
both
"

rather

designed from
surface and

the

beginning, depths,
forces,
that

as

respects its observable

and of such

its hidden hidden But

partly self-directed
to the most not
as

partly impelled by
a

"

fit

performance
is,if any
in

certain there

work.

what

work does

fit

be, scientific psychology

of all these

a investigate. In fine,

combination actual

ciples, prinfor

they

appear
stream

their

secures operation,

every

so-called

of consciousness that

that

related continuity,
as

of character, and action,solidarity

intelligible import
are

judged by
the

the

lightof
what
we

ends call
a

and Soul

ideals which
or
a

necessary

to

historyof
scientific the

Mind." which
an

Considerations of
on

like the

in foregoing,

the

discussions

psychology terminate,
of is

have

obvious of mind. truth

:

bearing They
"

metaphysical problem (though

not
so

the

unity

suggest what

obviously)the

it is

THE

UNITY

OF

MIND

205

here
must

again to ethics,as
be

the

philosophy of conduct, that appeal profound

and ultimate

taken

for the most

explanation
of in

of mental mind accord which

issues

phenomena.
exhortations the familiar

Here and
but
"

again,also,the metaphysics warnings

Be
at

which

are

practical
of in

with the
; be

uninterpreted figuresof speech

one

people employ.
at
one

with

the thou

laws have

thy
its
;

being

with

thyself.
in that then
a

Would'st

highest attainable
would'st for
a

form, the unity which

one

is distinctive way which be is

one.

of mind

thou

be

unique

possible Grasp

human

soul,
"

make

thyself to

together and
and selected
stream

bind

into

unity of self-conscious, remembering,

some

reflecting states,according to plan,

of of all the manifold

and consciously fitting in mental it be have

canst

movements

that life.
not

flowing
In

psychoses which being

For aside. thou

is called
;

thy
from

this,

thy
or

oneness

consists

and

distracted

turned

wilt

never

other

unity,in
In

kind

; therefore

get and

keep

all thou

of this.

ing gainfar

the most hast lost all.

a

of

thou hast gained all ; in losingthis,thou this, in

For

losing this
double mind

thou and

hast divided be. value

reallybecome
And in there the is

less of than other mind." A

unity (but
that

rather
a

against thyself)
no

it is

that fitting has

should
or

unity

any

meaning
which short
to

realm

of

philosophy of

the

mind

has work

its basis of

in the actual

facts of mental doctrines

"

life makes held

"

despatching certain
"

once

as

the

so-called

simplicity
in which

"

and

of indivisibility

mind. the

As

distinguishedfrom
sense

the known these

term

identity and
attributes of

unity of
mind
no

mind, in the

have

already

been
no
a

explained, the standing

way
as

simplicity
Whenever

has

meaning
use

and

in

facts. thing any-

it is made

of in such debates
one

to
no

imply
the

it introduces different,
"

which
"

have

relevancy
realm

whichever

side

of them of mind.

espouses

within

of the

philosophy
which
are

And,
to

indeed, if the

figures of
sim-

speech

supposed

be

conveyed by

this word

206

THE

UNITY

OF

MIND

are plicity more

to

be taken

account

of at

all, it would
or

be the

much mani-

appropriate to speak
than of the of instead

of the

two-foldness mind. with But

foldness
ness,

of simplicity

such

manifold-

being inconsistent
to any

its self-conscious

unity,

is

definitively necessary
Still
more
"

mental foolish mind.

unity.
is most The of the discussion
very

unfortunate

and
"

as an

to the

of indivisibility

word

in such
an

applicationis well-nigh meaningless, unless only

with
a

it receive

consistent interpretation view of the

gross

and

materialistic The
or
"

subject of
the

all mental
"

phenomena.
"

word

implies that
off
mass.
"

conceptions of

dividing up
the could

splitting
material that

are

applicableto mind,
Were this the old-fashioned

after

analogy

of

occasion, it fitting argument

of its for the

be

shown

both mind

the
as

of indestructibility the

growing
Kant

out

and indiscerptibility, alike absurd

argument
the realm
as we

by which
of mental admit
"

confuted

it,are
Both

within

phenomena.
what this mental
mass or never can

alike have admitted in

meaning only by
the observer the

be

who

discusses
concrete

philosophicalproblem phenomena
of
a
"

light of actual,
a

that the

analogy of
Here main

composite

material in
some

hypothetical, unanalyzable atom, rigid,

mind.

sort at

least,appliesto the
whichever

all argument directions

reasons, you

from
turn

analogy, into
it,goes
is

of the two and this which for

utterly wild; analogy

with

good
an

since

there

reallyno

upon

to base

argument.

In close

connection
course,

this view

of

the

unity of the mind

to which any
a

stands, of

the third of the conclusions lead.

the previous ity immortal-

metaphysicaldiscussions
of and

If there be of

mind, it is justthis,
"

the continuance

self-conscious Without
tinuity con-

recognitivelyknown
of actual memory,

life-development.
of characteristic

selfhood,it is
indeed

not
tradictory con-

mind, but something far different from

of Hence carried
"

mind, and
as

it,which

is conceived

of

immortally
were

existent.
to be

it
over

might
into

be

argued,

if the of

discussion

the

philosophy

religion
"

the

character

THE

UNITY

OF

MIND

207

of

the

mind's

immortality
The mind's

must

depend
future
must

upon

the

mind's

ent presactual

character. of

somehow,
memory, and

by

acts

self-consciousness,
be

recognitive
into
an

reflective it

thinking,
with its

brought
and said with

organic
now

solidarity,
in order that

as

were,

present
may be

its

past,
to

the

same

one

mind

to

continue

exist

at

all.

CHAPTER

VII

MIND

AND

BODY

THERE
more

are

few

questions
to

for

the

discussion

of

which

it is

essential the mind of the

fix and of

maintain the relations Current

clearly

defined
in

points reality
cially espebe

of

view

than the those

question
and the

existing

between

body.
or

theories, and
order
"

monistic
too

materialistic confuse
a

it will

shown

subsequently frequently
the

"

often

the

discussion and concealed

to two

ing by shiftway.

point
is this these

of

view, in

furtive

Particularly
of

true

charge
concerns

with the

reference

classes of chology psy-

topics.
and

One

of

right
with first

relations

metaphysics
in

in detail

dealing
in the

mental
two
use

phenomena, chapters.
The

"

topic

considered the of

other
"

concerns

understanding
Criticism these
current

and

of

the

so-called directed

principle
the

causation." of

and theories

polemic
will this

against
present,

method

be, for

the is
to

largely
to

excluded. the of way and of

not
one

Our

purpose of view

in

chapter

chiefly
these The in in The

define classes safe

right points topics.

of

with

reference

two

only

procedure
mind is that

in

discussing
which has

the
been

relations,
followed hitherto.
or

reality, of body
the discussion
and
"

all

the class

problems
of
but

undertaken
to

facts

them

the

relative of it

lute abso-

exclusion
"

of

other

classes,
and

all the
so

facts far
as

every is in

kind the the

more

are

to

be

observed

explained
to

power basis

of of

scientific such

psychology

accomplish
the

this. of

Upon
the

scientific and ultimate

may

generalizations
answers

edifice

speculative
the
same

which erected.

philosophy
We have

gives

to

problems

then

be

confidence

MIND

AND

BODY

209

in the science
or

of

psychology
will
"

"

tentative imperfectand largely

immature,

if you

as

alreadyexistingand along
in the the

capable of
physics meta-

indefinite research.

improvement by
But
we

work also

present lines of
a

believe Above should

of possibility
we

of mind. this the

all, however, do
base itself upon
and

believe
; and

that that

metaphysics
of mind

science

particularscience thus trusted

should be the

employed by
of without

the metaphysics rather

science

psychology
the

than

that findingitself pseudo-science, upon the

rightof
falls

reliance back

clearly ascertained
use

psychologicalfacts

upon

of

misleading analogies from general positionthat

and in the
more

physical
in the

science. It follows from this neither

study of
from

the

phenomena
nor

immediate

inferences

them,

in the the

of application

the

of general principles in

metaphysics
as ability,

to

particularproblems
If he and
or uninstructed,

hand, should
confidence

the

be investigator
a

one-sided.

displaysa
as

in his

novice

an

and intelligent brain

"

well-trained and
exerts not

to metaphysician,

know the
"

that causal

the

is, really
that
must physics meta-

what in

it

is,and

what

are

energies

it

determining phenomena
confidence is under
or

of

consciousness,he
when ability the

abjure all

in

similar

of mind faith
upon
or

discussion.
must

Surely the gulf which leap, in

no

intuition solid is
on

inference

order when

to

land is
a

the
soul

is ground of reality, its other This kind of side than

wider

what

called brain

when

what both

is called science

is there.

in consistency
rare

and

metaphysics is,however, no
if the so-called science bare

less

than the

precious. In fine,
correlation let it be the But
to
or

is to end of

in

simple
then

of
sistent, con-

phenomena
and

as

matter

fact, why
directions the
matter

correlate

in all the then leave

or

in which there.

nomena phethe
be

lead; and

metaphysics
excluded
as

of

Monism

of

Materialism of

is then

the metaphysics as strictly Spiritualism. If,however, we are to trust

14

Dualism

of

ourselves

to vali-

210

MIND

AND

BODY

date

critically, or
Let forms

even

to

postulateuncritically, any
us

physics metain

whatever, why then, too, let

be

consistent

this the

regard.
several

us

consider

without
best

prejudice which
accords with the

of

of

metaphysics
of all the

thorough
pretation interthe

treatment speculative

phenomena.
in the If from modes so-called
"

The

same

intelligent consistencyis demanded

and
use

of the
notes

principleof merely
one
"

causation. uniform of

point of
sequence
states
as

view

which

the

of the mental caused

"

of the

phenomena,
"

speaks
or
"

being

determined of the

influenced

or

"

by antecedent
similar refuse

states

body
one

and

brain, then

on

precisely
right
to

grounds
to

of observation the when

same

has
to

absolutely no
relations
as

apply

terms

the

of the

two

classes of states

the order In other

of sequence,

phenomenally
not
as

apparent,is
to

reversed.
a

words,
of

one

must

hesitate
"

speak

in such
"

case,

of states
or
"

body

and

brain

mined," determental of

influenced,"
there
so as

caused," by
no

antecedent the

states

; and

should
to

be

of shuffling

meanings
the

these

terms,

suit convenient

shiftingsin

points

of view.

Here, too, the crimes

discussions of

against consistency,which
mind

the current
as

body and
and
so

commit,

are

as

mischievous

they
is the make

are

numerous

great. The

so-called

principleof
so

causation

itself is

complex

in its character, and

to it in

shifting
as

conception answering
that certain mind
use use

different
to

minds,
obtain.
to

to

complete consistency difficult indeed

however,
a

pose, Supthe

writer from
a

assumes

discuss

relations

of

body

and

purelynon-metaphysical
of causation," principle
no principle

and yet standpoint,

makes
some

of the

since,indeed, without
of any bound kind
to

of this

discussion

of relations

is

interpret and
He

possible. Such a writer is plainly itself in a nonthe principle to use

"

metaphysicalway.

must

that he

is to say views

"

consistently

maintain, in whichever

direction

these

reciprocal

the point of view held by the baldest phenomenalism. relations,

212

MIND

AND

BODY

unwarrantable
The so-called
becomes

metaphysical use
science limited of
to two

of the relations

of principle of

causation. and
or

the

body

mind,
inferred

then,

statements

of observed of

sequences classes
are

between

classes

phenomena

and

both

alike but

not only in respect psychical,

of their
to the

acteristics, char-

also in

respect of their reference

them
to

logical

or

phenomenal (not real)subject of

we are

all. what

In

pointing
history of
consistent

this out

only callingattention
"

the that
is

philosophy has

repeatedly verified, namely,

in
a

phenomenalism ends
otherwise, since

form
and

of idealism
absurd. And

which how

trinsical itselfinit be full

unthinkable

could the

phenomenalism
that

begins by denying
the of

import of the primary facts of knowledge ?

Neither which
are can

it be admitted

conceptionsof
relations
to
to
a

causation
are

current

in the domain the discussion ourselves

physicalscience
of

to

be and

introduced

into

of the here
course,

body

mind, without
This which and

binding
remark

complete
form
"

tency. consisof theory

of applies,

every

recognizes the
of the

so-called
as

law

of the

conservation

correlation

energy"
either
more

or applying, either positively

within negatively, may,

sphere of

these relations.
in

The of
an

law

itself

however, be held
or

the less

interests

alleged
But

phenomenalism
whichever endeavors
way to

in

or

metaphysical way.
the and mind endeavor such
a

the discuss

investigator understands
the and relations this whether of

law, if he
in be

body

the
to

lightof
show
or,
on

this

law,

"

his main

the

absurdityof attempting to apply it to

hand,
he to enforce to
a

relations,

the other of

stricter

or

looser

cation applipsychothey,
and
to
as

it,
"

is bound that

consistency. logical

Suppose, then, physics

the and avowed
can

the

phenomena
with the view

with be
see

which

psychology deal physiological phenomenalist brought

of energy. this very under How
a

approached by
whether

to

too,

be

law

of the
an

conservation

correlation understand

is such
"

bound investigator

law,

with

its obscure

terms,

such

MIND

AND

BODY

213

"

"

energy

stored ("" and the

"

and

"

kinetic

"),
no

"

conservation,"

"

relation," cor-

like ? way.

Plainly in
He
cannot

metaphysical but abjure

all other

in

purely phenomenal
and and itself, the all

physics, meta-

yet accept the metaphysics implied in the law

his

still maintain and

consistency. Now,
of energy, itself when

this

law

of

conservation

correlation

strippedof
ment state-

implied metaphysics,becomes
of uniform modes classes of sequence of certain

only a
have

summary been
as

which

observed ble capa-

between of

physical phenomena,
some

alike

being brought

under

form

of

measurement.

considered, the phenomena Quantitatively

heat, and

called under

gravitation,
certain in terms the
at

possiblylightand electricity may, recurring similar

formulas.
and that the
more

quently freof

be expressed relations,

mathematical that continued

Valid

grounds

exist

for may other

hope
last

successful

researches is
true

demonstrate of

the

same

thing
be

of

classes

phenomena,
at

formulas
even

for whose

quantitative relations
with any the

cannot
assurance.

present

conjectured

degree

of

Moreover, there
a

arises in the mind

entrancing possible
it

ideal of

scientific determination between all

of all actual
manner

and

relations quantitative
; and
ever

of

physicalphenomena
this,could

it is assumed written and

that the be

formula

for all

be

out, would
eras

unchanging
of

for all the

varying

conditions

of the world's ardent

our

development. physicalscience
of the
must
fess, con-

Now,

the most

devotee

however, that
behavior which

knowledge
sets

particular modes

of

individual

things, or
far

velop species of things, derelations advance

under the whole,

particularcomplex

of concrete

is, on
in the For

just at present
modern

outstrippingour
mathematical
and

acquirement of the

necessary

formulas.
even new

example, physics are

biology, chemistry,
observation of
so

molecular and
derful won-

disclosingto
that it the
was arm a

many

facts behind them. where And

mathematics
ago

is relativelv its power of

a

far

century

in ideal

to

handle

perhaps,after all,this

universally ap-

214

MIND

AND

BODY.

plicableand
sum

unchanging
is

formula

for

the

expression
all classes the

of

the

total of

relations quantitative

among

of

ical physof does

tain cer-

phenomena
not

illusory. For
more

is not

conception
And

development coming
this

and

more

to the front ?

perhaps,necessitate conception,
the science ? And

the

of application

truths,to which
course

of life invites us, to the entire

may

of those

physicalaffairs
will be found

it not the

prove

to

be

true

that

changes qualitative
to

which

theory of

evolution lower

emphasizes
ideal of
a

be is ?

incompatiblewith
If all

this

machine-world

that

always theoretically manageable

be reality the
a

in terms manifestation of
not

of mathematics of life

progressive
herents ad-

(although, of
are

course, to
even

consistent

phenomenalism
to admit

forbidden of

suggest this), may

the

explanation of
us

the sequences

physicalphenomena
as

compel
with the

quantitativeincrements
necessary of the and is at universal

connected ? the

changes qualitative
the advocate conservation who

to this manifestation

If, now,
law of the

of applicability of energy consistent

to

correlation the
same

ical physin his

phenomena,
refusal make what
a

time the

of all

metaphysics,arrives study
his

at

point where
of

he must

scientific does
cannot

of the

relations

body

and

mind,
him

to

course

reputation for consistency bind

to

he Plainly, of

refuse law
to

acknowledge
very

the

cability apparent appliof the the For

two in

the

these

relations,because
difference

supposed great (or possiblycomplete)

kinds has
no

of

beings between
know

which

the of
"

relations

exist.

he
so

right to
that
the

anything
cannot

beings

"

with

natures

different under know

relations capable quantitative law exist between He

must

of

being brought
He
can

general
of
"

them.

nothing

kinds the

of

beings."
as

always, in

sistency, con-

approach
as

phenomena

only phenomena.
the

But
one

long

as

this is

if done, the first impression is,especially without

give

one's

self up

prejudiceto

of investigations do exist
between

psycho-physics,that physicaland
mental

quantitativerelations phenomena.
This, when

translated

into

MIND

AND

BODY

215

the

language figurative
to

of
to

that

metaphysics
"

which is
no
"

physics
more

naively employs, amounts

unwarrantable

saying : Possibly,it
energy

speak

of
"

"

being
and

"

stored

in the
to

mind, and

"

transmitted
same or

between

mind

brain, than
or

speak of
two
masses

the

metaphysical transactions
of matter. would From
seem

within the

between view of

molecules

point of
no

pure

phenomenalism, language.
these On

there the

to

be

impropriety
even

in such enforced

contrary, it is suggested and

Felt

by the phenomena.
are

changes in

the

and intensity

extensity(and

both

measurable

tive aspects or quantita-

are, as of the phenomena of consciousness, characteristics) less regular or matter of fact,connected in the form of more

sequences

with

observed
not

changes

in the amounts
"

of the bodily
this the est strictof mulas for-

changes.
has for

It does

follow, however,

and and

adherent energy
no

of the law

of the conservation assume,

"

correlation

rightto
have that the

that

the

mathematical could
we

these

quantitative relations,
same

discover

them, would

fixed

and
to

regularly recurrent

applicationas
between It is
naive

which

belongs

quantitative relations
and the self-conscious

physical phenomena. only when metaphysics, critical

in to disturb that the
or

and

uncritical,comes

purity of
the law relations of

one's of the

phenomenalism
conservation and mind and
becomes

of applying difficulty of energy And

to the

correlation

body
culty diffi-

oppressive.
a

the

degree of
of the

this

furnishes

very

good

measure

necessity for
law
more

applying a
The

careful

metaphysical analysisto
In other

the very

itself. perative im-

greater and
the

more

the oppressive the difficulty,

necessity.
when the law had

words,
of

what and

we,

above
are

all,
cussed dis-

want

to

know,
as

the relations

body

mind and

though

of the conservation whatever

as

correlation the cussion, disthat do

of

physicalenergy
is this
:

anything
is the

to

do with

What

meaning,

aught signifying
same

reallyis

and

that

reallyoccurs,
when

of this
act

law

?
"

What when

things actuallydo

they

under

the

law,

they

216

MIND

AND

BODY

"

conserve

energy," "transmit
the such

energy," and
of energy is taken this
most

behave
"

in accordance

with When

alleged
a

"

correlation

? the very
most

question as

to

determined, the fiercest and

of the

uncompromising deny
that the

advocates
ceived. re-

empirical law, only Many

of them any
at

very
once

unsatisfactory repliesare
law,
as

they
in the

understand

it, has

metaphysical reference,even
; that

sphere of physicalphenomena
into the

is to Let

say, these

they
very

fall back persons, of their

to
at

positionof phenomenalism.
be

however, law,
to

summoned,
the

in

the

congenial
are

company

face

phenomena
between of this
to

which

popularlysupposed
mind,
and

signifyan
once

interaction
out

body
mental

and

they

are

shaken

refuse position. They quite invariably

to allow

the law

apply to
mental

phenomena
and
to say
as

as

such,

or

to

the

relations

between think it

phenomena

bodilyphenomena.
to the

They
the energy

shocking,not
system

to speak of ridiculous,

of the stored

nervous

being

transmitted

mind,
seen,

or

in the mind, etc.

But

has alreadybeen as this,

is

because

they

cannot

avoid the

giving
law

some

real For

import
in the

to

the

terms figurative

which

employs.
merely
as

relations
no reason

of the for

phenomena,
any such

considered
or

phenomena,
exists.
clusion con-

shock

feelingof speaking
to be

ridicule

Moreover, it requires little inspection to establish that,

and
even

the

when of

they
energy

are as

of the

tion conserva-

correlation

obtaining among

physical
a

phenomena, they
that governs

suppose

themselves relations

laying down

law in

the actual
as

of real

things. They
amount

are,

truth, speaking
claim verbal
to

metaphysicians,however
And
no

warmly they
of

may

be

abjuring metaphysics. physics which

critical than writer of this touch the

the

and
on

logicaltwistings and squirmings customary

upon this their authors from
maw all-devouring own.

in the
to physics meta-

treatises withdraw

subject serves
of
a

more

their
on or

When,

then, any
advocate

the that

metaphysics
theoretical

of

psycho-

physics,any

construction

MIND

AND

BODY

217

of the
use

relations

in

realitybetween

body

and and

mind,

makes of
fute con-

of the

physicallaw

of the conservation his positively

we own a

correlation
to

energy, the

either to establish

theory or right
to

theory of

an

opponent,
itself.

have

know

how

he understands energy, reminds

"

the law the

Does and of

he consider correlation
an can
"

that of

physical
which
can

about
us so

conservation
some

he ally liter"

often, is

sort

entitywhich actually
" " "

seat
one

itself " in

or things,

which ? Is

pass

over
"

from energy

thing
to be

to

another

stored
an

or

potential
and

regarded
up,
atom
or

in the

light of
away, when in

entitycaught
some
"

locked literally
or

packed
? And

physical mass
kinetic
ergy," en-

molecule has

or some

it becomes
out

real
to

entity broken
move

of its

prison-house
is not conceives
our

and

begun again
as

afield ?

Certainly it
science

such of

transactions
as

these

which

physical
as

and taking place in reality,

representable to
law of the
must

thought
be

and

imagination,under
correlation that
some

its so-called Yet real

conservation
fessed con-

and

of

energy.
sort

again

it not

of

some transactions,

principles
know

actually obeyed by reallyexistent imagined,

what of the
as

things are
?
or

thought of, or
until the
we

signifiedby
can we

this

law

And

they
law

are, how to
so

affirm

deny
and

applicability
of ?
to

relations unlike
as

between
are

two

beings phenomenally
the mind
can we man

considered Or

the
to be

body
to

perhaps

it

ought

rather

said, How

refuse
to

consider

favorably the
known
to

proposal

apply

this

law

these the

relations,when, phenomenally considered, the body and

mind
we are

be

so

closelycorrelated
turn
out
or no more

Perhaps too,
to

affirm

again,it might
as

absurd

speak
in and this and
"

of energy

stored
to

by
in

the

mind,

set

free from

its seat

mind,

than
"

employ only

similar either
"

terms
case we

for

physical masses
know what
"

molecules,
"

if
"

could

storing," seating,"and
that is

settingfree
answers

really means,
term
"

what
as

really existent
to

to

the

energy

applied either

physical or

to

mental

beings.

218

MIND

AND

BODY

In

seeking
method

for

lightupon
mind of and

this obscure

subjectof
is
no

the causal safe and

relation

between

body there
than
to

other
to
a

hopeful
of mental
at
once

procedure
the Such of the

appeal
of

philosophy

that bases

itself upon

and descriptive
a

explanatory science procedure leads

and itself.
us

phenomena.
to

method

the

study

nature, origin,

development,
This its conclusions

of psychologically,

the

conception
*

of causation
; and

study
"

we

have here finds

elsewhere

undertaken passages.

from

we

quote several
conative

Psychological science given

as an

simply
in

consciousness
amount

undoubted of attention, of the

factor

determining the
of the mental As

and

direction

the control

train,and

of the movements

bodily organism.
and conclusive the

science,our psychological
; it is
no

investigation physics strives

correlation cerebral accompany
"

accepts this ordering of phenomena

than
are

less fundamental

those

data

upon

which and

to establish

of principle the

the conservation information

of

energy.
can

Moreover, all
furnish

which that

ology physior

regarding the

processes
"

(if one
consist

please)underlie only
of

conation,

volition,striving, etc.,
this

conjectural preconditionsfor [We

and clear of
'

primary

and
an

indubitable instant

psychological fact.
that the
more
more

turn

aside

barely

to affirm

acute

ical prolonged metaphysconviction that

* Cause,' and Reality,'

analysis becomes,
the
'

the

is the

most
'

highly developed
('conserved
themselves
or
'

notions
'

Energy

and

correlated
upon

within '), this

the

physical
datum of
to

realm,

are

dependent
These of notions

very

conation,
man's

active life.
name

consciousness, belonging primarily

cannot

mental
in

fore, thereconsistently, the

the and

so-called the

physical science, deny psychological fact

the
'

existence

validity of
"

on

which

they
"

all

repose.]

2
'

The

conception which

answers

to

term

causation

Psychology,Descriptiveand
ff.,and
519

chapters xL Explanatory,

and

xxi. ; and

comp.

pp. 482
2

ff.

Ibid., p. 215.

220

MIND

AND

BODY

of

course,

action

without
seem

being
a

that

acts

is

an

absurdity.
causation.
in

Being too, then, would

Moreover,
or

simpler notion
or

than

Relation is also
we a

(whether causal, simpler

way

merely
that and

space

in
.

time)
When

notion

than

of causation.
lar muscu-

act,

by

of conscious

conation
sense sense

then effort,
vice versa,

of changed presentations certain of other

follow

and

when relations

presentations of
beings
in the
to
us

indicative
we

of certain certain

occur,

then

suffer
the

conspicuous changes
of projection
our

content

of consciousness. ourselves the into

It is the world demand

experience with
the results in

of related

under things,

impulse of
the

intellectual notion

which for explanation,

general

of causation."
In of
"

tracing and
notion
scant
we

the illustrating have in the

details of the connection is needed

development
also
to

this

same

said

Only
that term
are

study of consciousness

reveal
so

the

bafflingcomplexity of men's
use

thinking, when
which fact
in

they

glibly
with those
enter

cluster
'

of

expressiveterms
This advanced the

is connected evident with

the who into

causation.'

is most

farthest

conceptions which
sciences. he
that
'

the modern

developments
to

of the natural

The
means

physicistis
when
or
'

far less able of energy he

tell what
as
'

is real and of
'

he

speaks
'

conserved

correlated,'
element unscientific
one
'

the

chemist those when

'

when

declares

that atoms than

one

attract

of another he

element,
the
' '

is the
'

observer

speaks of
or

influence
'

which

thing
'

has

'

over

another,
cases

of the of

action

of

one

thing
the

upon

another.

In all

alleged causation
we are

it is evident

that,
results
our

considered, psychologically
of the entire

dealing with knowledge

truth
; and

complex growth
the

of

thus

attention
to

is called to the of

important
of
"

that it is without

impossible implying
of attained.

speak
the

conception knowledge
of all

causation
as

that the

stage of

the has

complex already

resultant

development
1

faculty
"

been
f.

and Explanatory, pp. Psychology,Descriptive

504

MIND

AND

BODY

221

For

it is real

beings, as
of time
as

known and

to

exist toward

and

to

behave

in

manifold
are

relations of
our

space

each
As
we

other, that
shall
see

conceived

causally connected.
such connected in order

later on, it is

beliefin
is

and

interdependent thinkingmay
mind of the

which existences, end

"

chiefly necessary
and
as

that

in

knowledge.
lower

Certain
be

non-intellectual
subservient of its
to

activities of the the

may

considered

development
This is true

complex
unable the

conception
for

causation, although of

themselves
even

to account

development.
the such

of of

and the imitative, instinctive,

classes sensory-reflex activities

our own

activities. psycho-physical
are, both

By

choses psy-

connected activelyand passively,

together in
are

consciousness, and
connected attribute every with
to

these, as

known

in self-consciousness, which
we

those

psychoses
than

have

learned

to

other

beings
interest such

ourselves.

Especially does
to its

late painful or pleasurable sensory-motor experience stimuour

inquiry and
. . .

in

drawing

conclusions
a

as

cause.

Every

experience emphasizes
not

connection definite

between

doing something, or
desires

doing it,and
. . .

certain

pleasurableor painful consequences.

serve as
a

Thus

all the awakening upon the

sort

of interior
an

pressure ceaseless

motor

organism compulsion
"

they constitute doing

or

almost

invitation
or

and

to the at

to the

avoiding of

this

that.

Imitation, too,
more

first blind

and
"

and instinctive, establishes and

afterward
tions connec-

purposeful and
between

intelligent,
is done
. . .

other what
use

what

by the child

is

more
cles, mus-

passively experienced.
as

Indeed, it is in the
and

of the
with

dependent

upon

conation various

in

association

the

feeling of effortand
that painful feeling,
so

with the

forms

and of pleasurable has of

its birthplace,

conceptionof
under the

causation

to

speak. Certainly,mere
of

observation laws of

the

form uniof

sequences ideas would

never

images
serve

association

to

develop

this

conception; only as
sufferers do
we

being

ourselves

self-conscious

agents and

222

MIND

AND

BODY

come

to

argue

about

'

'

energy

and

'

causation

'

in the

world

of
K

things.
All the the

language
truth of It is

of child-life and
our

of the

common

people
category of
a what some-

confirms causation.

view

of the

so-called has
a

only

when of
can

the child itself attain

one as

developed being
that
in

complex something, and

the that of it

knowledge by doing
to terms

can

do

its purposes

changing things
is

to itself and relations,

to

another, of external

begins

use

implying the dawning conception

also of this

causation. upon
a

The the

development development

conception

dependent (Here
and

of the consciousness

of Self."

follows

lengthy quotationfrom
considered

Preyer '
from

in illustration

support of this view.)

If this

subject is
of of the

still further that

"

the

logical psycho-

point development
upon which

view, it appears

the next is

stage in the

conception of
with upon those

causation

chiefly ent dependthan him

experience
react

beings, other
cause

himself,
of feelings is the

promptly

the child and

pleasure or pain.
animals,
which human he
"

One

important
course,

class of such the

"

beings

of especially, becomes The the

most

domestic and
above

animals, with
all,his fellow

familiar,
such
'

beings.
bit
'

bearing of

experiencesis made
the

plain
the Here it of

in sentences

like
;

following:

I kicked
me

dog, and form, as

dog
the

me

'I hit the causation

boy, and he hit

is illustrated of motive

back,' etc.

of principle
"

in double and

"were,

both
"

as

consciousness

consciousness in

energy,

followed In

by
such

important changes experiences, the acting agent

to all

presentationin
sense

experience.
out

basis

and
creates

imagination for
of the

that act of intellectual

sense an

which projection like

objectof
of causal
. .

myself
a

is abundantly

supplied.
attribution of life.
.

From

such agency

experiencesit is things
.

but

step to the

that manifest
. .

signs
to

The

phenomena

of nature
to

are

assigned
the

unseen

agents imagined
1

to exist and

act

after

pattern
f.

The

Mind

of the

Child,The

Development

of the

Intellect, pp.

191

MIND

AND

BODY

223

suggested by
the

the

self-knowledgealready obtained.
act
as
"

ganic Inor. . .

things that
use

promptly poker
'

and
we

intensely upon
effect
our

us,
are

or

by

of which

instruments

ends,
'

larly simi-

regarded. poker poker

B,
in is of is of

The
"

makes

the fire burn the

;
'

and, if the
but To
or

wood,

The

fire burns The

'

poker
it A

up ;

if the

iron, then
Dr.

fire makes
we

etc. red,'

quote
that in

again from
we

"Ward

When

say

causes

this

attribute to A what we experience projector analogically acting,and to B what we experiencein being acted upon,'
"

and

this
one

'

long
or

before
recur

we

suspect that this relation is

nent perma-

must

again.'
the

"

It is

by the development of experience under

of ideas
in B

principle
are

of the

association
as

that, in large part, we

shall be attributed
as

mined deter-

to what

changes
the

to antecedent

or

concomitant

changes in A

their

'

causes.'

It is under
are

the
to

same

principlethat
rules for All of
our

connections

of the

past

made

furnish the

expectation as
our

to the

behavior

of

things

in

future.

conceptions
We
names,

of

things

summarize

the

judgments
to which

experience with
be entitled
to

the

individuals

of the class
to
as

the

things belong.
to

judge things according

to

belong
they

to

classes,and
behaved New

have
. .

themselves

in definite relations

other
up

things.
and

experiencesconstantlyconfirm, or
associations the of
same

break

readjust,
Thus like better

the old remains instead

; but

the

law

of associative
our
'

reproduction
have

throughout
so-called with accord

all

development.
Like
causes

stating the

law,

it would effects,'
to say
:
'

the facts of consciousness

may
a

The

same

beings

be
way

expected
similar
'

to to

behave, under
those remain
some

the

same

circumstances, in they most long

this
as

known what such

things which they

are so

resemble.'

Associations all.'

they

remain the
'

at

Upon

impression as safety and

said to be and
'

concerning
in
'

uniformity of nature,'our
The

very

life

daily depend.
to the very

impression may
of skin and

be

rubbed

texture

muscles

joints and

bones.

Beware

of

snarling dogs, of falling

224

MIND

AND

BODY

of sharp knives,of bright lightning, of stones, of blazingfire,

deep, swift currents,

is

etc.

One

experience with
will do ; custom

these

agents

enough
"

to

know
not

what

they

established

by

is repetition But

necessary of

here. upon the basis of

our an

association with

ideas, working
as

experience
is not in A alone
cause an

ourselves this

agents, and

resulting in
all other

of projection analogical
a

experience upon
in

things, changes
This is

satisfactory guide
this
or

determining what
in

that

particularchange
intellect, as
it is conducted

B.

rather

inquiry in
if

which

applied to reality,
by those
processes in science

exercises chiefly of
as

itself ; and

reasoning which, explanatory

For

successfully concluded,result
world of
events

of the

in

their

causal

tions." rela-

more

complete understanding
the of

of these

processes

and

their results in establishing a system of causal

may claim
name

relations that

science, a study of the psychology

This
to the

of the

intellect
!

is necessary.

study, as
all its

we

have

also The is of the but

to

elsewhere
essence

shown, brings us
intellectual and the of the

: following positions

of

in activity,

higher forms,
processes
"

thinking ; thinking is
much
an

essential

expression of all Now,

very
an

so-called

judgment. judgment,
is

early in
action

development

intellectual of in milk
a

life appears which

important
the

neglected form
agent.

attributes of
a

When,

the

consciousness

infant, the

' The proposition,

hot,'expresses
association it
assumes.
'

true

judgment

as

distinguished from images,

name-is there does milk burns of
not

mere

of

representative
Such
a

it is this form
so

which

sition propo-

much the

mean,

That-thing-there-whoseas
'

has

quality burn)
onward,
this
or

of

hotness,'
In

That-milkthe
or a

(or

will

me.' the that

fact,from
'

very that

beginning
person way,
or or

intellect is

judgment,
'

This in

thing

doing

(behaving
or

certain be

somehow affecting
1

another

person

thing),may
448 f.

and Explanatory, pp. Psychology, Descriptive

MIND

AXD

BODY

225

said to be the form truth

predominating

form
most

of

judgment. strongly;
most

It is to this its This

that attention
or

is attracted
our

and- around

falsehood

interests the

cluster

thickly.

fact is the

analogue,in

higher regions of mental

that sensations

of life,

the fundamental
are
"

fact psycho-physical with low

of motion

even effective, relatively

degrees of intensity.
with the

Out forms

of this

common

root, in connection
of resemblance of space
or

ing preced-

(judgments
which

and judgdifference, ments

recognizingrelations judgments
denied of
may

and

time), develop those

most
'

properlybe
are

called

metaphysical'
affirmed
or

in their intent.
a

Such

judgments

of attributes
cause

substance, judgments of

and

and effect, those

judgments
which and under
or

of

design adapted
are

to

an
*

end.

Even

ments judgparts

sometimes

called

judgments
under

of subordination,' and

in which

speciesis brought
the of
a

genus

the whole with

(whether with
the

scientific end

of classification,

the aesthetical end upon

pleasing proportion), are

of this form of thinking.
ever

largely dependent
For every

development
itself
as

intellect knows
ever

only active,as
change
child
or or

doing something, as
intellect is

effectingsome
of the science
can

; and

every
more

necessarily (not that

that of the The
man

savage

truly than only as

"

of

the

philosopher)
the
"

anthropomorphic.
a

intellect

understand
are ever

world
one

system of related

which beings,

each

doing something and If, now,

the

having something done

intellect
reason are

to them."

operations of
processes of

followed result
"

in

those mation forthe

more

elaborate of the

which
see

in

the

body

of

science,we

how action

it is under
an

form

of

judgment

which
cause

attributes and do
we

to

agent that

inferences In

in the line of
same

effect find

and develop. originate the intellect and of

to
man

the essentially with

form
to

concluding
For the

respect
of

interactingforces (or energy) origin

"

laws.

conception
"

force in its The

15

is

inseparable
is

psychologically
of conative

at

least

from

ness the conscious-

activity.

conception of law, too,

226

MIND

AND

BODY

primarily that
Under these

of the

mode

of

the
'

behavior and
'

of

some

agent.
are so

two

relations both
in

force ('

law

which '),

subtly intermingled
a

and reality

in mental closed does

sion, appreheneven

wide

field of

conclusions, otherwise
For who

to the
see

mind's those
to

entrance,
words
so

is mastered.

not

that

gliblyused by physical science

data and description Whenever
. .

have

reference covered dis-

presuppositionsthat quite outstripthe

in
our

hitherto

explanation of
one sees

the

phenomena signs
of the

of consciousness? force

certain

(movements, changes), one

of
an one

immediately
force

concludes
to

existence

agent with
believes

the

necessary

produce
of
an

them;

when

in,

or

knows, the presence

one or

agent with the

of the

necessary

force,then

concludes will

that

signs
is

agent's force
In this way

have
every

manifested,

selves. manifest, them-

P, perceivedchange (or effect),

of
some

inferred to be due
that

to the action
common

agent, S, for the

connected

reason

M,

which

is the known
"

sign of S, is
which affords
*

with
to

P;

thereforeP
"

the
case

cause

of

the

problem

the mind
"

is

to

be attributed of

to S."

An

elaborate

employment
to form

reasoning facultyis conception of

'

edly undoubt'

necessary

in order

the

causation

and

yet higher development is marked

notions

by the attainment
of such

of

defined clearly
as
'
'

respectingthe meaning
'

terms
on

doing,'and agent,' self-activity,'

hand,
one

the

like.

But,

the

other

principalform
line of this

of

logicalconclusion
This
own

is itself

developed along the

case

conception.
laws

is

simply
evolution

of the any

intellect

following the
of significance life
we

of its of the
same

without

corresponding development
and these of mental his
more

consciousness laws. what For

we

of the existence every form

in do.

do without the
events

knowing
child in his

Very early in
to himself

mental

growth doings

begins to explain experience by

persons,
events.
472 f.

the

noteworthy
to

attributing them
hitherto associated
1

the with

of

things
same

or

not

these precisely

Such

Psychology,Descriptiveand

Explanatory, pp.

228

MIND

AND

BODY

Of it three sufficient
man,
as a

things
reason

must

be

noted

"

(1) By
the

the

principleof tendency of explain

his
at principle

is

obviously meant
then, not really,

natural

to developing intellect,satisfactorily

experience.

This

is

an

abstract

of identity sidered, ; it is rather, primarilyconall,as is the principle

an

exhortation

arising from
of its

the

depths

of

our

lectual intel-

life. and pursues the

(2) All
in

the

explanation which
own

intellect demands self-satisfaction

one

the

interests
one

volves into

relating of
with it into such

object to another, of
is We
an

event

another,
connection
we

etc.

Everything

explained by being brought

understand
act

into

something else.
connection, by
be

only when
with P
;

bring
since
we

of

judgment,
a

and

relating can
each other

direct
to P

only to
all

very Thus

limited

extent,
and P

explain S explain
one

in relation
;

through M.
are

S, 31,
as

all

they

apprehended
events.
we

belonging to (3)
it in
as

world such

of connected
a

objectsand
that

For know of it of the

the it

that belief

world

and exists,

may
aware

exists,not

only by becoming immediately

but self-consciousness,
a

perceptionand
mind
.
.

also

by

processes
all

like ratiocination,lies,

beneath sleeping postulate,

to

of activity
reason.

according
The
.

the so-called 'law of the

to
we

principle of sufficient
causation' is

so-called it were, in

of

only

the
reason.

as objectification,

principleof
assert
our

sufficient

Its

meaning,
are

general,is
as

confidence

that

things
to

reallyconnected
or

find
are.

ourselves The
. . .

having
entire

'reason'

know

believe that
be

they
which

phrase,then, should development

held

to be

of significant

that in

perpetual giving a

of the life of intellect

results and

higher unity to knowledge ; a more to experience; a organization

on

complex
more

pled well-princigrasp
ot

comprehensive
events,
as a

the

world

of

known
'

objectsand
'

system

beings with
'

so-called
'

natures,' acting under

;
a over

law

and

ing possessand

forces

and

'

powers outlook and

wider the

theoretical invisible that realms

yet

defensible logically times and

of distant be made

spaces,

of entities

cannot

MIND

AND

BODY
"

229

the

objects of perceptive experience. Thus

more

our

'

reasons'
as

become

nearly ideally 'sufficient,' according

of intellect goes
more,
on itself,

the

development
and the race,
once were

the

part of the individual

on." what

But,
science

would in the

happen
to eliminate

if modern it is

physical
so

to succeed

which effort,

sistently incon-

and elements causation when

we

blindlymaking,
from We its may

all the of the

cal metaphysiof principle

conception
understand

and the

use answer

to this

question
ception con-

understand

that

this considered, 'psychologically

then becomes itself derived

nothing but
concrete to

barren
real

and

empty

straction ab-

from the very

and

the experiences
as we
a

plain import of which

elsewhere

it is suborned

deny. For,
of science has

have

said,2"The

superstructure
modern

so-called

priori

knowledge, or assumption,which
the of principle causation

built upon

ered, considis,at least psychologically We

"

utterlyindefensible.
believe and
"

do not either

naturallyor necessarily
of matter of the the truth But
we

much

less know

the permanency

of force in the
'

physicaluniverse,or
must

ment, judg-

Every

event

have

cause.'

do,

as

reason

develops,seek constantlymore explain on

the world
a

to explain; adequately

and

we

hypothesis which things

the
same

results kind it. other

from

our

to attributing

of

of relations To be
a cause we

which is
'

we

ceive perone

ourselves

sustaining to
to
some

for

being to

do

something unity of

as being,'

might

larly popuof

say.

Conceptions

like those and all

of the

universal the

reign

law, of the

matter

force,or
a

and regularity

uniformity of nature, etc.,are complex development.

introduced unification
"

later and
are, and
more a

yet

more

highly
can

These

never

never

be,

psychologically considered, anything by intellect

of in the

than
more

hypotheses complete
science

interests of

experience.
of causation which modern
485 "

that conception Finally,

1 2

and Explanatory, Psychology, Descriptive pp.

Ibid., pp. 503 f.

230
%

MIND

AND

BODY

has

enabled

us

to

develop
more

is still less lifelike abstract induces

as
a

as

matter

of

imagination,and
The scientific

still

matter

of intellect.
we are

study

of nature

the

feelingthat
of relation
own

unwarranted
we can

ill attributingto

things a
terms

kind of
our

which and

concretelyrealize only in
of This is to

conation in

followed feeling of effort,

sense.
'

regularlyby changes regard nature,

'

tions presenta-

we

are

gether told,in altoscience then this

no

too

anthropomorphic
the
more

fashion.

What

does

is to

extend Tn

purely thought-elements of
we are

conception.
less

doing this,however, Only, we

of
now

in

some

sort

anthropomorphic.
"

attribute

the laws
connect
'

of

tellecti in-

that

is,the forms
as

thinking which
their

clusions con-

with

judgments
the causation

finding in them

reason'

and
ception con-

ground
becomes

'
"

to

behavior loses

of things. Treated
all its concrete which
answers some

thus, the

of
a as

and lifelikeness,
to
some

pale abstraction
that
'

such
event

tulate pos-

every

event

follows Yet
even

other

accordmuch the their all

ing to

some

uniform be made
our

rule.'
to escape

here, however

effort may

conceptionswhich it,
ourselves
to the

have

originin
the Causation.

universal that how

experiencewith
these

constitute

of reality

thinking which
far

answers

of principle bear valid

In
to the

facts psychological conclusion

testimony
world
reason

general postulateor
and rational, that

that
to

the real human

is indeed in its

realityanswers

it belongs to philosophy to inquire." constitution, all events

are

In

brief,

"

regarded as

having their ground

"

in the
a

other events, and

these other events

in still others,

under

of influence

that demand

in the interests of for explanation is the

law

of experience which progressive unification

very

of the

lifeand

growth of
the

intellect

itself. It is this intellectual

to explain, we necessity

repeat,that gives to the so-called law

which it appears is the last
to

of causation world of

necessitywith
At
any utter

rule

the

things.
show

rate, such
this in

word
be

which left to the

psychology can philosophy to

upon that

subject.

It must

its supreme

scientific form

MIND

AND

BODY

231

conception of
that the world order ; and

causation of real in is

implies the
it under

confidence is
an

of

the

mind

things and

real events the

own

intellectual

that

knowing

of general principle forms of behavior in

causation, mind
the behavior So
to and

reorganizingits
of the

of

1 things."

lengthy a
of the

consideration

psychological(leading up
and
or

involvingthe metaphysical) origin,nature, conception,and

is these of the so-called law in amply justified
on

ment developprinciple
For one's and ence refer-

of causation critical

this connection.

opinion

formed points,if intelligently one's mind. these

or

adhered consistently
to the

to, determines
of the

with position Does relations

an

relations and

body and
of reality

the

inquirer
out to

into the be
a

import
or a

turn

Monist

Dualist,a
will

Materialist

advocate

of the

tenet? spiritualistic

This, if the

inquiry be
which has

and logically the view vocated, adbe and

honestly conducted,
he takes of
as
"

depend
The

almost

wholly upon

causation." alone

view

just been
now

psychologicallydefensible, may
as

brieflysummarized,

it

applies to

the

case

of

body

mind, in the following particulars.

the actual,concrete, and livingexperience which And, first,

gives

birth

to the

conception of
of those
one

causation

consists which
are
on

in the

ciprocal re-

dependence
on respectively,

phenomena
to the

assigned,
the other tween be-

the

hand
a

body, and

hand

to the mind.

In

word, it is here, in the relations

that actually experienced,

body
of

and cause,

mind,
or

as

the notions

being a

of

chieflyoriginate. being effected,

in

But, second, this conception of causation, even

immediate the passu of and

its most

originalform,
"

is

complex
or

affair.
more

It

implies

development
"

either

antecedently

nearly pari
an

of the

of being conception of self-activity,

manner

agent,
It

doing something, of effecting some

also the of

of of of

change.
"

involves

supplementary conception
done
to

sufferingsome being
507.

change,

having something
1

us,

subject

and Explanatory,p. Psychology,Descriptive

232

MIND

AND

BODY

to"
some

some

other of of

being, as
our

well
It
"

as

of

being

"the

subjecto/"
obscure and

action
a

own.

involves,further, the conception

a

of

relation
no

dependence,
a

feeling(at first
of
two

vague,

doubt), and
the
between

subject to developcognition(itself ment

power
same

under connection

growing
these

of dependent intellect) classes of

phenomena.
tion, causa-

These,

and

all the other

our

elements actual and

of this
concrete

conception of

originatein
relations of

experience of

the

body and mind. Third, this popular and metaphysical from

abstraction that from the its

universal

conception of
it is

causation

is

start ; and

always
farther which

so, until it is

theoretically stripped of
of take

metaphysical import by
and

processes from be

it farther It is
a

away
cannot

realityand
formed

life. the

conception

at all without

knowledge
upon, all these

of ourselves of actual

reallybeing,
selves them-

reallyacting
and due

and

being

acted

gizing psychicalenerare

suffering; and
to

conceptions
of

the
two

metaphysical working beings,body

activities and and

mind.

Here,

again,it is

these

mind, in whose
in
our

rocally recipactual first

determining living experience originates. The

as

changes, and
of

of

them, the

conception

causation of

so-called

scientific

conception

causation stated in

merely

relation (capable of being quantitative

mathematical

formulas) between
as

uniformly sequent

ena phenomtic scholas-

is,so far

it is

non-metaphysical,a partialand
of unwarranted reality, is go of causation which

conception.
Fourth, the
or

It is void

by life.
the
comitant con-

conception
and

applied to
on

successive

changes

in other

things,
them It of

through
our

secondary

analogicalprojectioninto
both

experience with ourselves,as primitive form, import

which

body

and

mind. and

has,

in its most

all the
to

lifelike warmth the

physical meta-

belong Things
other's
are

experience from
regarded
as

which

it is
as

derived. chiefly each

more

now

agents, and
selves. our-

from suffering In this

action,after the pattern of

and

secondary

projectedsphere

of its

MIND

AND

BODY

233

too, application,
of the

the

of principle actions
more

causation

asserts

the

reality

beings whose

affect reciprocally
abstract

each

other.

Fifth, the later and

and of its law and
or

conceptions of causation, generalizedfrom

can never

are principle,

all

the

same

actual

concrete

experiences. They
that abstract the

acquire a they
posed supin the

different import from

are

of the experiences from which

derived

The of
to

more

they
more

are

made
or

interests does it become and

terms.

science,
tell with
our

doubtful that
answers

impossible
to

what

anything
otherwise

concrete

real

thought
in

shall
most
are

fill up

their

empty

Indeed,

their

abstract
so

forms, the
as

scientific

conceptions of

causation the

ghostly

to

be

scarcelyrecognizableby
is due.

parentage

to which

their

origin

Sixth, this

process
as

of abstraction well
as

the various itself, different

statements

tions concepof its

of causation

the

law, and
to be

all the

causal particular in nature, show of

relations the work

which

are

supposed tion explanaitself admit of the

maintained
items

of intellect upon their

the various and

looking toward experience,

into
a

unification
a

systematic whole. validityof

concrete to

Science unless
we

is,therefore,only
the human
we are

system of abstractions
and

metaphysical import
intellect.

the

work

Here, too, for

go back

as filling,

it were,

always obliged to
in which the known the

those

very

same

ences experiand mind of the

servation con-

causal All

relations scientific

of

body
law

play

important part.
and correlation
we

statements

of causation, all ways principle of

of

phrasing the
end in that

of the

energy,

words, empty
takes
and
so

words, unless
life and what

put into them

to

meaning
is

hold
to

on

reality. But
is

get such
that of

meaning,
more

tell

that

real, what

anything

than

barren
must

abstractions, the
resort to
our

meaning

these

statements

is, we
as

experience with conception

and

ourselves.

And,
far
as

has it has

already
a

been
on

repeatedlysaid, this experience,so

the the

ing bearever

principlein dispute,is

234 with ourselves chiefly

MIND

AND

BODY

as

body

and

mind.

Were
as

it not

for the
upon
as

experience of mind

as

and self-active

yet

dependent
of mind,
any

bodily changes for dependent for

should
never

its particular experiences, and

states

of body
"

its

changes upon particular

we

have any

conception of causation,or
or or

so-called
tion conservaas

scientific and whether of

principleof causation,
correlation the notion and of energy, of causation mind.

any
even

law

of the

any

dispute

to

appliesproperly to
most

tions the rela-

body

Causality is

and originally and mind. of very

an concretely

of relations experience
attempt
to frame
as some

between

body
force

Seventh, the
the law of

abstract

statement

causation in which absurd.

so

to

annul of

the

of the

experience
and illogical its

the

notion

causation

originates, is vain, whether

not.
we

It will

also

always
or

be

and illogicality this

absurdity be
is of principle

detected

It is precisely
are

attempt which
of the
so

made, however, when

the conservation

told

in the

name

and

tion correlacannot

of energy

called,that the body and

"

the mind

be

causally related.
of this very of abstractions from the life and

Cannot," indeed
that taken has

! when

it is the
a

ence experiseries away On

relation have

given birth, by
and

which

it farther

farther

to reality,
we

the How

alleged scientific principle.

can a

contrary,

ask

principlelike
limited

that which

of the itself

conservation results doubtful

and

correlation

of

physical energy,
a

only from

within generalizations force which

and

relatively
the

sphere,acquire the
of facts from

necessary the

to contradict

plain import
and

selves themgeneralizations their

start, and
very

in which

they

have

only

real

support

life ? taken is sound and

secure

The whether

positionjust
the attack who science

in

defence,
of
one

upon

it be made

by the

student
or

ical physwho In the

gives a merely phenomenal,

at to

by

accepts
former

some

of metaphysical,interpretation
we recur once

this law.

case, must

the
"

positionthat phenomenalism
"

not

prate about

what

can

or

"

cannot

"

be, on

236

MIND

AND

BODY

upon

psychological
fact. This

data,
fact

at

this

place,
presence claim

were

it of rival

not

for

one

important

is

the

and

tradictory con-

metaphysical interpretation
even, to

views

which

to

give

better

the

results

of

psychological permissible
It is

science,
"

or

perhaps,
classes

to

give
of these

the

only
results.

interpretation
necessary,

to

certain

then,

to

pass

in

review

the

classes

of

facts

that

especially
the

require

explanation
theories which

and

also

to

examine

critically
the dualistic

metaphysical interpretation

give

another

than

of

the

facts.

CHAPTER

VIII

mind

and

body

(continued)
of

THERE
basis of the The
men

are

three of

main which

classes

phenomena
in

the

scientific
to

treatment

is necessary
to

order

give

in

psychologicalfacts
comprises
of of both

the

philosophical discussion
the mind and the

between relations, in reality, all those and

or

body.
lead

first of these
to
so

experiences which body

as

conceive

mind

really existent,
related in
to

and each

capable
For

being opposed
unless there
were

dependency
some

other. for

ground being
which
to

ence experi-

assigning a

certain

duality of
never

real

ourselves,

those and In

very Monism

questionings would
answer

arise

Materialism this

by denying the
a

reality of

duality.
plished, accomlating re-

other
a

words,

process in

of

diremption actually
and
to two

distinction

consciousness of
some

the

conscious of

of the two
"

classes and in

phenomena

sorts

subjects,
"

in

some

way

respects, at least,opposed,
the

is that

necessary As and

presupposition of
a

philosophical
shown

debate both

ensues.

matter

of in

fact

it will be

that

terialism Maa

Monism,
with

their very of the

customary

forms, commit
sword. involved of

kind The

of

hara-kiri second

this

two-edged phenomena
real

important
discussion of those
to
are

class of

in any and
sciousness con-

comprehensive
mind consists

relations
states

body

changes
the

of mental

(statesof

assigned Ego,
known
or

subject of

all states, the with

so-called

Mind)

which

dependency bodily organs.

connected

preceding
to

changes

in the

Expressed

in terms

238

MIND

AND

BODY

suit the

popular impression,a
subordinate of the
"

vast

number

of

our

experiences,
constant

covering various

kinds, show

the

and

pervasive

influence

body

over

the mind."
assumes

But

modern

and physiological
as

science psycho-physical

that

only

the less central

bodily changes get

cerebral

themselves do

expressed in they directly

scientific form
or

changes within
influence of
states

the

hemispheres
The
more

of consciousness.
concerns

inquiry,therefore,

those

antecedent particular
on

concomitant

changes in brain-states

which

particular nomena phecourse,

of consciousness
may

depend.
forms of

This

dependence, of
"

fall under

various

relation,
and

such

as

those

of

kind of

of time-rate of intensity, (or quality), fusion of of

temporal order,
into
more plex com-

synthesis or
processes, the

partial processes
of similar the materialistic

recurrence

processes,

etc.

These of the
it

are

phenomena
of

which mind relative

solution

problem

body and
to

selects for consideration

or

; which

emphasizes phenomena
real

the

complete
a

exclusion

of all other and cal uncritiof the

are

; and

which

it

then, with

one-sided

metaphysics,employs
relations of those In

to establish to

its

peculiarview
the the

beings

which

phenomena

popularly assigned. hypothesis too

the
since its

doing this, however,

its the other classes
to

materialistic hend compreAnd

often

shows

to complete inability

of significance

of

phenomena.
of the

the

questionwhich
as a

it undertakes of the

answer

only acquires
ness conscious-

meaning
of Self

result

development

(with

all the

and self-activity

concretely known

istic the materialthis development involves), of being which reality consists in denying the primary terms virtually answer of the The

problem.
third class of

experienceswhich
it were, of the

any

thorough
and mind

sion discusmust
prises com-

of the consider

in reality, between relations,

reverse,
as

body
and

is the

foregoing..It
states

all those organs which known

changes
appear
to

in the be

conditions

of

bodily
vious pre-

dependency
states

connected

with

changes in the

of consciousness.

Accord-

MIND

AND

BODY

239

ing
these

to

the

popular way
mind
to

of

expressing
has
a
"

the

conclusion
over

from

the experiences,
one

an

influence

the

body."
ment stateone

If, now,

attempts

give

more

precise scientific

to this somewhat must

vague what
are

and

too

general statement,
or

go

on

to

show

the antecedent determine scientific

concomitant

changes
states.

in

consciousness
on

that

particular brainknowledge
of the

Or, since
term

this

point our
note

second rather located of

rate

in the

sequence
must

is, and

probably must
more

remain,

limited, one

chieflythe
of

peripherally
forms

bodily changes.
"

These, too, consist

those of

of various

relations,
and

such

as

of timekind, of intensity, fusion of of

temporal order,
into
more

synthesis or
processes, sequences and in

partial
of when
a

processes similar

complex
It is these the

recurrence

processes.

phenomena,
of and

regarded solelyfrom
monistic

psychological point

view, which
so

to regard ; spiritualismselects chiefly

it,in

turn, frames

its one-sided occasion

metaphysicalhypothesis.
some

It will doubtless class of

surprise that
are

the

very

cisive deof
a

phenomena

which

supposed

to

consist mental

concomitant strictly

correlation
not

between

so-called

and
at the

so-called very such

bodily changes, are

of
our

especially emphasized
For it is upon the

beginning
an

discussion.
"

basis of
prehensive com-

alleged correlation enough

to embrace

absolute all those of

throughout, and experiences which

and mind claims of

the
to

discussion take This into

of the
account

real
"

relations modern

body
Monism

needs
to

that

build.
a

metaphysical theory is, indeed,

or

fond its

in referring,

proud
But, of
of

in

shy

way,

to

Spinoza
little or

as

great progenitor.
of that which science has all

course,

Spinoza knew

nothing day.
of

and psycho-physics

physiological psychology
since his This of the relations follower

been in in

established inductively

philosopher,
mind,
was

respect of his views

the main the

body

and

uninstructed is

of the

Cartesian

losophy. phifalse

This doctrine of

statement

true especially

of the

Spinozistic

substance, and

its

assumptions (undoubtedly

240

MIND

AND

BODY

and

misleading) as
of causation.
to

to the nature

and

of significance it would be

the

ciple printhe

On

this
as

last the

point

difficult,
of

indeed,
modern

regard Spinoza
doctrine. it is

genuine
not
a

ancestor

scientific

It would

be

difficult to

show, however, that view, instead

of the admirers. The
reasons

reallya

similar
a

'priori

point of

of

the

necessity for
which

scientific

tion interpretahis modern

phenomena, why
are

largelydetermines
of so-called
as

the
at

phenomena
once

"

concomitant the

correlation"

not

emphasized
the three
are

comprising
of

class of facts to be
are

taken especially
on a

into account, and classes

not at to

why they ena phenomto

not

even

put
have
are

par

with

which

been

mentioned, we
our

all loath go back

give. We
find
a

simply adhering to

purpose

and

basis for
a

metaphysicaldiscussion
known and
a

in the most

undeniable

facts of
are no

scientific

psychology. Now, strictly speaking,there

undeniable

such

immediately

facts

as

spond corre-

to the modern

conception of
mental and
case

concomitant strictly

lation corre-

of
From observed

so-called

so-called
no

bodilyphenomena.
facts exist there
never

the very
; from

nature

of the
nature

such
case

to
can

be be

the very of

of the facts.

observation

obtained

such

And

this is true

for two
two

(ifno
classes
same

reasons. more) indisputable

In the first
are

place,the
within

of

phenomena
that it

to be

related
; and

both

found

the
a

stream

of consciousness

this

stream

is of such

character and these in my

permits
of

knowledge, by self-consciousness
sequences of
as

memory,
states
own

only
must,

regular

states.

Some

of

indeed, be considered
; others

perceived changes
be

bodily organs
etc., which
of such the firm known I

of them

must

regarded

as

self-consciously recognizedchanges
purposes, the basis
"

in those

feelings, thoughts,
to

come

to

attribute
"

the
seen

Self.

On

sequences

as

was

in the last and the mind

chapter
are

popular
is built
or

conviction up. But

two

that
never
"

body
does

causallyrelated
detect

subject
of

of all states

remember

parallel"

series

MIND

AND

BODY

241

changes, running
"

on

side

by

side

in the

one

stream to

of

sciousness, con-

one
"

of which

it is

compelled
to the

assign to

the

being called
called Here
"

my

body," and

the other

subjectof

states

my

mind."

it is

important

to refer
our

to actual

experience as
such of
an

it

curs oc-

in the

of localizing
to

and sensation-complexes

bodily ence experidiate imme-

and feelings,

the

theory of perceptionwhich
as

So justifies.

far

this

experience consists
of certain

knowledge
of the and

of the condition of the

can

peripheral portions
to my

body

and

ideas, sequent changes in the feelings,

be
no

purposes,

there

doubt that in

as a

to its nature

or

as

its effect.

I see, my

for hand

example,
has
come

bee

lights upon
with
a

hand,
surface

or

that
; and

contact

heated of

immediately after
or

I feel the in that of

peculiar pains
In the

being stung
cases

of

being burned

place.

all such
more

the

more

localization objective of touch

sight and
the

localization subjective of the latter

(in the

most

general meaning recognition

in time of connected
case

word) co-operate to emphasize

as

of states with

of consciousness

dependency
But

antecedent

bodilyconditions.
that of the
are

in the upon

changes
of the

in consciousness internal is not Certain organs

dependent
of
a

conditions

body, this
have

relation

of uniform in the of

sequence
same

ordinarilya
sensations

matter

experience
strong
tone

way.

that

pleasurableor
not

painful feelingare they

are

known
as

only by touch, and

and

by sight;
the of

localized organs of

painful or
the

pleasurablefeelingsin
this, as
In of such
a cases

internal

body,

"

condition

their rise into consciousness the antecedent

at all.

ever, also,howon

dependence
condition
out

of the of the
"

states

consciousness organs may

our own

the be

bodily

often

brought
or

by

"

for

example

pressingwith
the surfaces
cases

hands,
which

being

otherwise

pressed upon
lie. and In such

beneath

the affected organs of

more

the

dependent
thus

sequence in
a

bodily sensations objectiveway.

is emphasized painful feelings

The

impression is
16

strengthened

242

MIND

AND

BODY

that

how

feel " depends

"

upon

how

my

organs

are

affected

by agencieslying outside
It

the stream
to

of consciousness. here the evidence

on

is

quite
the

unnecessary

exhibit

which reached of

modern

and physiological conclusion

that
nervous

psycho-physicalscience
brain, with (and

has

it is the

its contents

highly organized

substance

the especially and diate imme-

cerebral

hemispheres), which
It is this precisely the condition
to
or

is the sole intimate

physical correlate
about
has

of the

changing

states

of consciousness. ever, body, howwhich

one

interior
even a

portion of
the existence

the of the

least

reason

entertain
stream

from suspicion,

character modern

of the
man,

changes in the indeed,

"

of consciousness.
nervous

The

with
nervous

his

over-charged
action,
"

constitution
a

and of

over-strung

may

experience
in the

variety
of the
perience ex-

painful feelingswhich
But
or rarely,

he

localizes does

region

head.

never, any

anything

occur

in his

which

gives him
that within

information and

with

respect to the
of his cranial
to

of the great significance

contents

conditions
or

cavity.
the may

For

aught

he

knows,

is

tempted
bones

ture, conjecskull
most

"stuff"

the

unyielding portions

of his the

be, of all the

internal

of his

body,
of the
to

indifferent whose

to his welfare.

His

experience with
in the

those

tions percep-

organs the

are

seated

exterior lead

head, and

with especially

eyes, would

indeed

him

regard the
about

mind,
the the

or

soul, as somehow
or

located

inside the skull ; but which of the

objectiveaspect

objectiveexistence
can

is called

brain, nothing whatever

be

got

out

ordinary
tance concomistates

consciousness. It

follows, therefore,that
of the
states two

instead

of

an

absolute the

series

of

phenomena
"

"

bodily

and

the

of

consciousness
a

being

established
even

nary by ordivery

experience, such suggested.

into terms of actual consciousness. It

concomitance

is not
never,
as

viously ob-

can certainly

it were, and

be

got

experience for
This is
one

the chief

normal
reason

diced unprejuMonism

why

244

MIND

AND

BODY

all
no

metaphysics, it
life-blood
one
"

cannot

maintain

itself without of its

own

devouring
Its
peat, re-

little metaphysics in the interests demands

support.
;

very

metaphysical pabulum
the

for, we

entire

half of
mental

theory of
and behavior
on

"

concomitant

tions correla-

between

phenomena
in the thrive How

brain-changesconsists
of
an

of conjectural sequences
This

inferred entity.
a sistent con-

half, at least,cannot

food

supplied by

phenomenalism.
much of the and principle, then

inconsequential actually is
that is first

metaphysical import
extracted from

put into this

in the

it, will

appear

following chapters.
At the
same

time

we

do not

begin
on

our

metaphysical
the mind made In this

sion discuscomitant con-

by denying the alleged facts

correlations the between in other
as

which and

theory of
is based.
a

body

On

contrary,

we

have

treatises facts.1

somewhat

detailed of course, is

of them, investigation their

connection,
of mind

bearing upon

the

doctrine speculative

peculiarlyinfluential.
into the account
to

They

will, therefore,be
time. The
seems

carefully
scientific
us

taken

at the proper

true to

approach through
of

this

discussion,however, still

to

lie

the

recognition and
the been of

appreciation of those three classes

of which
to

experiences about
These
on so

existence declared which

there

can

be

no

dispute.
and under lead

have the that

be
men

(1)

The

facts of

experience body,
all

basis the
at

all

distinguishmind
relations
comes

problem (2)
that

of their real facts of

discussion
men

all ;

The the

experience

which

to suppose

body influences,or complementary

men

causes,

changes
mind

in

the

mind

; and

(3)
lead

The

facts of that of the the

experience which
body.
That wonderful

equally
causes,

all

to

suppose condition

influences, or

changes
"

in

the

"

bi-partition
Elements of

or

"

diremption

"

of

the

In of

tho three

works,

"

Physiological Psychology," 1887

;

"

lines Out-

PhysiologicalPsychology,"

1891

and

"

Psychology, Descriptiveand

Explanatory," 1894.

MIND

AND

BODY

245

states and
a

of consciousness

which the
two

results in the may be

concepts of
as

body
sort

mind,

so

that

regarded

in
a

some

related

existences, is undoubtedly the result of

process

of

development.
sudden it should is and

Indeed,
not

if

anything violent,or
the word
"

necessarily direinption,"
a

is suggested by startling, be

perhaps
to

employed
the

at all.

By
of of

such the this

term

it

designed
may

signify the place

of the
as

completeness
resultant

separation
process of

which

take

development.
The and formation

concept of mind
"

"

its

its nature, basis, discussed in

a

its

stages in evolution

has

already been
"

preceding chapter (III).

of the external be traced
to the

The

parallelpsychologicalhistory
of
a

developing conception
Self and But in detail.1 of and

Thing
the

"

as

not-seU
,

as

extended certain

before

Self,cannot

here

important pointsto
more or as

be noted

in the process tion of Self

acquiringthat
the
to

less
a

distinct

bi-partiin here of though al-

body, regarded
the

thing standing
have,
may

peculiarrelations
be

Self,which
necessitate

all adults

borrowed

from This
a

the will

and descriptive the

explanatory science
reference

psychology.
from

again,

different
to

point of view, to experiencesthat

our

have

already been
"

brought
distinction of the that

attention

more

than

once. or

As

knowledge is either of Things respects its objects,

The between Self and of

of

Self.
as a

Things becomes, only

clear and
be
so

result

development
it appears
to to very

so cognition,

fundamental and well

as

ordinary thinking to
conditions
sane

nal, origi-

to to

belong
the nature with

the of

of

experience as
never fuses con-

reality. The
the very

adult

himself make him and

to

things;
so

how question,

he

came

to to
sciousness con-

maintain of

this distinction,seems consistently Both

.

savor

irrationality.
.

the content
are

of
'

and
or

the

general

tone

of consciousness

tive,' objecin
our a

externally directed
of any

and

focused,
and

as

it were,

knowledge
1

thing.

The

meaning

bearing of

such
and xvi.

But

see

and "Psychology, Descriptive

Explanatory," chaptersxv.

246

MIND

AND

BODY

statement

can

be

understood thus
into
are

only by considering it
said

in

the

lightof
processes For
my

all that has which

enter

far been
our

respectingthose
'

mental

so-called

external

'

knowledge.
of
a

example,
mental

what

the I
am

distinguishingcharacteristics examining
a a

states

when

flower,watching
or,

or looking through spectacle, am mower

microscope ;
or

again, when
a

feeling a surface, liftinga weight,

? As
"

pushing

lawn

respects content

of

consciousness, those series of

and of
a cular touch, including mus-

sensations and
are

notably of

the eye
"

jointsensations determining the

is

that

have

tivity predominating objecof consciousness

;

flow of the stream

on

attention

being

concentrated the

the localized and and fused

projected
with the
; and

sensation-complexes ;
sensations the
are

images revived

of past chieflyrepresentative

sensations take

condensed
to

psychologicaljudgments
Moreover, the
"

that

place

have

reference

changes,experienced or expected,in
more

the sensationof the

cluding con-

complexes.
mental
state

conceptual
and
as

elements

such the

as

the
"

naming
are

of,and classifying
connect say,

about similar tactual

or

object things.

such

it with

other and

unlike

That

is to the
to

it is visual

with sensation-complexes,

memories,

imaginings, cognition.
this
state

thoughts, and
which

reasonings referring
the content

sensation-experiences,
external

characterize

of so-called
conative

and Moreover, the feeling-tone of

activityof
the

knowing

thing differs markedly from

affective
states.

and The

volitional affective

self-conscious aspects of distinctively

accompaniments
of their
"

are

not

so

much

selves, interestingin themare

because

painfultone, as they or pleasurable

which feelings the assist in

of sensations, feelings
more

discriminating
the

the objectsof effectively consciousness

some

sense-perceptive activity.
different
some

Conative of

is also very

when
state

object

cognitionis
the

thing rather
with

than

of the Self. of attention

This

is true, not upon

simply
it is

respect

to the

direction

different

parts and
also
true

changing phases
with

of the perceived the entire

object;

respect

to

MIND

AND

BODY

247

condition of the
and
"

of

dependence
I cannot I

upon

volition which

is characteristic

object.

will
can

changes in things,their relations

will

their The

as qualities,

changes

in my

own

states.

knowledge

which

is of Self

differs from
as

the

edge knowlcontent

which of

brings, both sense-perception

and

respects

consciousness

general
not

tone

of

consciousness. sensations
at

This

knowledge
mental elements

has its content

in chiefly

all,but in
sensuous

feelings,or images, thoughts,

of consciousness, and

volitions.

The

those especially

of the

most

nitely defi-

localized In sensations attributable

any
are

clearlyprojected sort, are

states

relatively pressed. supthe

are

predominating
of the vague,
as
a

of

self-consciousness

unlocalized

order, which
than

to

myself

sentient

organism, rather
the attention my In

to

thing. objective
are

But

is especially
me as

directed

to

which feelings their

tone

to interesting

because feelings, this way,

of

of either of

pleasure or

pain.
the when
as

by the
and the
one

influence forth
same

feelingover
the For

attention,one

often

passes

back

between

and objective

subjective aspects of
one

experience.
if it is

example,
water

is in

bath

feels the

temperature of the

the
or

of quality
too

an

external becomes
or

thing ; but
aware

greatly too
as

cold

hot,

one

of one's self

with suffering of their

the

pain of

heat

cold.
as

It is

largelybecause
our

ordinarilytoneless
' things."

character

feelingsthat
known
as

visual

sensation-complexes are

customarily
in It

of qualities

external

Now,
no

the

knowing
and
"

of the from

bodilyorganism, quoad body, is knowing

"

respect different
as

the

of any

other

thing.
"

is
own

external

extended,
whether

out

and

spread-out
of

for my

consciousness,
be

the

framing
or

of this consciousness

chieflyin
"

terms

of sensation becomes
as an

imagination

or

of for

thought,
me.

that

my

body
way

objectof knowledge
does
this
as as

In

no

other

than
as

thing
and

particular
true

object
internal

become
organs,
1

known
if

body
are

this is

of

the

only they

to be

regarded

parts of the
f.

and Explanatory,pp. Psychology, Descriptive

519

248

MIND

AND

BODY

body, as
that

it is of the most

obvious

superficial areas.
is not between
more

The
a

native alter-

presented
is not-mind

to

cognition,then,
a

thing
that those

and

thing that body

known
; the

is somehow alternative
me as

especially
and

mind, because

it is my becomes

is between

thing
other their of the the

which

to

my
as

body

things that
relations
case

also become the

not

known In

to me,

things, through peculiarity

this of

to

body.
consist

other

words, the

does

in the

of peculiarqualifications in which
to

thing known,

but in the

peculiar relations
of

particular thing (or system

consciousness. of one's the of
own

things)stands
process it
as

the states

Nor

does

the

of

developing a
It is the

edge knowlall

body emphasize
all

less

reallyhaving

which spatial qualities

things have.
the At chasm this of

process

or bi-partition, diremption, which

is itself

evolutionary ;
between mind

there

is

no

evolution and

bridging over
the the

(as such)
may

things (as such).

point,again, we
the this science process
at

profitablyconsult
We
resume

conclusions

of of the of

psychology. point
the "The involve different the all which

description of
the Self and

of experience between bipartition

at

Things

it

was

left when

tracing the development

of Self does

concept of mind

(see
of

p. the

111). knowledge
been
not

development
the from those
a

possession or the employment

which have of
are as

of mental

faculties

described On

(that is,in
hand, growth of

acquiring of
these of

knowledge
faculties
as

things).
exercised in the

the other

so-called

in the

this kind of
true

knowledge
From

well

edge growth of the knowl-

things.
follow
can

this

general
of the

statement

respecting the
life called

doctrine psychological
:

several important self-knowledge earlier which

to

corollaries
no
a

(1)
If

In

stages of mental
are

psychoses knowing

be discovered
we

worthy

to be

of Self. between
cannot

adhere

the and

distinction

already

insisted

upon
we

consciousness

sciousness, developed self-conself-consciousness of any

state to
"

properly
and

ascribe reference

or

the immediate

awareness

me

MIND

AND

BODY

249

as

my

state

"

to the

infant of

mind. mental

(2)

Certain

classes

of the

elementary
which focus

processes attention

life possess which

characteristics stimulate it were, Such

upon

them, and

criminatin disfrom

consciousness other processes

are

to set them

apart, as

in

the

stream

of consciousness. the
tones

acteristics charthe

furnished

by

of

feeling and

amounts

of conative

which activity this basis

some

render
states

ively psychoses subjectof consciousness, ascribed

to
on

interesting. On regarded merely

so-called basis of
'

as a

states,

are

fitted to of which

be

the the of of

Self,'
"

conception

is formed this very the

with at first, experience chiefly,

states.

kind

conscious like Self,

(3) Development knowledge

may
same

of

knowledge
a

that

of the

of

Things,
to

follows order
same

certain

general order, which

and the essentially
men,

be

said
men.

be At

the the

of nature time ferent dif-

for all

and

even

different Self
as

races,

differ

quite as
and

markedly
inferential called

in their Nor

conceptions of
difference of the
'

in their
to

conceptionsof Things.
has

is this

confined alone.
means

conceptual
Lotze

knowledge
'

Ego
no

What the

vaguely
its

self-feelingis by

same,

either in all

complex
or

or qualifications

in

its

intensity,with
as

individuals of Self
and

all

races.

Moreover, inasmuch
so

knowledge

is still laws

knowledge,and
which of
more some

is

subject to

all the

conditions

make is

the self-knowledge cognitionin general possible,

more

largely a
matter

matter

of intellection ; of of

others,

largely a
of

of

feeling ;
with

others, more

largelya
motor
sciousness. con-

matter

conception
not be

suffused

predominating
not so, the

And, indeed, if this

of Self would
to the

were

knowledge
not
respond cor-

knowledge
some

at

all ; for

it would lives the

reality. In
is

men's

actual upon

real (their intellectual

being) the emphasis

the conative
a

habitually laid
the emotional

aspect ; in others,upon
upon It is conclusion
1

aspect ; in still others,

1

aspect of consciousness."
from this

general statement,
Explanatory,pp.
522 f.

which

all

and Psychology,Descriptive

250

MIND

AND

BODY

the

facts

of

observation

warrant,

that

"

the

stages of selflines. when with

not

consciousness Of these the which

follow,in general,certain broadly marked

of the first is reached other bodies
are

stages the consummation

sentient

body
in

is

distinguishedfrom
known

it stands

changing relations, and

as

which The

themselves intellectual

immediately
certain

sentient.

primary
felt

involved activity

in this

nating stage consists in discrimiare

between

perceivedobjects that
a

not

as

pleasurable or

and painful,

certain

one

object that
to

is not jects, ob-

only externallyperceived in changing relations but is also painfullyor pleasurably felt.

then, that the knowledge of Things and
are,

other

It is

plain,
of Self

the

knowledge
known
"

in

the

earlier

sidered, constages of knowledge, psychologically

interdependent.
is my

Hence under

the

earliest

'myself

'

body, as
and under

sentient contrasted

and with

voluntary control,
bodies In the which
are

parted
not
tient sen-

off from
or

other

voluntary

control.

other first

nating words, discrimi-

consciousness with and the its entire

constructs
"

Ego

as

identical

living body,

its felt

pleasures and
connected

pains,
the

voluntary movements,
of the but

as especially

with

satisfaction

desire,the withdrawal

of it from
contact

objectsthat
resisting
(as non-Ego)
its movable-

give pain, or
things,
etc. ;

forcing
does not

of

it into from

with

it excludes

this and it,

as

Ego
follow

everything which
ness,

feel with
were,

and it. With

manifest

it itself, as

organicallyconnected
vivid

with
"

the child who

has

attained

any

knowledge

of

his

moving selfhood, it is (ordinarily)the feeling,

'

body that
his

represents the
own

self ; ' and

not

his most

abstract vague

conception of

being
with

does

get far
upon

beyond

generalizations, Ego
that could

warm

emotion,

the basis of

bodily experiences. If
the

the earliest form and could

use

of the the

of representation

speak,
would
'

abstract
: '

language
with

of

philosophy,it
now,
am

announce

itself thus

What

is here and agree

I.

In

this

regard the child would

the

philosopherwhen-

252

MIND

AND

BODY

other

hand, it belongs
attained
'

to the very

nature

of

knowledge,as
involve bundle
to which

development
in

by
as

intellectual known

to life,
a mere

the belief of
sations, sen-

reality. A

Thing'

is not is
a

images, and inferences; it

are

being

butes attri-

ascribed. self-known active

Every
as

one's
a

primary bodily Self

the 'thing-being,'
a

therefore

becomes

such

subject of
But
sciously connon-

passive and

experiencesof
processes
no more

peculiar kind.

discriminated
sensuous can feelings can

of

ideation, thought, and mid-air, as

sensuous
mere

float and

objective bodily self-

than pictures,

the

coarser

more

feelings. It
should form

is natural the

and

inevitable, then, that

a

the intellect real

conception of
kind of

Self

which

is

being,a

subject also possibleby knowledge conception imply

a

of all such the

same

non-bodilystates.
which

This

is rendered

abstraction, freeing of ideas,

renders

comparison, thinking,and naming

of of

possiblethe
of the

things. being
"

Such
'

consciousness,in the form

'

mind

or

'

soul,'
"

real

subjectof
nor

psychicalprocesses,
ever

is at

first vague

and

fitful ;

does

it

any

specialfacultyfor development, to
is

its attainment.
some

It

ever, is,how-

necessary

extent, of all human

intellectual
"

life." x

Finally, it
manifold of many
"

by complex

synthesis of judgments, based

to
one

on

experiencesconverging
acts

conception,
"

the

resultant

of memory,

and imagination,reasoning, of the

come

naming,

that The

the

knowledge

self

as

unitary being
is
"

is attained.
as

Self that

I thus of

to know

regarded
whether

the

one

of subject
states

all the states of

consciousness,
of here
or

they

be

of

knowledge,

feeling,or

willing; and
and
now,

whether of
states

they
of the in

be known

as presentatively,

jects obas istent exas

self-consciousness, or
past, or
time. future I thus

remembered

imagined
to be to

conjecturedas

possible states
known

become

myself
final

both

real and
stream
1

logical subjectof
of

all the states This

in the is the
525

ceaselessly
and

flowing

consciousness.

and Explanatory, pp. Psychology, Descriptive

f-

MIND

AND

BODY

"

253

supreme
can

achievement of course,

of be

self-knowledge.
other
as

But
a

this

knowledge
of
scious con-

never,

than the

itself result

process
a

mental In
one

attained life,
same

of

development.
its it that which

and

the

act

the mind

makes

the objectof itself

and self-knowledge,
creates
as

believes in the real and then this

being of

its

own

object ;
that

it passes

into other

states

of

knowledge
What

dissolve

unique

creation

by turning

the attention
now,

to external

x things."

upon

the basis of this of that

psychological description
which all
men

of the
between states

development
the of

distinction

make and the

phenomena
to

called
as

bodily
real

conditions reflective between

consciousness with

such, does
the

thinking
those and
a

conclude
two

respect
are

relation

beings which
? The

the called, respectively,

body

the

mind of

diremptive process
; it

is, indeed, itself

matter

development
different
not

impliesdifferent stages reached

different All is minds

by

ent differ-

and individuals,
at
are

phases
are

and

factors
and alike,

emphasized
all bodies

times. This of the

not

alike.

reallyso
it is
to

; and

it is so, too, in the selfat least paritself, tially,

consciousness
as as

mind But

which
as

knows

it

reallyis.
in
so

and metaphysical, of

therefore but
to

appertaining not beings

fast and

merely
far

classes

phenomena
is

different Just
it has
so

that reality,
as

this distinction process of

developed.
It is not upon
lytic ana-

the

bi-partition goes,

reference to the world

a

of the reallyexistent.

simply

distinction in

of phenomena, although it is based

distinction and
in the two

phenomena.
of which

Psychology
and

sets

forth, by

its

the evolutionarystudy of consciousness, groups

differences the But

phenomena,
the that the

it also traces advances.

stages
physical meta-

and

epochs by

distinction

analysis shows implicatedeven

distinction in the itself. this

of reality

the distinction

is

fully developed
between

consciousness

of the

Moreover,
1

distinction

the

two

beings
531 f.

called

and Psychology, Descriptive

Explanatory,pp.

254

MIND

AND

BODY

myself,
the the

as

mind, and

my

body

is

the

most

complete

and

irreducible

of all distinctions.

It is the distinction
states

between and of its

self-knowing subject of the

external and As has way
as

of consciousness
"

extended been than

"

the
we

physical
know
we
our

object
bodies other in

knowledge.
no

shown,
that

tially essen-

other them

in which
no

know

things.
those
most

We

know
are

possessed of knowledge

other material
not

than properties

which

possessed by
scientific
on

all other

things. modify
or

The

advanced
this

does

minimize the fact.

fact;

the of

contrary, it rather

emphasizes

To

the student

physiology or
have

of

psycho-physicsthe
of qualities does other
not

masses

of the cerebral and gravity, of matter. nerve-cells

organs

extension, weight, inertia, specific

essential
masses

all the other The and

most

powerful microscope
any

make

the

nerve-fibres

less

distinctly physical than

eye. Chemical

they appear
also

at first

sight to

the naked its

analysis

of the cerebral
"

substance warranted fit it in

a

reveals
in

enormous
"

complexity,and
other
as

we

seem

saying

certain
to
serve

physical physical
chemical of
a a

that properties basis for the

peculiarway
of

the

phenomena
of

consciousness.
any

But
secrets
as

instead analysis, that would

an

bringing out
us

hidden

sort

enable
"

to

regard
"

this

substance
one

tertium
"

quid, or
effect. atomic

external
"

aspect

of the has

being

whose

ternal in-

aspect

is consciousness, that which the

are

preciselythe
substance

opposite
the
same

It shows elements

cerebral found

has

in all

manner

of inferior

things.
And

why, indeed,
to substance

should

this

not

be

so?

For

where,

cording ac-

chemical,and physical,
come

science,did biological
what
can

the

cerebral

from
so

; and

the

cerebral of itself

substance, after
alone is not
came

being

elaboratelyconstructed,
these the inquiries The
water

(as it were) do?

at

To
or

scientific

reply
it is

all doubtful

ambiguous.
soil and atomic

cerebral and of
a

substance

from

nature,
molecular

"

from and

air; and

capable of

motions

highly compli-

MIND

AND

BODY

255

cate

order,

"

only this,and
like which the

nothing
that
we

more.

Science

no

more

makes
states

this substance of consciousness

self-cognizing subject of
call the mind from
not

the

than

it makes

the clod of the

same

valleyor

mineral

the mine

like that

subject. Psycho-physicsdoes
under all

endow

the nerve-cells

and

nerve-fibres,as such, with any psycho-physical properties ;

they remain,
upon

possible forms
but bits with

of of

examination

stowed be-

them,

nothing

matter,

"

things,
the

with

all the that

of things,but properties
to the

none

of the properties

belong

mind

as

the

self-known does

subjectof

phenomena

of consciousness.
a

Neither between in the which the

physiological chology psythe real

;

effect such

union

and psychological to

physiologicalstandpoints as
differences in the two fields

least

lessen

the

over

its researches

ramble

indeed, it is,properlyspeaking,nothing but the science of the

behavior of of
a

of

mind

as

dependency
knows
as
as

related not-mind.

to

that

other

kind

being which
mental

mind

It is the science
a

phenomena
construction

dependent
the the
nervous
"

upon

physical

and

molecular

called
term

system.
may

Moreover, the very

cover a

body

"

be used

so

as

to

unwarrantable scientifically series of inferences. from which

; and

and

leading metaphysically misis of

Strictlyspeaking, the body

behavior
cease

only an
of

abstraction

the
never

of
to be

a a

vast

number

physical elements physical nature

the
be

dependent part
leave the considered
two

which that
or

never,

therefore,so

sphere of
to

physicalas "aspect"
Our be

they

can

possiblybe
of
a

another
or

"face"

being with

aspects
existence.

faces.

as bodies,

such, have
a

only

formal
"

If the mind
ceases
a

styled"

stream
no

of consciousness

that

never

to

flow, and

has

existence
more
: l
"

except

as

stream,
to

similar

figureof speech
body.
As Lotze is the indeed of Nature
"

is far said

aptly applied
The ceaseless whose

the

so-called motion

has

universal
most

tide,in all-embracing
like

agitated part
1

not

steady islands,but only

Microcosmus, vol. i. book

i.,end of chap. vi.

256

MIND

AND

BODY

like the
a
a

whirling eddies
masses

"

livingbeings
onward into
a course new

emerge

and

as disappear,

in

their

experience momentarily path,

a

common

impetus fragments
that

concentration
cast

into

definite in

shape, before
into

being erelong again

the

headlong

and
same

formless, universal
to

tide, by the
intersection."

forces this

brought

them

this

point of
science

But

view, which

modern
so

natural many

emphasizes
is
as

so

and strongly,
as

illustrates in
man

astonishingways,
himself
at

old
was

the

attempt of

to

understand
not

all.

It

the

ceaseless

flux of

things,and
; and
a

least of the animal with led the notion conclusion To

body,
of the that

which

impressed
all
nature

ancient

thought
which of

of instability its essential

Being
is

to the

process

Becoming.
one

this perpetual and

flux of Aristotle of
one

physical things,as
the universal of the
to

every and

knows, Plato

opposed
and go

permanent
to

character Nor does

"

thought
need
to

being

that

belongs
of
on

it.

philosophy to only
that

learn
sense

that what the

I call word

my

body"
interest

is not

mine, in any
best
a

strict

sion possesusurious
ered recov-

; it is at

temporary loan
and which

which

is

constantlyexacted,
loaned
at

is

all finally form

some

by

the Nature

it,either
of do it

in the

of

heavy

instalments foreclosure that

"

certain

periods
For
so field,

life,or
we

by
read
"

sudden

of
a

mortgage.
of the

not

in

Scripture
in Shakespeare

as
:

flower

perisheth;

and

"

"

Hamlet.

man

may
eat

fish with of the

mean

the

worm

that fed of

hath that

eat
worm.

of

king King.
Hamlet. What

; and

fish that

hath

dost

thou but the

by

this ? how
a

Nothing through

to

show

you
a

king

may

go

ress prog-

guts of
view

beggar."

The

truly scientific
"

of the

origin and
and the two brain

nature

of the
"

bodily organism might

indeed

nervous

system

included

lead to the

theory that opposed

as

beings,body

and

mind, distinguishedand

they

are

in the conscious

MIND

AND

BODY

257 all do both which have the

term

life which their real

is characteristic existence in

of the One

after latter, Infinite and

that

Being

physical sciences
Nature, but
the Absolute would
to

call
the

by the abstract

unmeaning

which Mind. be
more

philosophy
however and

of this

religiondenominates
may

But rash

be,

no

sion concluat
once

unwarrantable

than and

the being of identify

the mind

(the source
and

conserver

of itself

all
as

of the distinction between and especially distinctions, the

subject of

conscious is

states

all forms
at

of

things)
a

with

that

body which

only
an

existent

all as, for

brief

time, formally distinct from

To the

all-environing physicalnature.
Monism
as
a

which insuperabledifficulty
encounters

psychological
shall
return

doctrine later
on.

from

this consideration

we

It follows and it

then, that finally,

all

metaphysics,
"

both
in
so

naive

and also scientific and instinctive, from

critical,
"

far

as

mind distinguishes

matter,

or

self-conscious, thinking,
as

feeling,willing beings
extended, and
in the distinction tion which
between

from
to

things regarded
the

external,

belonging

physical realm,
and mind. which

is involved

body

If that

bi-partience experithe it

arises out
"

of all

and experience,

all

justifies, upon
art,
case as

which, too, all science, conduct, and

"

well

as

religion, reposes, body,

all. of and Here

is not

in justifiable

of my

so-called

my

so-called

mind, then

is not

at justifiable

consistencyin declaring the

described be and

metaphysicalimport
Neither
can

as experience,

explained
upon.

by psychologicalscience, may
Materialism from the of
nor

well

insisted rigidly

monistic

Spiritualismnor
be in logical

Monism

escape

to obligation

its

ical philosophof that tinction disthe

treatment

phenomena
which

for

the the and

a

evolution

diremptive process
between former and
us

establishes

metaphysical
which of

body
realm

and of

mind,

assigns

to

the

things, is
of that
17

matter

experience

of fact. what is the

The

metaphysics of
nature

mind

has

already taught

unique

and self-identity, reality,

258

MIND

AND

BODY

unity which only

which with

the

mind
treats

claims

for

itself.

Physical

and

iological phys-

science
as

of the

bodily organism
to be
a

successfully
into

it considers
nature be at

this

organism

reallyinseparable
a

part of
can

large,formally
as

constituted

being
of

regarded
the

correlated, temporarily and

consciousness. The

loosely,

the

phenomena
the

of

metaphysics
is found

physics confirms
to

realityof the distinction, by attributing

all matter essential
to possess, to the

the

body

propertieswhich
are

but

which

opposed
then, denies

of qualities

all

minds.

Whoever,
which show

the

in reality of validity
process

that

distinction tion
a

results from how his

this universal
can

of

bi-partistand
at

must

denial

stand

in

consistencywith
can

general metaphysical system

the overthrow
as
as

it how, in fact,
structure

all without considered of existence In which mind the

of the whole such

of and

knowledge
differences

of representative

likenesses

belong
of the

to

all

reality.
main class of the

speaking
every must

second view

phenomena
of

metaphysical
take of

of the
one

relations
not

body
to

and
use

into its account,

common

need

hesitate

language
terms

life. the

This

language employs
causation.
; to

all the Thus the

various man's
"

that express is said

to
"

conceptionof
"

body
"

influence
"

his which

mind

furnish

occasions
or

or even

"

conditions
" "

on

mental

phenomena
which self-

arise ;

to

cause

those

mental
to

changes

consciousness

affirms should

actually
have
"

take

place.
in

Scientific
"

psychology, too,
the word
may

no

feeling of timidity or
of

if
use

be
same

pardoned
terms.

squeamishness

the

of any
sources

of these and the

The

preceding analysis of
cause

the

nature

of the
a more

conception of

has

at

least

clearlyindicated
: justify

what

complete analysiswould
its between reality the force the

fully
the

the

conceptionof causation, in
the relations in
to break

fullest import, is

to applicable

body
the

and

mind.

All

attempts
from the

of this
"

application by
tion conserva-

deductions and

physical principlecalled
of

correlation

energy"

are

quite impotent

here.

260

'

MIND

AND

BODY

as

these

principlesapply organism.
by the
All

to

the

life of

consciousness,
and

"

all

have
nervous

their correlates

in the

constitution laws of

functions

of the
"

the

biologicalgrowth
as

heredity,variation,persistenceof type
structure

established itself
"

in

the

metabolism

of the
say,

structure to the
nervous

apply,
that
tion, sensa-

we pre-eminently,

might

almost

substance. assertion in

In the the

same

line of connection
energy

is the

probable
amount

intensive is

of consciousness, for
upon

example
of

directlydependent
in

the

katabolic

changes
of mental

the

nervous

substance. the
as

Moreover, the time-rate

which it takes in time
to
come

phenomena,
as

time

to

consciousness,
states

well

the
are

sequence

of the

varying
with the

of

consciousness,
in the

dependently
is confirmed

connected

time

consumed This

development
fact

of related and

tions. nerve-commo-

general
of

illustrated

by

countless Another

thousands

experiments

in reaction-time.

class of facts which

modern

ogy psycholphysiological
same

brings forward
in the so-called
be

in confirmation

of the cerebral

view
;

consists

localization
to say,

of the

function of

perhaps
as

it would

better
nervous

localization

function vague

applied to
absurd last

the

system throughout. The

the old

and the

of generalizations

phrenology have, during

more

twenty-five years, given placeto

are

limited upon
not

and
a

definite basis of

that generalizations
observation

firmly

established
areas,

and and

experiment.
of the lower

Certain

only
bear

of the also

spinal cord
of the relations
to

portions of
now

the

brain, but
to

cerebral the
use

hemispheres, are
of the of limbs
sense.

known ideational

special
volved in-

sensory-motor and
of the The the and

activities the

in the of the

trunk, of
same

head, and
been

specialorgans
the

principlehas symbols
And of

experimentally
The
nervous

extended

to

intelligent employment
written correlated of

and

understanding of
exact

spoken
of

thought.
the

spatial limits ought

not

these

areas

system cannot, indeed, be fixed.

we

it is

altogether
limits

likelythat

to

speak

of

absolutelyfixed

MIND

AND

BODY

261

in this

connection
to

at

all. very

But

even

if this

should

be

covered disthe

be

true, the

variations of the the would

now

possible within
related
areas

limits,and

the movable

character enforce What is

would

only further
we are now

illustrate and

general truth
then have

for which
true

contending.
conditions

proved
known vary

of the
true
case

cerebral

undoubtedly
These of of

to

be

of the correlated of different

;

mental

phenomena.
of

in the of

individuals,admit
are
our

growth,

lapse,and
the

decay

and

there

cases

in idiosyncrasies
to

mental

aspect that baffle all

attempts

them explain or classify

psychologically.
In motion

general,moreover,
is

the conscious connected of

sense

life of sensation with the condition

and

of
and

dependency
of the of the

functioning organs)
reference and

organs

(including the
This and
to the

central has entire In

muscular

system.
the of the

connection

to the

of qualities the normal

content
cases

sensations
our

complexion ordinary
selected
as

of

sense-experience.

and

application of
nervous

particular

kinds
a

of stimulus

to the

system is followed,

from

determining
content

cause,

by corresponding changes in the

If
a

sensuous

of consciousness.

certain the eye

kind
or

cally (physithe
a

estimated) of stimulus
ear,
or

falls upon

upon

upon

any

other

of the external

organs

of sense,

then The
to

corresponding kind knowledge

most

of sensation class of

arises in consciousness.
are

of this

facts, which
been

familiar extended

the and

ordinary experience, has

details refined Not

greatly
science of

the

by the only have

modern the

experimental
conditions skin been

psychology.
of

various

confused

sense-experienceproduced by stimulating the

also
new

analyzed,but
those of the

classes

of sensations

"

as, for

example,
the circular semi-

muscles, the
"

and joints, discovered

possibly of
and their

canals
causes

have

been

physical
strably demon-

investigated.
is true
true

What

of relations of

of

quality is

even

more

of relations

quantity or

intensity. In general,

262

MIND

AND

BODY

increase the

in the intensive

magnitude of the stimulus

appliedto
to

peripheral parts
as

of the

body, and

of the

resultingnervesity intenAnd

commotions the cerebral of extensive influences the

propagated along the ingoing nerve-tracts by increased

form of

centres, is regularlyfollowed

appropriate
or

sense-consciousness. the cerebral

"

magnitude
the extent Just

amplitude of
this

disturbances circuit of
sciousness." con-

covered how

by the so-called
in relation,
and states
so

far

as

tained it is mainto

between be

brain-states
are

of

consciousness, is
to assert

expressed,we
Weber's

not was,

at

present able

with
to

dence. confi-

law

indeed, thought by Fechner

of the two. in the That is the
two

apply
is

to the

direct correlation
"
"

ical psycho-physsensations

law

The

difference the
"
"

of intensity

proportionedto
of their stimuli maintained the

logarithm of
was

the

quotientof
of the

the

magnitudes
relations and of the and

believed

by the latter

to state

directlybetween
this

phenomena
in

consciousness substance
to

phenomena By

of nerve-commotion which principle, with

brain.

he undertook infinite

defend in

illustrate Fechner
two

experimentally proved, as
he

patience
and
same

details,
are

thought, that body

one

mind

only

phenomenal

aspects of
research

and

the

underlying
very

reality. Subsequent
doubtful, even
of Weber
; and
as
an

has, however, rendered

the alleged law empirical generalization, of interpretation Some the law is almost
even

Fechner's

undoubtedly
that into all

erroneous.

1 have investigators

held

quantitativedifferences
if the
states

of

sensation

are

resolvable

differences. qualitative existence be of

a

Even mental the

difference reallyquantitative also

in

admitted, and
law law be is held

something resembling
in
not

psycho-physical
the correlations If any

true

fact, still the

to

of interpretation direct

(probably)
states

be

found

in

of cerebral relation
in his

and

states

of consciousness. these
two

simple

of

quantity between
Grundlegung

Miinsterberg so

maintained 1890.

"Neue

Psycho-physik,"

Beitrage, etc., Heft,

MIND

AND

BODY

263

were

to

be

maintained, it would

be

more

likely to
But

be

the

relation

of direct

proportionalvariation. magnitude
in

in truth, relations

of intensive mind
are

the

direction
some

from
"

brain
as

to

exceedingly complex subsequently

"

; and
a

of them that
is

will

be shown unfavorable

are

of
a

character

distinctly

to any

of principle
states

strict concomitant At way,

correlation

of brain-states

and

of consciousness.
most

present it

can

only

be

maintained and

in the

general
and In

then, that the

is

intensive

extensive

magnitude
brain.

of sense-consciousness extensive this

causallyrelated
nervous

to the intensive

magnitude of the

changes principleof
is true of mental time
"

in the causal

general way,
be maintained

however,
with
a

the very

relation

can

great certainty of conviction.

of is intensity also
true

What

of the

temporal

tions rela-

phenomena
or

and

cerebral in the and

to

changes.
elaboration of the

physical Psychoof the of

time

occupied

cerebral

conditions
"

of consciousness

changes
of

consciousness

is

causally related
The time-rate
states

the

character in time

our

time-consciousness.

and
"

order

of the

different sequent mental

is

influenced and

by,"
order
no

"

ent dependof

upon,"
the cerebral formula

"

caused

by,"

the

time-rate

in time
one

changes.
serve

Here

also, however,
and brain

simple
all the mind is

will

to

gather up
in

adequately express
and

facts.

The

relation

between reality,

apparently,as
The whole

respects temporal connections, very

of attention, this.
as

complex.

theory psychological
the

ally experimentagain, too,

to

amply investigated,
some

illustrates
are a

Here

of

phenomena
maintains
and to
; and

unfavorable distinctly

any tween be-

theory

which

strict concomitant of mind. Some the

correlation of the influence

brain-states
are

states

ena phenomof
the

calculated the

illustrate rather all of them of

too

mind the For

over

body

leave

totally unexplained
as we

origin and
it
can

development
said and time-rate

taVwe-consciousness often that when of states

such. have
con-

scarcely be
the

explained

order

in time

of

264

MIND

AND

BODY

sciousness
as

we

have
"

not

even

begun
and

to

ness explain time-conscious-

such.

Enduring

succeeding conscious
no

states, in
the
sciousness con-

themselves

considered,afford us of time-relations
as
'

full explanation of
those states.

to applicable

tions, Sensaand
go

feelings,
forever

'

moments

of

conation

might

come

without, by
or

the

mere

fact

of their

coming
of the

and

going,
This

accounting for
consciousness all the states

arousing the consciousness

a new

of time.

is

and

unique
; it

reaction

subject of
and mediate imlaws of its

of consciousness of

implies the
to

active

relatingwork
own

mind, according

the

life." * Still

further, the
take

synthesis of
a

all those

neural

processes
to

which

place,with
means

near sufficiently

approach

taneity, simul-

by
the

of

innumerable
areas, in

association-tracts is the

ing connect-

different

cerebral that

bodily correlate,or
every

precondition,of
state

unity

variety which
to
"

complex
the
are

of the

consciousness different

displays. Or,
known
to

reverse

ment, state-

factors, or
as

moments,"
its
own

which

fused

in

conscious

experience
in

self-conscious and in mode of

subject are,
the different

respect of their number,

to

kind,

union, dependently related

elements That and

the

combination of the
nervous

of activity substance

areas

of the brain. carries trained

enormous
use a

scientific
but

analysiswhich
much

direct

tion introspecthe of

little way,

which

experiment accompanied by
farther,shows

of

pushes introspection
our

complexity of
consciousness. others
the in

apparently most
some

simple
are

states

adult with
with

If,however,
same

states

compared
one

the

the wealth or individual, estimate Yet

of

mind

relative

poverty of another, our

is

of the range each the

state

of this

complexity
can a

greatly increased.
a

of

consciousness that it has This

be

be

called

state

at

all

only on

tion supposito

certain

unity for

the

subjectof
unique.
material

all the states. It is not

unity of consciousness
after the

is indeed of any

described
1

analogy

unity so-called.
310 f.

See

and Explanatory," "Psychology, Descriptive pp.

MIND

AND

BODY

265

Its

explanation cannot
by,
any
are

be which
to

wholly
the

derived

from,

or

even

gested sugor

unity
made

different
use

nerve-elements of

nerve-centres

have, by the

connecting
one

nerve-

elements modern different

or

within association-tracts, when the

the

brain.

Yet several

empirical psychology, points

of

pursued

from

view, enforces

conclusion

that

the the

physical variety in unity is, in part, particularcharacteristics psychosisregarded as Closely connected dependence
the cerebral this causal
will
a

the

explanation of

which

each of many

psychical unity, each factors, displays.

relation
upon

complex
this

with

form

of causal of memory

is the
tinued con-

of the train of ideas and the A habitual brief from

the

and integrity,
substance.

of dynamical associations, of description the science of

a

the

nature

of

taken relation, as "The

of

psychology,1
kind,
the it is in of

suffice.

inorganic tendencies
the

molecular

however, only faintly foreshadow

nervous

organic ;

system that all this effect of habitual

most

forms

activity
cells,

becomes have their used each

pronounced.
of

The

like nerve-cells, and them of

all

the power kind. for the The

nourishing themselves
nutrition

propagating
is

brought
of the

to

by the blood
the

enlargement already

under cell, with

that principle acter charbe

at

cell builds it has

itself in accordance attained. the Each laws

the molecular
may

cell also

held the

to
same

propagate itself under

time its internal cells
'

of

heredity.
and the

But

molecular

alteration

of activity Thus what and

the connected is called the further

upon

are

mutually interdependent.
'
"

organic memory

or

tendency
certain
"

to reaction

development

according
system.
as

to

lines

dependent

past action and

nervous

past development

is

gained for each reproduction

not

portion of the
on

Retention

and

the

physicalside,or
and

conditions physiological
but

only of
of

the

occurrence

recurrence,

also of the association

mental "The

images, are

thus

provided for.

foregoing considerations
1

apply

to

the
242

spinal cord,
f.

Psychology, Descriptive and

Explanatory,pp.

266

MIXD

AND

BODY

and

to

the

lower show

parts of the brain.

that these
nervous

Both

experiment
possess with

and
at

observation birth certain

structures

aptitudes and
these

tendencies

connected
race,

the

habits, physiologicaland
etc.

psychical,of
whether

breed, parentage,
case

But
or

organs,

in the

of the first do
same

born newsome venient concan

puppy

of the new-born

cannot infant, to

at

things which acquire,an

of the element

they
of

can

learn

do; using still the

need the
to

figure

speech, they
memory
on

acquire, and
of the

organic

basis

experience
'

individual. of the
nervous

As

we

have

elsewhere

observed,
more a

Every

system, especiallyin the

organs, may be considered of
curves as

nificant sigminute

of its central
area

intersected and may,

by

an

indefinite
; thus
a

number

of different in any of of the

directions such
area

orders

molecular

commotion and

according
out

to

its character the such

point
one
'

run greatest intensity,

into every But

system along any

small

these whole of the called upon

many
curve nervous

curves.' slumbers. elements

In
'

fragment
where

pre-eminently true
centres

is all this the

so-

of the cerebral
are.

pscyhic
them
one

nerve-cells writer
1

Of that

the these

effect of stimulation cells

never

affirms

return,

after their
"

excitation,to their originalcondition."

the
recur

Hence and

mechanism

of representative images,
with each

as

they

occur

in connection in certain
'

other,has
associations

its
'

iological phys-

conditions the
'

dynamical
And rather

amongst
rence recur-

psychic
of
some

'

nervous

elements.

the than

spontaneous others, as
upon

of these external and the

images

started

by

this

or

that

stimulation, depends
the
'

the character,
'

number,
which make
up

strength of
'

dynamical
'

associations
vous ner-

organic memory,
in the whole relation

so-called,of the

organism concerned
Of this form
to

process

of ideation." have
states

of causal

too, however, it would

of the related
Rev.

be
1

said

that

the entire

explanation

M.

et les Modalites Richet, " Les Origines

de la Memoire."

"

Philosoph.,

June, 1886.

268

MIND

AND

BODY

'

ance

it

occasions
cause

in of

the

cerebral

centres,
or

is

the

chief

determining
"Will" the
"

sensuous

pleasure
word

pain." corresponds
"

in

the

use

of that

which

to

complex development
so-called faculties
most

of adult of the

consciousness

involves

all the

mind,

with

their But

highest
word

potenciesand
"conation"

in their be used

form. spiritual the

if the

for

conscious, spontaneous, active

"so that

aspect of all mental

far
as

life,its physiologicalconditions, disentangle them, activitywhich

the central
seem

science

can

to to

lie every

in

automatic

molecular

belongs
nervous

living

cell,but

peculiarly to
to
a

masses." the constitution

become
more

"According
and functions and

general biologicallaw, higher

nervous

of the

centres

important
and head of

determinative
we

for ascend
man.

the whole the animal The

most

realm series.

of

bodily
At the
tres cen-

psychic life,as
at the

of this series stands of

man

supreme

nervous

are

same

time also

intricately organized
influential of mental

as

physical structures,
of all the animal.

and

relativelymost
'

for the control the

physical and
the human
are

development
'

Accordingly,
of the and

automatic brain
are

(or centrally
far
more prehensive com-

originated)functions
of any the
so

controlling than
nervous

the automatic In what in other

activities what

other of
a

mechanism.

words,
of

brain
to

human has far

being is, and

more

it does

itself,
the vidual indi-

speak,
and than

influence of the

determining
life of the

character

development
in the
case

entire

of any

other

animal. with
'

"It of

is not

with

but perfect certainty,

we are

high degree
'

probability,that

able

to

say,

Automatic

(or

nervous originated) centrally

is activity

the

peculiar physical
element, in
form
all

correlate

of active consciousness,of the

The

conative

psychic life. activityin

to his

enlarged
brain

amount

of this the his

'

of neural

man's

corresponds, on
over
'

physical side,
own

control superior intelligent evolution. The

bodily and
brain and

mental

automatically-

acting

MIND

AND

BODY

269

the
be

'

autonomous

'

(or self-active and

"

mind controlling)

may

said to be correlated.

Finally, scientific
relations which exist
"

psychology points
between

out

certain character and

most

causal of the tions funcspicuous con-

the

general

bodily organism

more

of especially the of

the structure and

of the brain

"

and

existence,tone,
the life
man

characteristics other

of

consciousness.

In

words, what
either in

the

individual

sidered, is, psychically concourse

respect to the whole

respect
at to

of his

psychical
of

development
his connected

or

in

the

more

general

features

psychical life
with This

any

particularperiod, is dependency
and

the character

development
It is

of the

bodily
of
our

organism.
indefinite

principle,thus
and

broadly stated,
of its

admits for

illustration

proof.

enough
more

present purposes

merely
The

to refer to

some

tant imporof the

or

applications.
sexes are

which peculiarities of note here.

way,

distinguish the
In

especiallyworthy
in effort, these
a

spite

modern overlook and and

and political

social

to minimize

the differences, of the human

scientific

study of the male

both

the female

species,in
serves

physiological size emphawhich blood

corners

psychical respects, only

these differences.
to all do
men

to

multiply and
respects alone
differ. In very hidden
are

Not and

in

those

are

obvious

women

and

tissue,and

in the most and mental of

a

subtle

ways of
sort to

and

of the And

physical

being
mental
causes

both,
are,

they
of

unlike.

the

differences

many

them,

plainly assignable for

differences In this of
same
or

their kind.

originalor developed
the

bodily
connection
more

may

be mentioned

dependence

of transient upon those

permanent
which the

psychical
belong
to the

manifestations different
are

bodily changes
of course,

ages

of life.

Here,

great climacterics
in the sentiments and
216 f.

cially espewhich

significant. That
comes

change

with
1

the age

of

puberty, and

the sudden

emphatic

and Explanatory, pp. Psychology, Descriptive

270

MIND

AND

BODY

stress

then

laid

on

the

psychical peculiarities of sex,

are

obvious
to

enough.
far

But

psychology is just beginning successfully important

mental

those investigate
more

changes
the

which

go
upon

on

slowly

and

quietly in
The
as

constant

dependence decay
of of

the

the waste, and growth, the nutrition,

the various

bodily tissues.
mood,
as course

psycho-physicaldoctrine
the

or disposition,

well in

physiologicalexplanations
of all
manner

of the rise and so-called the

same

development
mental circuit

of

diseased

or

abnormal In

conditions,enforces
of the

principle. day
and without

fact,the
be

twenty-four
normal The

hours person

of

night cannot
at

completed
character and of

for any

affordingan
in the the

illustration

of this truth. the

necessity for sleep changes

brain which
go
on

all, the
blood

chemical

in the

tissues of the in

during sleep,and
from the understood

changed psychical condition

of admit the causative action

which,
can

psychologicalpoint
as we

view, sleep consists,

of

only be
The

body upon
the that

mind. of the entire argument which is

soon

culmination

reached

"

topmost point of experience from

ever can

all is to be

seen

be seen,
rests

and in

where

all

beyond what

is immediately darkness
"

visible when upon

as

total and of any

irremovable consciousness
to
our

the obvious the states

dependence

whatever Onlv

of the brain

is

presented
a

view.

the

physicalpre-conditionof
with
a

cerebral

structure

momently

nourished itself

supply
in

of

aerated sufficiently molecular call

blood, and
which

engaged
what

in those
we

mysterious
our

changes

constitute

ignorance
correlated of

tion," "nerve-commoof consciousness

is fulfilled does appear. Cut

any

stream

off the stream beneath

blood, and
own

the stream

of
;

sciousness connor

dips down
does it appear

its

so-called

threshold
on

again until that physical change

Pollute the
stream

which with

it the

depends
deoxidized in other

reappears.

of blood
or

products of the bodily organs,

ways, and the
stream

with

drugs, or
is
spondingly corre-

of

psychical states

disturbed.

MIND

AND

BODY

271

What

need,
of

however,
mental

to

illustrate

further
upon

the

obvious

dependence
observed life of the
or

phenomena
are

these

changes,
to the

inferred, which
? For
we our

necessarilyascribed
we

body
two

part, as
no

have

already said, on
whatever in
sidering con-

admitting the facts

the of causation.
mean

feel of

hesitation

classes

phenomena

under
one

the
can

category

And, surely, whatever

word
two

any

properly
relations
two
mean as

by the

causation series
to

as

expressive
or

of

existing between
beings both
with

of
be

phenomena,
real, that
of

between
one

acknowledged

may

equal propriety when

to
same

speaking

bodily changes

related The insisted

dependent

mental

phenomena.
and

thoroughness, courage,
however,
which and
a

consistency must
the third class real of the

be of

upon,
on

in

treating of
be

phenomena
of

philosophicalview
must

tions relais
"

body

mind the
to
"

made of mind

to

depend.
over

What

popularly called equally manifest

field of of that series of
runs are

influence who

the

body
the
two

is

one

studies

with

candor

entire ends

psycho-physical facts.
not

Here, indeed, the

which the causal

happenings along
more

sequence
our

much infrequently
case

firmly within
consciousness the functions

grasp

than

in

the

of the certain

class

of facts in

just previously considered.

determine and very
a
a

That

changes

changes both
structure

obvious

and

in subtile, is Of
more a

of the of

bodily system,
experiences.
to
some

propositionbased important
classes

upon

wide brief

range

these

experiences, too,
must

reference

of the

suffice. No the
one

using

the

language
for

of common-sense, from of

and

stating
familiar somehow

conclusion apparently justifiable think

a a

the most that

facts,would
the mind with

moment

denying
and

controls

part of the

bodily organs

in accordance

conscious

ideas, wishes, desires, immediately after the clear or even picture of something
to be

plans.

times, Oftenobscure in

the rather
"

mental

done

some

change

272

MIND

AND

BODY

the
some

positionof
movement

one

limb of the

relative whole

to the

rest

of the for the

body,

or

body
be

in

space,

example
ideated

"

arises

in

consciousness, the

execution

of

movement
so common

is discovered is this it
man

actuallyto
that live at of the

taking place. Indeed, quite as

to
see

experience
could influence

it is

hard how

to

see

how

without

all,as

he could

dispense with
information This ideas
as

the
to

perceptions in conveying
to

present bodily relations

of

other

things.

rough popular way

to

regarding the

relation

of mental in what which

the

execution action

of those

bodily movements
to be

the ideated

consists has

only faintlyrepresents
the real

chological psyof the attain

science
case.

discovered

state

Not

an

idea

of any

kind, it is probable,can
and lifelikeness

any

considerable

vividness
at

in consciousness condition of

without strain vivid value. clear: actual any

starting off, or within,

and the
motor

least

institutinga
of the

mechanism have
a

body.

Very

lifelike

ideas the

large "dynamo-genetic"
of scientific tends

Here, too,
"Even

testimony
of movement the
to

psychology image
ment move-

is

the idea

to realize

itself in of

movement;

while

relation the

of the mental

particular movement
is such that the

corresponding actual
a

latter,in
The in and

voluntary

way, been

is not made
tary momen-

possiblewithout
show that in

the former.

attempt has
races

to

individuals

the

energy

of

effort is related functions. of grasp

persons
on.

to the

habitual
are

exercise

of intellectual less power

In to exert
more

general, negroes
pressure than than

said to have white

men;

have

intelligent
so

power

persons

of low

intellect; and
exercise of the

It is

even

claimed
a

that

'momentary

of intelligence
energy

provokes
knows that
to to
'

momentary

exaggeration anything
To is too

of

voluntary movements.'
think

However of
'

all this may

be, everybody
its
own

doing
in

creates

tendency
from for
a

actualization
or

doing.

think
a

of

jumping
well

bridge
persons

tower

or

bank

strong
One

temptation
cannot

some

safelyto try

to resist it.

MIND

AND

BODY

273

hold

the

idea of

kicking,striking, eating,singing,dancing, starting motor Indeed, in

conscious
a

fencing, etc.,

without

tendencies

in of
our

those
most

particular directions.

large class
of

complicated motor
idea with
or

the activities,
or no

movement

follows upon

the

little

intervention

of feelings

interest This

sign of purposeful conation."1

of ideas
over

"dynamo-genetic" influence
most

the

lar muscu-

system, although the

energy form of the of influence. The

impressive form
is

of the efficient their

ideating processes,

by

no

means

only
gross

guidance and the inhibition of

of

bodily changes by ideating states

also be taken into the
account.

consciousness
from the those

should

Aside which

early
infant

"random

automatic"

movements

human
motor

exhibits,almost
is these thus rather and end
so

all the

management

of his

organism
in

teleological. Movement plainly

than rather other than

uniformlytakes place
groups of of
some

muscles, or
The

muscles, and
lar particu-

otherwise,because
which
are

to be reached.
"

sphere of the purely physiological

are

reflexes

purposeful movements
of
sense

not

affected

by

the
"

state

consciousness,and
of

in nowise
"

cal "psychithat

in

the

being

conscious it

is, indeed, greatly

about many of

enlarged by experience.
very the

Thus

comes

complicated body
from
may be

and

seemingly purposeful movements

by the habitual
any without

controlled and

co-ordinations
ence influ-

of the mechanism ideas.

present immediate

It is in this way and

to
or

largelythat
acts

adults

walk,

talk, dress, eat,

which may may may

perform
their
serve

any

of

acquired skill
Thus of also
an

belong
march

daily employment.
their their
guns,

soldiers orchestra
has the does

members

continue

playing

parts when
the other of what

ness conscious-

nearly or

quite departed. On
of

hand,
the

it is

guiding force
upon

ideas,the dependence
influence of the
is which

body
it

the causative

qualityof impressive
230 f.

conscious because

ideatingprocesses,
1

only
18

less

and Explanatory, Psychology, Descriptive pp.

274

MIND

AND

BODY

is

much and

more

familiar do
we

and

constant feel this

experience.
influence Not when

How any

quickly
marked

strongly

change

in these

processes

occurs!
and
once

only may
of the
even

entirelynew
whole trunk the character of all the
may be
vaso

groupings
in
new

of the muscles
be
at

movements effected ; but

directions

of the
-motor

of respiration,

the

pulse and

heart-beat,

action, and

of the

secretory processes

changed.
mechanism the of inhibition which and result been the
in

The of obscure.

character physiological inhibition

to account
are

functions The

very

attempt has

made

for

the of

inhibition

of muscular

movement
But
are

solely by
this
can

contraction

antagonistic sets
entire under
account.

of muscles. For there

scarcely be the
which that in have the fall
no

certain

muscles

the

direct

influence Such

of
are

consciousness,
some

antagonistic muscles.
and face. A is that used The
motor

muscles

head

typical instance
controlled has the most of the When

of

an

"autonomous"
for
nerve,
near

muscle distances.

in accommodation

of the eye facial

muscles
nerves

by the
direct

which connection of and

of all with similar lifelike

anatomical
are more

the

motor

centres

brain,
the

instances vivid
not

autonomous

muscles. in

ideas

are

possessionof consciousness, they

in positively the

only express

themselves
but

corresponding bodily conditions,

would
occur

they
such

also inhibit

or

prevent changes which

were

if these from In

bodily conditions
conscious is
no

left

wholly

without

influence

ideation.

general,it
the

unmeaning
truly)

figure of speech which (the

as

gards re-

entire

motor-mechanism it most

most

subtile

and

impalpableparts of
the influence his of the

constantlyresponsiveto
What the
a

ideating soul.

facile servant character

actor

of
his

mind,

to

portray for observation

of !

mental how and

images, is the face of the accomplished

if difficult,
not

And cool of

is impossible, of
men

it for

even

the

most

well-controlled

to

prevent the quick response

276

MIND

AND

BODY

smile, frown
and
even

of

frown, grimace of grimace,

case

etc.

But in

here,

in the

of many much

similar of the ideas

movements

adults,it
to

is difficult to tell how the faint themselves sub-conscious and

way

result is to be and

ascribed

startingsof inchoate
in

that feelings how

express much
to

sympathetic
but
to

forms

of movement, and

complicated generic involuntarybut

channels
low

inherited conation

reflexes,

how

much

conscious of motor

findingits
A low

along the
but

well-worn

1 discharge."

form,

only a

form, of influence
for the

from

consciousness

is

necessary

to account

originand
be

character

of these imitative
at which

movements.

This

may

argued from
month

the time

they begin to child) ;

sometimes
and

appear also

(fourth to
the

seventh
that

of the life of the

savages
are even

from

fact

idiots and

most

excellent of

imitators,that certain animals

that in the

display the displaya only

on

power range

imitation, and
of movements

hypnotic subjects
same

wide

way.
over

It is

the

basis of this kind forms of

of influence

of mind

body
can

that the

lower

sympathetic feeling and

of
more
men

action

spread so
of

rapidlyover
like

multitudes
appears

indeed, this form

a

spreading oftentimes
a

like

simultaneous

explosion than
In this
same

slowly creeping fire.

reference
use

connection
and

should of the

be

made

to
"

the
gestion sug-

present extended
"

successful

of principle

in

the

of hypnotic phenomexplanation especially ena. of

The

phenomena

hypnosis,although they
scientific treatment all the three and classes

have
are

only
still
cases

recentlybeen
under

subjected to

exceedingly obscure,
now

illustrate

of

consideration.
"

Those

changed
the

conditions of
sense

of the
and

bodilyfunctions
of the the state connected of

of especially
"

end-organs
to be

nerve-centres

in

which, physiologically considered,

are hypnosis consists,

regarded

as

causally notic hyp-

with

the

peculiar mental

phenomena

of the

the changes subject. But, conversely, initiated under

1

in consciousness
are

the

psychologicalprincipleof suggestion
228.

and Explanatory,p. Psychology, Descriptive

MIND

AND

BODY

277

causallyconnected
Now is it should
not

with be

the

conditions. changed physiological the of suggestion principle In the

forgottenthat
between of

and nothing else. a, psychological principle, definitively has gone

on

conflict which all the

the

attempts
from

at

explaining
main the

complex phenomena
"

hypnotism

the two

points of view,
"

the

physical and
has
use as as
no

or physiological,

chological psythe
a

the

latter its

steadily triumphed
have these

along

entire

line.

Only by

phenomena

received The

though really scientific,

science the of

yet only partial, solution.

it is understood
and

magnetism,

pursued by
the who

has physicist, of so-called

"

little or animal

lightto

throw

upon

ena phenomattribute kind

to

magnetism."
to

Those the

the of

production of the hypnotic state

action

of any

physical causation
to those

upon

the brain and

are

obliged to
as are

resort

occult and unknown from find the

forces hypothetical

such entities, with which

entirely ought
to

physical sciences

investigators impotent
some

physical and
most

points physiological

of view

themselves

closely allied. profound

"

How upon On
one

is all

this to account

for

the

effect
"

hypnotic
secured
an mous enor-

subjects of
the clearest number

the

single word

sleep

! is

the

contrary, the

of suggestion psychologicalprinciple

that has

possible recognition
of different

as

explanatory of
classes of

subordinate

psychical
rule,of

phenomena.
The the observed facts order. other
"

in

cases some

of

hypnosis
manner
"

are,

as

following
or some

In form
an

by

word,

look,
of
an

gesture,

of

suggestive stimulation
set

end-organ
into the sensitive

of

sense

idea, or
of the

of ideas, is introduced with the

most

consciousness and of the

subject. Then,
the

of well-practised

a profound subjects,

fication modithis detail

tres cen-

bodily organs
described

speedilytakes place.
with the
exactness
as

What and

modification demanded
are

is, as

by physiological science,so far

concerned,
as we are

the

cerebral
to say.

almost
or no

wholly
science

unable

But,

then, there is

vet

little

of the most

normal

278

MIND

AND

BODY

physiology of
the

the cerebral external thrown

in

centres.

The

condition

into which

muscular,
are

sensory,

and respiratory, is of
our course

circulatory
much
on more

systems
obvious.

hypnosis
whole

But

nearly
a

the

of

knowledge

this

point emphasizes, to
of ideas And
over

truly astonishing degree, the

of the how
same even

influence

the conditions
it is discovered ;

bodily organism. stigmata

way, may be

when

produced
may at
or

by suggested ideas
be stimulated
a or

how,

in the

the secretions
to be
come

inhibited,and
time
; how

made
may

to order

particularset
latent

poisons
"

counteracted form
; how

their effects simulated powers

in in

reallydangerous (such
that imitative be
"

vellous mar-

so-called
as

organic memory," singing to worthy

various well and

or

in

the

use

of the

bodilyorgans acting
in
"

rival of
a

Lind, and
"

imitative

would

star

"

performer),or
insight and

clairvoyance
be alleviated the

forms
;

of tactful how and be

can far-sight,

brought
or

into exercise

painful sensations
incredible induced
in

can

be

wholly quenched,
can

and strength of rigidity immediate

"

motor-apparatus
an

sequence such
but
over

upon
as

plete apparently comare as

impotency,
what

when be done

facts

these them

discovered,
evidence of

remains

to

to admit

the causal the most of the than

influence

of mind

body ?

How,

indeed, could
" "

subjection dogma of the high-and-dry theological be any more emphaticallyexpressed body to the mind
by these facts ?
exists than What
coarser

it is

form these

of the current

"spiritualism"
suggest ?
But the
are

that which

hypnotic studies

same

states
our

of consciousness ideas
our

which, in

one

aspect
but not

of them, identical of

called

are, in another

related The

aspect, called
affective

or feelings

emotions. the
more

ence influof the

consciousness the The

case

upon

condition intense

bodily organism is,in

marked. particularly
even can

of all its
nature

forms,

very

of the

emotions, and sentiments,

up into

of the

aesthetical,and intellectual,

ethical

be understood

only

as

we

consider

how

they take

MIND

AND

BODY

279

themselves, as it were,

the effects in consciousness But for the

of accompanying undaunted pears ap-

bodilychanges.
student of

unprejudicedand
in

empirical psychology,the opposite conclusion

and imitative of it is necessary the muscular
has

equally justified.Indeed,
the ideo-motor

of treating scientifically
to

movements,

recognize the
Here and of the

influence

feelingover
of

system.
a

psycho-physicaltheory
for research.

physiognomy

large
to its

field interesting

Every appetitivecondition
apparatus, unless
idea. the

consciousness,every passion and strong desire,moulds

entire

expression the
it be inhibited
as

appropriate muscular restraining feelingor

as

by
of

some

Here, too,
sequence accordance is initiative of

in

the
can

case

suggested ideas, so far

events

be traced

and explained in empirically, is the mental Some

state

with 'undoubted of the for

experience,it peculiartrain
excites anger

which

of results.
;
or

insultingword,
or

example,
how

some

suggested thought
;
or

suggestive sight arouses

no

amative

passion
the

some

sound, of
"

matter

faint

stirs intensity,

feelingof fear,
of the entire

and

immediately the profoundest modifications

system result.
Nor is it in these
coarser

bodily
that
states note

forms

of

expression
over

alone

the influence is marked

and

of affective wonderful. of the tones

consciousness Let which the

are

the

bodily

appreciativelistener produced by
Those
a

the character

masterful

player on
the open of

the violin ; or, better mouth of the skilled educated

that fall into the air from still,

singer.
woody

cules vibrating molethe acter char-

strings and
muscles

fibre are, for the

of their molecular trained of the

motions, dependent upon bow-arm, and

the of hand upon with which

delicately
tive sensiis

the deft and the

can

tactual made. back And

training of
this line

spacing
be

physical
in what

sequences

traced
centres

to the educated

molecules But

of the
"

sensory-motor

of the musician's
or

brain.
"

causes," "conditions,"
you

"influences,"

use

whatever for the

word

will,
"

shall

an

explanation be

found

expressive shading

which

these

280

MIND

AND

BODY

successive that breaks other

in the

tones

at

every of

instant

receive
to

It is the
ear

mockery,
alone
and any

keeps
it not
answer

the

promise
to

explanation
but be

only

the heart

also to the

if intellect,
:
"

to this

question

given than
the
in

this

It is chiefly

educated

of feelings
as

that soul whose

actual other

life of end

sciousness con-

is inferred

standing
as own

at

of the acteristic char-

complex

causal

and series,
our

answering

its essential life.

experience to
the constant these influence

self-conscious

Without

of that life of conscious could And

not
never

artistic least

feeling,
degree
has

peculiar motor-effects
is

in the

be explained." satisfactorily been

or or

all the

science
this

that
answer.

ever

will be does the

at all disturb to where

This first The their

science

only rehearses
themselves

story as
of
a

and

how

the

responsivemolecular changes explanation in

forth.

changes
must

bodily sort

take
as

place. having
that

still be accounted of affective

for

the states

consciousness

call them More

emphatically still
to

"

if this conative

were

possible
"

are

we

compelled (or, in
in its

admit

that the

aspect of consciousness
of

highly developed form, volitions,deeds

the

will,

choices) influences
it would detail, been
add said

bodily states.
be necessary connections data taken of

To
to

enforce

this claim has ready alto

only
other

repeat what
f. ; 218

in other

(pp. 85
from the

and f.),

innumerable

empirical science
upon

of

psychology.
of the in the
exact

The

influence is

attention

the
this

tions condi-

bodily organs
earlier and of

beyond

doubt.

By

influence

they
of

are,

stages of development, made

motor

capable profound
are

more

refined the

activities. nutritive
reason

By
to

it

modifications

secretory and
even seems

functions suppose

brought

about.

There

that

through

this altered

metabolism, under
may to be

the influence caused.

to
"

of attention,

permanent
comfortable
and
nor

organic changes
safe for
any
one

It is neither the condition

a

attend

working
or

of the

bodily organs
way.

overmuch,
when

in especially

curious

anxious

And

attention

is itself

ar-

MIND

AND

BODY

281

rested

and

guided by strong feeling,or disturbances,the entire excitant, a tonic, an

most

is

accompanied

by

strong emotional
becomes
an

state

of consciousness
a

or irritant,

cause

of far of

depression of
more

the

powerful

character.
about

There the about

is effect

scientific ideas"

information the

obtainable

"fixed

upon

bodilyconditions
"

than

the effect

of brain-states It of

in the

production of

fixed

ideas." of the

is,however, when
"

the consideration

higher
the

forms
"

voluntary action
that the is most

choosing,planning,and contriving
of mind
over

is

reached

influence controlling

bodily
Nor

organism
do any

emphasized why
is

in

the

popular thought:
be
so

the subtlest valid of

reasons

of investigations

scientific
not

psychology discover
so.

this should

Here

the very of the

nature

attention of the

and selective,

determinative attention is

condition

organ
"

through
other

which
"

given;

for attention and

is both

innervating
to

of that

particular organ
like
manner,
;
no

"enervating"
for
same use.
"

of

organs

not, in

selected and the

Remember

forgetLampe,"
his

said Kant

from philosopher habitually,

paid principle,

attention he did

to the

painful feelingsin
he the
"

chest, although when

them
this

attend

to them upon

always

found

there.

All

cation edu-

depends palsied man

limits
"

recognition of

principle. The
very
narrow same

can

often his

although

it be

within will. the

control is true

trembling limbs,
frenzied
movements

if he of

The

thing
even

of the

insane, and

of the

self-rallying power
The in any

exhibited
"

by the fainting and

of will
"

the
not

dying.
be
to

question of so-called
way

freedom
are

need

involved the

here;

we

tention simply callingat-

in modifying the bodily conditions, of results, which is called

over
our

that

state

of consciousness

will. the

through voluntarycontrol Indirectly,

the
may

adjustment
this

of

bodily organism,
be

the greater part,of the

same

sense-experiences
manner

brought

under

principle. In
order of
our

the

and quality, quantity, time-rate, become

ences sense-experiin
a

dependently related,not

merely

direct

way

282

MIND

AND

BODY

to

the

brain-states

which also
our

are

produced
volitions

by external
of the mind.

and

nal inter-

stimuli, but
the
in
our

to
own

the

Indeed,

very

realityof
relations and
to

bodies, and
is

of all

physical things
connected
states

their

our

bodies,
So

dependency
no

with of in
sciousness con-

feelings
are

willings.1 simply
"

that
"

one's the

regulative

of

changes
"

his
"

body
of

they

are

also, through their

and arises of mind but also of in
on

influence,
known

constitutive the

these

bodies Thus

the

things

through
that

bodily

organs.

psychological
which
creator

science

impression
not

of the the

nature

Idealism of all

insists, as

only
of the

controller
on

the

things,

"

even

body

which

it appears

itself

peculiarly dependent.
to

And,
realm

there finally, of relations

remains upon

notice
a

that

wide form

but

vague
"

which

certain

of

mism," ani-

so-called,chiefly relies.
etc., as
and
amount

Of
"

mood,
as

perament, disposition, tem-

psychical affairs,
forms
; far

certain

characteristic
"

persistently recurring
of

of

consciousness, indeed,
be

fair the

knowledge

exists basis

more,

than
to

of

conjectural physical
to

which

may

supposed
it not

spond corre-

these soul

same

terms.

Why,
own

then, should
to at

be

held mative affir-

that

every
answer

moulds
to

its

body
seems

suit itself ? first

The
to be

this

inquiry

sight
facts
are

vating. captiwhich of the

It Materialism facts into upon

our

is,however,
and which Dualism it does

opposed by rely. rely

And that the

all those

upon
many be

Still,there
must

undoubtedly
and

taken fluence inporarily temnot true

a

total
upon
or

account.

constant

dominant

the

organic

functions

which mental

is exercised moods known

by

permanently
the the
one

existing

is, in
to

few

cases,

most

impressive thing
of

be

concerning
1
"

relations

body

and

mind.

On

this

subject
of

see

the

exceedingly
in
"

interesting chapter

of Professor

James,

The

Perception

Reality,"

The

Principles

of

Psychology,"

vol. ii.

284

MATERIALISM

AND

SPIRITUALISM

right to
a

the title

"champion
Let

of modern
men
"

science," or
like Herr

to insult

fallen

adversary.
about the

it be left to snakes

Biichner
physics meta-

to talk

"strangled
the
to

of

theology and
young fresh from

lying
modern theses science
as

"around
; and

cradle

of the
are

Hercules,"
their affirm

youngsters who
a

candidates

for

doctorate is the
we

in

philosophy to
scientific influence
it be

(for example) that

in these kind of
a

Monism for us,

only

doctrine from the

no

days.

As
"

acknowledge
"

of

"phobia

whatever,

unless, indeed,

fear

pretence of science, or
and

of the

misleading

use

of

ous ambigu-

mystical language in the

tenets

support, only apparent, of

cherished

of the it should

popular
not

faiths. that forgotten of the human

a

But, second,
human mind.

be

the present discussion

is confined We

to the
are

relations
now

body

and

the

not

seeking
in

theory
so-called

of the relations of the relations

of all so-called of all finite

to Absolute macrocosmus,

matter

to mind

general,or

being, both
or

material

and

psychical,
in the
means,

Being,
the

the

"World-Ground."
not

Monism any
one

Universe,does

by necessarily, Indeed,
Monist,
or

imply
take

Monism

in the

microeosmus, man.
the materialistic
to this

might

the

positionof
reference

of the Pantheist,

with

larger and

all-inclusive that
so

sophical philofar
as

maintain problem, and yet consistently distinct finite

beings
order

can

be

spoken of

at

all, the phenomena

the so-called than
a

of the mental connected

and

those have
a

belonging to
dual rather

body

therewith On
as

unitary
"

ground.
dualism of the

the the

other

hand,

psychological
does

dualism
two
one

or

metaphysical explanation of
man
"

the debar

orders from
struction con-

phenomena
position of
in

in the life of
a

not
a

Monist

when all

attempting
all orders

theoretical

explanation of
which includes referred

experience; that is, a system

of facts. the that

of

philosophy
The

phenomena
the

to in

previous

two

chapters
of mind
a

are

explained

in accordance

with

metaphysics

which

still earlier

chapters established, only by

dual-

MATERIALISM

AND

SPIRITUALISM

285

istic

hypothesis.
that

At

the

beginning
that taken

of

the

discussion which

it the

appeared
multitude

Dualism

is the
; and

metaphysical by

view

virtuallyadopt
must

it is also the every

ical metaphysof any all the in

position which
of the other the sciences who

be
"

student less than

particularsciences
"

psychology, no
to deal

wishes

with

the

phenomena study
on

most

scientific strictly which in

way.
a

The

detailed

of all

those

phenomena
of the

have

special bearing

the
does

lem probnot

relations

reality of body and

mind

alter

essentially this
conclusions

metaphysical position, or
which follow from
us

the

sophical philoit mental

most in

the what

survey
are

which

affords.

Psychological
; it discovers

science

tells

the

phenomena

their factors

as

known order of

by the

searching analysis, their

consciousness.

genesis
and

and

arising

Physiological
of the with their the

psycho-physical
and functions classes order of of

science

speaks
which

in
are

detail

portions

of the

body

correlated and with

different and

mental

phenomena,
the
stream

genesis
In

arising in

of consciousness.

its modern and

form

logical physioof

psychology emphasizes
the
nervous

the structure the

functions

system, and
both
as

especiallyof
the ultimate mental

higher cerebral
antecedents tants concomiIt
can
or

centres,

"

the also

ultimate
as

determining

concomitants,
or

and

determined

sequents of the

phenomena.
the
are

discloses

something
be

(but not,
of the

as

yet, a

great deal which

properly
and

called

science) of those
nervous

of peculiarities

structure

the

functions with
to

system
kinds if by

that

specifically
It
but

connected
may

the different know modest in the

more,

of mental

phenomena.
and

hope

patient

diligent
this

cautious

and increase

research

it shall

merit

reward.

Any

and conquests of psycho-physics however substitute far

a

iological physwould

psychology,
seem,

it
more

may

extend,

however, only

to

scientific dualism
relations that in

for the

popular
and mind.

dualism

respecting the
for

realityof
whole

body

Suppose,

example,

the

286

MATERIALISM

AND

SPIRITUALISM

domain
between

occupied by
these
two

the various of

classes had

of
been

correlations

kinds

phenomena

investigated
Still it result.
not

and would The have

over.
a

reduced
be
a

to formulas

in terms

of exact

science. would

dualism complete scientific

beween

which

chasm
been

the least
as

two

kinds

of

phenomena
or

would all

in
so

the much
now

degree narrowed,
a

at

bridged
to which
across

Not

stringer, or

small have

cord
been

stringer may
chasm.

be
as

attached, would
we

shot

that

Nor,

have the

repeatedly said,
have the subtile
"

would

the

metaphysical import Physiological science

and delicate functions
"

of

phenomena
still describe
most

been

altered.
ture struc-

would

bodily
texture

including the
the cerebral
as

and of in

operations of
and

mechanism
to
a

in terms

physical science,
terms

belonging
of mental and
are

physical being,
in terms

of the

metaphysics
the

physics. Psychological science phenomena

of the that
as

would have
a

still describe

unique meaning
a

and peculiar to itself,

terms

belonging to psychology.
It would and
so as

psychical being, in then, that body

and the

metaphysics
which

of

appear,

final words

science extended
to the

philosophy {unless philosophicalspeculationbe

to

consider
"

both

mind
can

in

their relations
on

Absolute be

or

World-

Ground

")

utter

this

subjectmust
a

something
of

like the material

following: The
elements of whose

human

body is

vast

collection

characteristics

and

changing
terms

relations

admit

descriptionand
other

explanation in
forms of

of chemical, It

and physiological, to

cal physi-

science. and

belongs
Its of

biology to investigateits genesis

such
as

development.
of those

realityis only
a

is characteristic
enter

elements

material and

kind

which that

into

it;
of

its the

idealityis only
word Its

formal which

in partial,

meaning
all

"ideality" unity

properly applies to only

a

physical
The
to be

beings.
mind of another

also is

formal

and

temporary.

of man,

however, is order, and

to

unique being, self-known

have

"reality," "ideality," and

MATERIALISM

AND

SPIRITUALISM

287

"

unity
in

"

in

the

meaning
It

of those

terms

which

has become
;

already
fest maniits chief that of lifeor

been

explained. sufficiently development.

sole

Its characteristics what

reallyis
of

it becomes

capacity and
running
process
a

original facultymay
course

be
"

said to
a

be

unique
time.
a

history,

progressive

in

This

unique

being called
to the

"Soul,"
in

"Mind,"
of the
two

sustains

variety of relations
determined
are

physical being
the

body.
as

Dependently
thus and
as

transactions

beings, they
be

denned,
the

constantly taking place.

which the express

What

are,

formulas of

them,

can

only just
to

known But

the

result may

requisitescientific
of
as

quiry. in-

these

relations

be spoken fitly
may

causal,
to

as

all

similar the

relations

be;

nor

is this related

the

prejudiceof
or

reality of either of these

the transactions. transactions be
l

two

beings,
as

the

realityof

Indeed, it is only
in
at

reciprocallydetermined
similar As
we

real

beings

that

relations have

can

considered

all.

elsewhere order

of the development said, the reality is called

"

of that

unique

which

the

Mind

can

be

stood under-

only if it be regarded as
consciousness its start and

the

manifestation in progressive

of the lifeof
direction,as

real

being which, although taking

from
to

it were,

the

action

of the
that

physicalelements
are

of the body,proceeds
laws

unfold powers
Yet
same

sui

generis,according to
with

of its own."
a

it is not

inconsistent when

this,but
:
"

is rather

part of the

truth,
is
a

it is also said
can

The

assumption that by
the

the mind which

real
act

which being,
on

be acted the

upon

brain, and

can

the

body through
beyond
to be

brain, is the only one

compatiblewith
on

all the which would

2 Knowledge facts of experience.'1''

this

subject

goes appear,

these had.

and

similar that

declarations is
more

is not, it

Wisdom
; it is

profound
to

or

lofty cannot
those

be

attained
terms

certainlynot
science

be

found

in
ex-

imposing
1 2

of
of

modern

which, when
632.

Elements

Psychology, p. Physiological

Ibid., p. 667.

288

MATERIALISM

AND

SPIRITUALISM

amined,
way,
and

state
as

the

same

ultimate
with

facts

in

less

intelligible
rantable unwar-

combined

certain

unintelligible or
Nor does it

metaphysical assumptions.
how behind
we are ever

yet appear
or

going
of

to

get above, beneath, around,

ultimate facts in science

the

mystery

such

and

philosophy.
Different
course,

conclusions be found
as

from rival

those

just
to

announced the

are,

of

to

claimants the

allegianceof

thoughtful minds,
and
at

both

throughout
All

historyof philosophy
of

the

present time.
real relations These
are

forms

speculativeopinion
and mind may be

regarding the
reduced monistic
agree

of man's

body

to four.

Materialism,Spiritualism(of the
and Dualism.
"

kind), Monism,
mental which
one

The the
to
a

former

pair bodily

in

referringall phenomena
to

both
"

so-called

and of
an

the so-called order

phenomena
of the

single real being

of

two

classes
as

phenomena
ground.

immediately
Materialism
nervous

and

obviously corresponds,
that
above

their

maintains
and

the

body (or
and

more

the especially
one

system,
both kinds

all the

brain) is the
to

of reality they
must

which

of

phenomena

are,

which
reverse

be referred. It claims
;

Monistic the

makes spiritualism

the
a

claim.1
istence exare

that the
a

so-called is but
a

body has
series
are

only
of

phenomenal
that

body

phenomena
such

indeed called sole in

of

special order, but

are

phenomena
to

of the

reality
their
agree

Mind, and

to

be

referred and of
one one

realityas

ground.

Both

Materialism

thus Spiritualism kind kind of real of

acknowledging
agree

the existence

being only ;
the
of
at

they
known their least

also in

this identifying

being with
In said form
to be

being

of either the

body

or

the

mind. may be

respect

metaphysical implicationsthey intelligible ; while

not

Monism

in its current is therefore theories

the
a

is

tainly cer-

There intelligible. with these

two

certain the
word

tion satisfacof
"

in
1

dealing
several know

of
of the
to

relations
"

In

spiteof
we

obvious of
no

to objections

use

spiritualism

in this way,

word equallyappropriate

employ.

MATERIALISM

AND

SPIRITUALISM

289 is

body
at

and

mind. in

The

existences
or

about

which

one

talking,
to

whether least

defending

in

controvertingeither theory,are
of
case

manageable
But third in the form

in terms

knowledge
of Monism

common

all

parties.
For the relations reserved
not
cover

here,again,the
of the

is not

so.

speculative opinion respectingthe body and

This that mind of man,
we

realityof
name

have

"Monism." the
as

does term, therefore,

simply
of

assertion real

body
of
in

and
a

mind

"

monly com-

thought
certain

two

existences
"

different

and

in
one

respects opposed order

For

are

realityonly
Materialism
as

being.

this,it has
in

justbeen
holds

seen, But

both

and is

Spiritualism agree
now as

affirming.

Monism,
both

the term and

customarily employed,
known

that

body

mind,

by perception and
of
one

are by self-consciousness,

nomena phe-

and

the Both

same

real

being,which phenomena
all human
to not

is,however,
into which

neither of the two. the

kinds

of the with
are

diremptiveprocess
the

connected
on

development
referred
to
one

separates experience
and
same

this

point

be the

being ;
Since

but this and

being is
are

body

and

is not

the mind.
one

body

mind
to
or

both

phenomena of this
of
as

being,they "aspects"

are or

thought
"faces" then

be

properlyspoken
The
"

its
or

two

"sides." of
as

inferred
"

assumed

is reality
an

spoken

two-faced

or

"

two-

sided,""

body
The their

and

"identity-root"of being, as mind, as known, both alike have

form of that
so a

it were, their and

in which

ground. body, in by
the

fourth

metaphysics
Dualism
as

of

mind

is relations,

whose
are

positions and
evinced

clusions"except con-

far of

they

further
"

critical

treatment and

rival

theories

have

already

been

defended
The in
a

discussed. reference to the

is reached
even as

positionof Materialism with

man's

relations

of reality
narrow

body
with

and

mind
or

the result of of

and

exaggerated,
the

estimate exclusive,
use

certain and

phenomena,

accompanying
It may,
19

of

naive be

uncritical

metaphysics.

therefore,best

290. refuted

MATERIALISM

AND

SPIRITUALISM

by following it along the line which

in the

is

customarily-

pursued
when
a

attempt

to establish

it.
to

It is

only, however, metaphysical

of this the

critical treatment the of

is whole

given

its crude

foundations, that
falls into truth have
to
a

superstructure of materialism
rubbish. It has
as
a

heap

unorganized
been

Glimpses
been
seen

already
establish
to

had.

how

attempt

materialism

form is

of the

phenomenalism
very

inevitably leads
idealistic
extreme

solipsism, which
from
sets

opposite
the ment argubecause

the
out.

position from
For this be found
to

which

of materialism few
avow

reason,

and

writers
and

can

in these

days

to willingconsistently

frankly to

defend

(taking
to not

themselves the
tenets

whatever of this

opprobrium
The that facts the

still attaches need

its

name)
into

theory,we speculative
upon

enter

great detail.
its conclusion those of

which of

Materialism consciousness with

builds
"

phenomena
and
" "

including
all of
nature with

self-consciousne'ss inference involves

must be
"

knowledge,
which the

metaphysical
of

or are

faith

very

knowledge
brain-states the

dependently
;

connected of the order But

the

admitted

they
last

are

presented under
even

second
to

class in the
a

chapter.

in the toward that

same

endeavor all
all

maintain

strictlyscientific
necessary

attitude
to

the the

phenomena, phenomena
In

it becomes

admit the

do.

not
an

point equally clearlyin

almost
or

tion. direcand in the

doubted un-

fact,
class

quite equally
order treated

numerous

impressive
last

(those of
in

the

as

third

chapter) point
facts,at any
to

the

opposite
us

direction.

Many

rate, warn
that the

zation against a hasty generaliof the

the

effect

being
be

brain, with
Even

its

states, is the
existence the full those known remain and

only reality to
functions

recognized.
were

if the

of the brain

sufficient to afford

metaphysical explanation (as

of consciousness whose
to be to

it

certainlyis not)
character would there of

of

states

genesis and
other facts

are

dependent
be

upon

bodily causes,

still

explained

certain

experience

292

MATERIALISM

AND

SPIRITUALISM

rience

as

determining
thus

the

sequent bodily
brain. with As

states

are

selves themmental
and

only phenomena
states, they
are

of the

known

correlated

wholly

inferential

largely conjectural brain-states.

to

This
as

is little better
I

than them
seem

say,

"I 1

need need

these them."

facts Not

proofs, and
the facts also
to
same

take

because favorable flush

only

which

to

the

hypothesis, but
unfavorable
terms

those

which declared

(at first
to

certainly)seem
that
as
a

it, are

be it

explicable solely in
would
seem

of the

hypothesis.
it is to
to be

But

the

if hypothesis itself,
even,

be entertained

at all

hypothesis
very facts.

ought
the
one

suggested by,
full

and

not

to be the

oppositeof

suggested by, a
admitted of

half of all the known But "the

it may

be

replied,Has

it not
"

just been
all
nature

that self-

phenomena
'

of consciousness and

including those
of of

consciousness inference involves And mental

are
"

knowledge,
'

with very

metaphysical knowledge
?
"

or are

faith

which

the

dependently connected
these

with

the brain-states

not

particular "ideas, feelings, volitions,

have
or
"

moods,
the

etc.," which
antecedents

the
causes

appearance of And

of

being nomena pheleast

a

themselves
"

bodily changes,
if

phenomena
of

of consciousness

too

they
be

are

consciousness,why
which

should them

it not
to

at

tenable

hypothesis
?

ascribes

the

productive

activity of the brain, in accordance

tenets

with

the

materialistic

"What, however
amount to
more

(we
than
to

urge

in

opposition),does
if you

all

this

say that it may

grant

to Materialism

all that
an

it

demands,
as

then

possiblybe

carried

to such

extent

to conjecturally

account

for all the certain these upon

out

phenomena phenomena
are as

The
seem

fact

still

remains, however, that

to

diametricallyopposed
as

it; and

that

well

assured which itself.

those

that

seem as a

to favor matter

it,and

the basis of
to establish out to

it

undoubtedly
what is

of fact sets for may

But

here

asked

turn

be

MATERIALISM

AND

SPIRITUALISM

altogethertoo implicate a
Among
the

much

to

grant, especially since

it

seems

to

whole

system of metaphysical assumptions.

of Materialism is
no

metaphysical assumptions
the but

may

readilybe
to

detected

following: (1) There

the

real

being (2)
of

be

called

mind;
organs

body,
and

with

its

nervous

system

and The

central brain

of the

brain, is the only real being.

does exist
or

really ;

(3) It
these The

is the cause,

or

atory explan-

ground,
consciousness.

accountable Each
one

agent, for the

of

phenomena
third
cannot

assumptions, however,
second and admit of

requirescritical
be be
"

examination.
as we are

granted

"

true

ready

to

them, in part, to
materialism. has of
a

without

involvingthe

refutation

The aimed

first is
to

false,as the whole

as

of the

preceding treatise
as

show,

everybody believes,and (which

unable
are

the claims in refutation their

own

ualistic spirit-

monism however

valid

of materialism,

to

establish

complete

maintain. successfully sufficiency) Hitherto it

can

has

been

assumed of the

that facts

the of

materialistic

hypothesis
however facts of the this and needs

explain some
or

consciousness,
of But other
now

insufficient
same

doubtful
must

its

explanation
to be.

general order
must

be held

apparent concession
even

be the

retracted; it is quiteuntrue
form itself of
as

in unintelligible order All

to

in which
as a

Materialism

it in

establish

tenable

working
"

hypothesis.
favorable
to it to

the

phenomena
tenet

consciousness well
as

those

to the
"

materialistic

those

able unfavorof them "mind." of them brain

are

without quite inexplicable them

reference so-called
; none

the

one

subject of
moment

all,
"

to

the

As
can

phenomena, they are phenomena

be

of the mind

for

considered these In words

as

phenomena
as

of the

in

any

sense

of

such

the

materialistic

hypothesis requires.
two

support of this general declaration

may be

main

classes

of

reasons

alleged. First,the
mental

utter

of and incomparability disparateness those

phenomena
to

and be

phenomena

which

are

known scientifically

294

MATERIALISM

AND

SPIRITUALISM

exhibited
cannot

by the brain
even

and, second, the

an

fact that

ism material-

state, in

intelligible form, its conception

mental "brain." the two and classes those of

of

the

real

relations

between the

phenomena

and

that

existence As
"

which

it calls

to the

incomparability of

phenomena
of
to the

the

phenomena
substance

of consciousness

phenomena

extension, motion, weight, inertia, etc., which

material of the
one

belong
be
no mere

brain

"

there

can

dispute.
fact of

And, in truth, no

is found

to

dispute
as

the

incomparability.
on as a

So

long, then,
who

attention

is

kept

centrated con-

this

fact,those

take
may

the materialistic

tion posimost

speculative hypothesis
on a

instantly be point
"

recalled the He

to

an

agreement

fundamental the

with

pronounced
finds of in

advocates the
"

of

view. spiritualistic and

who form

matter

promise

potency

of every

life,including the psychic life called

that he knows of
no

fesses mind, freely con"

"rudimentary
by enable
refined
us

organ to

even,

whose the

development
chasm
states

may

by and
the most

bridge

over

between and the

physical changes
fact of That
a

in brainor

simplest psychic
in the

sensation,
is to
say,

of

an

idea, arising in consciousness.

chemicoto
one

physical changes
order of in
as

nervous are

substances

belong
atomic

phenomena;
a

they thing.
to

molecular

and

ments move-

material

Correlated another and

are

ness, changes of consciousdifferent

not

such, belong

order

of and
or

phenomena;
atomic
as

they

are

mental;

they
be

molecular of
as

movements;
or as

they

cannot out

conceived

being,

becoming,
the

arising

of, molecular
any,

and would

atomic dissent of

movements.

Here, few

materialists, if
of the

from modern

following statement

most

pronounced
Lotze:
!

in philosophy,Hermann spiritualists
we

ever "How-

far the

pursue
in

the

course

of the ways
ever

sense-excitation
we

through
its form delicate

nerve,

however converted
1

many

suppose and
more

changed

and

into

finer

Microcosmus, vol. i. 148.

MATERIALISM

AND

SPIRITUALISM

295

movements,
any
movement

we so

can

never

prove
to
a

that
as

it is in the
movement
a

nature

of
own as a

produced
as

cease

of its

accord, and
sweet taste.

to

reappear chasm

bright color, as bridged

within
any
over our one

tone,
between

The

is

never

the the

last state first rise the vain will find

of the material of the sensation

at
a

elements
; and

reach will

and

scarce

cherish science is the

on

hope
a

that

higher stage
in

of
a

development
case

mysterious bridge
any
sure

where forces

it

of impossibility
us

crossing-overthat
distinctness." is almost

itself

with But
as

the most
matter

evident

of fact also there the unanswerable

as

little that of the

can tence sen-

be

urged against
which Lotze the

truthfulness adds
to

immediately
this
events

those

just quoted :
with has
states

"

On

recognition of
of the of

absolute and the for

incomparabiUty
conscious

one

another rested

physical

always
words

conviction

of

necessity of finding a psychic

laws life." These the

special ground
fact that all men, of
to the

explanation
in
an

simply state,

unnecessarily cautious
inevitable

way,

following the

of the development
states
as

ascribe self-consciousness,

conscious
to the mind

such
states

self-knowing subjectof them,

are. as

whose
can

they

But inferred

inasmuch
or

as

states

of the brain

be known order ceived per-

only

conjectured changes
distinct
to

of the from of the

to take

place in things, as
states
a

Self,they
called the

ascribe brain. This

those

particular kind
the

thing

"conviction of and

of

necessity of finding psychic life

"

special tively posi-

ground
when and

explanation
have

for

operates both
"

negatively against
regard
we

Materialism,
of
to

positively,
of that

we

to

the have

nature

self-consciousness;
the
nature

when negatively,

regard

perception through
What states states to
are.

which

knowledge
affirms
as

is

gained of the brain.

attribution of
scious con-

self-consciousness
a

is the

Self Or

their
one

subject, or
to
use

ground, whose

they

if

pleases

language

more

296

MATERIALISM

AND

SPIRITUALISM

impressive
consciousness
are

in

the
is the

contention affirmation

against materialism,
that all states
or

self-

of consciousness
not

phenomena
or

of the mind,
of
some

Self,and

of

some

bodily organ
the
to and

part, or

extra-bodily thing.
and qualities the

versely, Con-

perceptionsof bodily members,

this the

the

changes belonging
nervous

the

including

system
the
senses

the

brain, and

(since immediate

knowledge by
subtle

is

rarelypossibleon
which, upon

subject)the
of and qualities

scientific

ences infertoward

basis

perceptions,extend changes,
are

the

knowledge

of these

mations all affir-

of other

phenomena
to
a

ertia, (extension,motion, weight, in-

etc.,)as belonging
of the

material

substance, and
shown

as

not

Self,or
very

Mind.

But

it has between
on

repeatedlybeen
the basis
two

that the

it is this
two

distinction

subjects of
the mind

orders

of

phenomena

the of

of which and

entire

discussion

of the real relations the

body

originates.
on

Here
the

again point
of

metaphysics

of Materialism

is detected

committing
that

hara-kiri. the

Suppose, however,
overlooked, and
current

necessityof "finding a special

"

ground of explanation for psychic life

be for

for the the

use

moment

indulgence
by which
brain
as

be

asked of

of

the
are

words
to

phenomena
the sole
as

consciousness

referred

the

really existent
to how
as

of which shall still

they are,
be

then

the

question recurs
Let them
say be

these

words

interpreted.
be

taken

of speech ; figures is real is

it must these

possibleto
unable
"

what

that

signifiedby
ism MaterialIt
not can-

figures of speech.
is forever
set
to

This, however, put

into say
"

is what

human

language.
relations its mental that

forth

that

is to

the and

exist

between

the real

being of the brain

states
as

ances performof
as

(the psychic belonging

which realm
to
are

which

the

theory
of the

conceives

to

the

brain
any

phenomena

brain)

in terms

taken

from

analogous relations within

this it is not brain-states

the

whole
meant

of human that

experience. By
relations between

simply
and

say

conscious

MATERIALISM

AND

SPIRITUALISM

297

states,or brain, are

are

even

between

conscious

states

and

the

substance

unique;

that the relations

to

themselves, as relations,
other and relations. mind the may be

not

strictlyanalogous
to admit

any

Every
pelled com-

metaphysical theory respectingbody

thus much. that the of all words which

It is meant,

rather, to affirm
are

use

suggest themselves, or
these relations

actuallyemployed,
In this connection the

to set forth

in materialistic

terms, is inherentlyunintelligible.
it is worth

while
even

somewhat the

further

to

consider

inappropriatenessand
term

of impossibility the brain

ing mean-

applying the
and the
can

"subject"
states. to such

to relations

between

conscious be attached

Indeed,
a

what

conceivable
as

declaration of the
"

this

The

brain

of

is

really

the

"subject"
"

particular feelings,
that constitute mind of A from the
ually act-

thoughts,and
stream

volitions

a,

b,c, d, etc.
the

of consciousness

which

so-called

assigns to
is derived of states
states

itself ?

Certainlythe experience
what it is to be the which activity the

which

the

conception of
in the very

"subject"
tal men-

consists
to the

attributes them all.

Ego
this

alone

as

subjectof
be

Only

analogicallycan
states

particularrelation
of them in and

that exists

between

and

the

subject
it is

projected upon
this the relation into
our

physical
remains

beings
with

like the brain; until

doing

meaningless Only
in

interpreted back

experience

ourselves.
an

analogicalway,
any
to
as

indeed, can
of states
; but

the
in

brain
no

be said ever whatTo

sciousness conrantable war-

to be the
can

subjectof
it be said

kind

way states.

be the the

subject of
"

conscious

speak

of the brain

"subject

of the

phenomena
from be of
a

of
a

would, then, be something far different

use

of

figure of speech.
a

It would
use

something
sometimes

different warrantable

from

even

perversion in the
It would

of speech. figure

be the

destruction,in
which
ders ren-

the very act of

making
such

use,

of all the real

meaning
/am the

possibleany

figureof speech,

subject of

298

MATERIALISM

AND

SPIRITUALISM

my

conscious

states; and
is not

they
have

are

mine,

"

my

states.

To

be

self-conscious them actual all

only to
as

conscious

states, but

bute to attri-

to the Self

its states ; and

nothing else except this

and is

experience,which psychical corresponds

the
'

is all in consciousness
to
'

of consciousness,
as

the

relation

which states."

described fitly What

"being
real
so
as

subject

of conscious

words, then, shall Materialism

of the relation
at between to

employ
the its insist make

to express

its the

conception
conscious ? that
can

brain

and

states

least
a

theory
on

stood under-

For, surely,we
be that
or

have

right to
In

something
be gested sug-

grasped by thought.
terms

reply, it

may

like

"generation," "production,"
will

tion," "funccase.

"elaboration," etc.,
is bold
'

fitlyapply
that
as
"

to

this

Thus the
'

Vogt

enough
the

to declare

as

contraction

is

function
so

of the
in

muscles,
same

and does

the

kidneys
'

secrete
'

urine,

and

way

the
And

brain M. of the lower in

generate

thoughts, movements, Maudsley,

"

and
are as

feelings."
fond of
in

Luys,
"

Dr.

and

others

speaking
the sentiments and

tion elabora-

of sensations of

taking place
and "lower"

regions of
the
are

the

brain, and
Here
;

thoughts

higher

regions.
considered

the words the in

same some

"higher"
are

locally
of
as or

and

psychical products
sort to

spoken

corresponding
stages of the
the successive But

the

different

products,
elaborated
or

product,
of
a

which for

might

be

in silk shall

stories in the

mill

cotton, woollen,

fabrics. continue words

as

interests

of scientific

thinking
to set

we

to insist upon

attaching definite conceptions to such they

and
a are

these, when
between
us

employed
With examination

forth

the in

relations

body give

mind.

these
to

interests Herr

view, let
dramatic It will three these These

then

brief

Vogt's

declarations.
be

observed
are

that

in

the

one

sentence

just quoted
is added
same

words all

employed

; and

the declaration
and

that

express words

essentiallyone
are

the

relation.

three

"function," "secretion," and

"genera-

300

MATERIALISM

AND

SPIRITUALISM

its real

absurdity does
its view in any

not

consist

in its between

complete inability
brain whatever.
to

to express

of the relations

and

states

of consciousness The word

terms intelligible

"function"
most
severe

certainly seems
strain upon

promise

some

relief for this It is

a

the

understanding.
it

vague

and used

indefinite sufficiently
with
a more

term;
and

is

thus

capable of being
effect. It is

soothing
the "function is the is

captivating

perfectlyevident, however,
be considered
" "

that
"

thoughts

and

feelingscannot
"

as

of the brain of the

in

the

same

way

as

contraction fact the

function

muscles." contraction that these

For is

the

obvious of
as are

which function

expressed when
muscles
to be
times some-

spoken

of the

is

bodily members
this
to
a

actuallyperceived
and then

longer and thicker; and ascribing it

upon

thinner,
obvious

again

shorter for

and

fact

physiology
of the

accounts

by

rearrangement

molecules
"

following ing dependmolecular tions func"

stimulation upon the and

through
conversion

the sensory of stored there

nerve-fibres into
are,
"

kinetic in the

energy,

back

again.
that go

Now,
on

fact,no
same

of the brain this function and muscles. But

in in

precisely
the the
"

way

as

of contraction

muscles.

For

such of

tability irrithe

is contractility in
a

peculiar
that

function
a

similar

way

is, as
with

ment rearrangeand

of the diminution
"

molecules, possibly connected

in certain has But localities the
or

increase of the

dimensions function is

ism organular molec-

the brain
movement.

physical
a

of sudden
no more

such
or

function

like
to

the the is
as

function mind the and

of

thinking
in the of

of

feeling,as
in

it

belongs
here

consists

processes muscles. the

consciousness, than Indeed,

contraction
we come or

again
orders

always
beings.
muscle

upon

complete incomparability of belong

is, both
and
to
never

the of

phenomena,
in

functions, which
is somewhat that

the

two

Brain

like, but

wholly unlike,
of molecular mind.

its functions; but both

are

consist

changes;

equally

totally unlike

MATERIALISM

AND

SPIRITUALISM

301

If, however,
express the
"

one

chooses
as so

to

use

the

word of the

function brain
"

to

fact

that

the

conditions in

the
or

brain-states

vary,

(that is,
do
be

correlation
states

with vary,

dependence
does

upon

them)
may

the

conscious
as a

why,
in and it

then, this relation

not

admitted

fact.

But

the relation

account relation

for itself. is

In

truth, Materialism
over,

announcing
less
assumes

the

only saying
the very

in for

other which

terms, clearly intelligible

to

facts

give
would

an

account.

Not

less

unintelligible, really, is
encourage
us

the form

conception
by
the
use

which such What

Materialism words that

as

to

of

"elaboration," "production,"and
to any

like. in

corresponds
the brain that of the told

conceivable
states

relation is
"

reality
when
we

between
are

and

conscious
"

expressed
in

sensations

are

elaborated and

preciselysuch
such
"

centres
centres. to say,

brain, and
the

thoughts
of
are

feelingsin
processes with of

other is

By
to

elaboration which

sensory

that

nerve-processes sensations

correlated
as

or

causally

related
or

considered

states
"

consciousness,

modifications
about

of sense-consciousness exact

stood something is under-

which

knowledge
can

is

conceivably
with other

able, obtainforms

something
of so-called

also that

be

compared

elaboration.
as

The reach
more

chemico-physical
the brain-centres in

molecular

changes become,

they
and

and

spread
upon

through them,
the chemical

more

complex,

dependence
these

constitution,histological structure, and

of the substance

logical physiocentres.

functions But
not

composing

in all this process

become
"

of elaboration

the nerve-processes
as reason

do
or

more

elaborate

considered

sensations that other

psychoses,
not

and any

this,for
more

the very

good

they
form
a

do of

become

like the

sensations, or

any

psychoses. Only by smuggling-in

should
as

most

glaring subreption,by
thing which
of any On it form the
was

honest dis-

of the very
one

promised psychoses
hand,

be

explained, can
elaborated

speak
brain.

of

being

by

the

other

302

MATERIALISM

AND

SPIRITUALISM

what

it

is

to

elaborate known

thoughts, feelings,and
by
But

plans
elaboration

is

perfectly well
abundant
goes
on

everybody,
such
a

in

accordance of

with

experience. only only

to

process

in in

consciousness; it is apprehended and

terms

plained ex-

of
as

consciousness; and
the

if it is to

be

ascribed be the Nor

any

agent

elaborator, that
all the any conscious

agent

must

self-conscious is the
term
are

subject of "production"
which

states. be

more

favorably to
examined. consists which is due

regarded than
The that the
a

those of any
to

have of

already been
mechanism

production
new

piece

in
to

form

given
the

pre-existingmaterial
upon of the of
as

operation of
case

mechanism any

material. molecular

If it is isms mechan-

of which

the
are

product
known
organ

those

the organs
and

of the human is

body, the
same

relation
as

between has

products

preciselythe
under the

that which

already been
and

considered

terms

generation, secretion,

function.

Finally, none
wish hold the
to

of the
as

phrases devised

by

those

who and

do

not

be understood the

espousing Materialism,
were more are

yet who
in

to

psychological positionswhich
are
can

examined

first for
must

chapter
be

one

whit
be
"

better when

or

intelligible..
told that the
mental

What,
brain
state

example,

meant

we
"

regarded
as
no

as

throwing off

the entire

considered

psychical unity ?
is found with
to indicate

[Let
the
use

it be of

insisted

upon

again
the

that

fault

figures of
relations.

speech when
On

employed

real intelligible that

contrary, it is maintained
attempts
to

the real relation which

Materialism

establish is that all

mere

and itselfessentially

ever for-

unintelligible ; and
suggestive and
when
tenet

figuresof speech,
words fundamental without

however

seductive, are
to set

meaning

employed
of this
a

forth

the

metaphysical
exists
as

theory.]

It appears,

then, that there

little of

"rudimentary organ"
relation the between

for

istic conceiving, in materialand conscious

states

fashion,the
as

brain

for

conceiving of

comparability or

identityof

the two

MATERIALISM

AND

SPIRITUALISM

303

kinds the and which

terms

of

phenomena.
without
to

But

this

amounts in

to

saying

that

theory cannot
mind
it sets out mean,

definethe
assuming

relations the

realitybetween
of the
very

body being
its of

existence

deny.
are

For found
one

when
to

it is discovered
assume

what

they

the

dependence
upon
"

phenomena
in another

belonging to
the

subjector ground
That

changes
conscious
or cises exer-

subject or ground.
not

is to say, the
or

subject,"and
its

brain, generates
in the form than brain
as

produces
because

peculiar function
and connection with

of certain others and

sensations,
of its

thoughts, dependent
and materialism

feelings, rather
the

with
more

its functions than

generated products. And

cannot

to

anything
mean.

this,

tell what

it does

It it admits On

begins, then,
the incom-

by denying the
of parability

existence

of mind of

; but

the two

orders

phenomena.
any

attempting,
to
a

however,

to

assign
whole

the

origin of

mental

phenomena
in terms

being

whose

nature

is definable it finds
tenet.
no

only
words

of other
to

incomparable phenomena,
express the
account

appropriate
are

its

metaphysical
of the the

Terms
to

that
own

fit to indicate
are,
on

relations of

brain

its the
same

states

incomparability
the
as

of

phenomena,
brain would
to to

totally
states

unfit to express consciousness express that the

relations But

of the
terms

of

such.

which

be the

fit to

relation
or

of states them

of consciousness

being
the

generates

produces
has

(to their

subject)imply
and No

real existence Thus toward been

of the mind.
not

far the argument the

been

irreverent

sceptical
attack The has word which
we

metaphysical
upon the real
been

idol of Materialism. existence

to

made

of the brain. for somewhat

"brain"
counts

has in the
to

allowed of the it
as

stand

realm

really existent, although

have

declined

worship

the

god

which

the materialistic the

pothesi hyview the and

demands. of the

But
as a

suppose

that from

point of grudging

phenomena
of the

scientific

psychology presents them,

advocate

spiritualistic hypothesis grows

304

MATERIALISM

AND

SPIRITUALISM

agnostic ; suppose
of

that

the

iconoclastic
"

temper
be

be

let loose before

against this idol of materialism,

the
to

it will not Idealism is

long
For which

jeering cry
its rival idealistic

metaphysical
"

heard, saying
?
"

theory,

Where

is

now

thy god
is this

from is
so

the

point of view,
forward
as

what

brain

boldly brought
ducer

the

secreter, generator,
? As that
a

or_pro-

of the life of consciousness it

can

thing scientifically
the brain is

known,
certain that
more

scarcely be
of described weird in

denied and

only

collection be less

physical
creations

chemical of

characteristics of

must
or

terms

sense-experience,or
and

of

imagination
all

intellect. is all

But

psychologically considered,
into of conscious

sense-experience
so

resolvable activities furies and

states; and
it be and

likewise in

are

imagination, whether
molecules

engaged
atoms out

picturing
inferences
unseen

dragons, or
as

; all

of intellect brains immanent inside

well, whether
of

they
skulls
or

reach toward

toward the the

unseen

perceived
finite

God
as a

in

all

existences.
or

Now,
itself

brain

reality,a mighty generator

appears of from the this

secreter

of conscious

states,

point of

view

to be
an

only
and the
an

non phenomeinference

mind;

it is itself

image
within

"generated"
stream

by psychic activities
As and

ever-flowing
"

of consciousness.

scientifically known,
in

since is itself

all

knowledge is of mind

mind,

"

the

brain

generated, not generator.

Such

indeed, is
For saved thus It is be
"

all that the

brain like

is all
at

or

can

ever

out be, with-

faith.
must out

Materialism, by faith,
it
can
"

other all ; and

metaphysics,
it may
"

if saved

turn

that

even

be saved

only, as
form

it were, of

through

the fire." which

only
in

that

mysterious
given
so

mentality, to
"

have psychologists "belief

many

names,

callingit perception
to

sometimes of and the

reality,"sometimes
"instinctive with with the the intellectual conative

"the

reality," sometimes classifyingit

emotional and
now now

inference" and

reality,
with
"

now

activities,

that

MATERIALISM

AND

SPIRITUALISM

305

imparts
to

to

the

so-called

brain, as
it
"

to

the

entire before

physical
the
"
"

which world, all the actuality have. We have

can

claim of

mind cause be-

spoken of

form

mentality,

belief,instinctive perception,
processes. is
as

are inference,

all mental

As

was

said

long ago (seepp.

does it is true

114

f.), only as being

for
us.

implicated in knowledge
true

being exist
of other

This

is

of the

brain

as

physical beings.
that activity
states.
narrow

Its

is immediately dependent upon eatfra-mentality of faith which is

"

moment

"

in certain the

conscious of
a

On and

what, then, unless bigoted faith,does

the valid

it be the

upon

exercise

materialistic

hypothesis depend
more

to contradict

more larger,

precious,and complete
the

convincing
?
1

faiths that make Monistic

its

own

contradiction

from spiritualism,
an

point of view

of scientific
as
a

psychology, has
when critical

undoubtedly great advantage

mind
over

factory satis-

philosophy of
attention its

materialism.
toward its

It is

only
in

is directed

metaphysical
a

implications and
of from
most

logical and
is
to

legitimate outcome
this be

complete metaphysical system, body

and mind
seen

that

theory of

the

tions rela-

For unsatisfactory. all the

the

psychologicalpoint
"

of view
"

objectiveand
must

completely
as

extra-mental

side of with the

experience
most

be

considered and

belonging, equally Things

known
to

the

subjective
of
sciousness. con-

completely "intra-mental," to
are

phenomena they
are

be what this is

only

in

terms to

of

knowledge ; indeed, to
to

say

but tautological,

attempt

say

anything

which

contradicts That

this

is to

the absurd. attempt the unintelligible,

things really
to

Some

readers

may

be

inclined

to

be

wearied

at

what

appears

them

cessive ex-

since of theory ; especially to advocate or Materialists," openly its tenets. I must, however, be allowed to claim a clear apprehensionof my own ber aims, and of the prospective value and present need of such polemics. The numof real materialists is by no means to be measured by those who accept the

polemicaleffort
are now

bestowed
to

upon

this form
"

few

writers

found

accept the

title

name,

much

less

by

the

number

issue of the

and psychological

pains to think which they espouse. positions philosophical

of those who 20

take

the

out

the

306

MATERIALISM

AND

SPIRITUALISM

are

can

be in all
a

known

only

as

it is somehow

involved itself

or

plied imever

knowledge.
process

But in

knowledge

is, and
And

must

be,
true

passing
of the other
so

consciousness.
as

all this

is

as

knowledge
material much work

of brains

it is of the knowledge few of material

of

any

thing; indeed,
of

things require
and

imagination,
so-called and
to

inference, brain,
This tion refutaswerable. unan-

of

"faith-faculty"as
has

does

this

human

with

its

peculiar alleged constitution just been

used in used this

functions. the

line of of

argument

complete
it is

materialism;
It is

way,

quite

not,

however,

equally satisfactory for spiritualism.

second form of
ceiving con-

establishing the
In the critical

conclusions consideration of

of monistic of this and

of the relations back forth all

to

body
with

mind, it is well
These facts
are

to refer

the facts to be in connection

as

explained.
the is

fully set
while

only

recognition that,
a

knowledge
two

such

undoubtedly

mental both

transaction,
of things and

knowledge
of Self
as

itself is

just as undoubtedly
and, in certain beings.
of

different kinds mental But

important respects,
for

incomparable psychology
achievement.
as as
a

Perception is, indeed,

its

process;

and

product
the Self

is

mental

knowledge
set

by perceptionis attained
"out of" and

only

the

objectperceived is
those attributes

regarded

having
that

of

extension, weight, inertia,etc.,

which Self. the it is That inconceivable
is to

and

capacity of
be

movement

should here upon the

also
come

attributes

of the

say,

we

again, although from

opposite point of view,

"

the

incomparability of
a

the

phenomena,

and

so

upon

necessityof assuming
matter

special ground

for the

physical
offer

phenomena.
As the
a

of

fact,monistic
scientific

Spiritualism does
for two
to in the

not

valid slightest of

explanation
the

of the three When

classes

phenomena
takes and

referred

last

chapter.
of in the

its advocate he describes

the

position of
innumerable

student

science,
con-

explains

changes

308

MATERIALISM

AND

SPIRITUALISM

and
be

lays siege
found
was

to

the

stronghold, than spiritualistic

when But
at the

would

necessary reversed.
even

the in
cost

relation his of

of

the
to

contending
save

armies

anxiety
what

his

so

precious "soul,"
of his and him
the

the forfeiting that

real existence is valuable taken with in M.

less of

precious "brains,"
He
same

capable
into his interests

sustaining life has

has

the

theorist
beaten

citadel ? of the
so

indeed

his

retreat that

entities To

and

verities
as

Flournoy
it is souls

esteemed
"

precious.
and and the
be

him,

to M.

Flournoy,
loves
seem

his

Ego,

the other their

Egos hopes
"

with

their

and
most
paign. cam-

hates, their

memories

which issues of well But

worthy
"

of And

saving from
if

destructive

the spare
to be

they

may

saved, he
bread he

too eats.

can
"

the
sistent conpany com-

real existence he and has for

of the his
own

very

present Ego, and

in

no

other, for

sustenance
are

this

impregnable stronghold. only

as

All

other

Egos

known

to him

existences that take

inferred

in the interests

of

explaining the changes

And

place in
may

perceived things.
be from his conscious

they

too

with

equal consistency
second
or

considered, since they stand

states, as
a

at the

third
or

remove as

but

projectedideas,

rather
to the

of ideation-processes
as

certain

order, attributable

Self

their sole In

ground.
sole

truth, the

legitimate metaphysical
a

outcome

of

monistic when

Spiritualismis
more

complete solipsism.
rival
to
"
"

Still

further,

somewhat

hard-pressed by plain signs metaphysical

of
"

philosophical
ism. phenomenalthat

theories, it manifests
For if that

return

moment

belief;
into

feeling,instinctive
all

inference be

"

which

enters necessarily

perception of things
no

not

valid,the
that

conclusion

is not of
to

difficult that the

a

metaphysics
which may be all

is valid.

If the

phenomena
of them consciousness

physical order, together with

attribution human such

specific ground

developed
with
not

naturallymakes,

regarded

distrust

of their of the

metaphysical implications,why

the

phenomena

MATERIALISM

AND

SPIRITUALISM

309

so-called think of

psychical
entities and the

order

also ?

Why
or

attempt

to

talk

or

either relations

psychical
between

physical?
are

The
can

nomena phebe

them
once

all that
we come

known. scientifically
to face with

But

here,
and very

more,

face

the invincible
as

unchangeable incomparability thing

to

of

the

phenomena
all mind.

the

be

recognized

and

explained by body
the
to

speculativetheories
of

of the

relations

between

and

If,however, the advocate

influence

Spiritualismstill feels strongly

that

of considerations he position, is

originallyinduced
some

him escape

accept his
the be

likely in

way

to

from To

philosophicalsolipsism in
in the citadel In with him.

which his

he
own means

finds

himself.
seems

safe

only

soul of One

unsatisfactoryto
which
soar

practice,the
shows
are

escape may of

this
over

manner

of warfare upon may

some

various.

the
or

walls
one

the
a

wings

of the
some

metaphysics
hitherto
"

sentiment,
avenue

make

sally by

cealed con-

"

subterranean the
be

passage hosts camp

of argument.

But
one

if is

one

then

escape
to

besieging
in that
to

of

Materialism,
which of of

likely soon
also be

found

the the

of Dualism. the

It must

admitted

language

theory employs spiritualistic

and

express

the relations that and

body
the

mind,

if not

so

wholly unintelligibleas
still far that from any

materialistic It

theory, is
is
not

being
one

clear
be

factory. satisto
so

likely

will Herr brain

found
and
same

parallel the

absurdities mind
as

of writers

like the its

Vogt,
"in

speak
"

of the
as

"secreting"
it secretes

the
or

way

that in which is this

own

thoughts wholly
due
to express

ings. feelto

Nor obvious

relative

self-control such
a

the

of inappropriateness

word

the relation the

two

of the classes of

subject of phenomena.
a

conscious A

states

to

either

of

certain

form

of

"animism
to

"has

held, indeed,
the mind
as

doctrine

which
"

might
or

be likened
"

regarding ing develop-

the "elaborator But

"generator
as

of the

bodily organism.

animism,

ordinarily held,

310

MATERIALISM

AND

SPIRITUALISM

regards
meaning
forces
terms

the of

body
the

as

real

existence; while
so as

it extends all

the those in

word

mind which

to

include deals with

and of the

performances
determined of

biology

only

chemico-physical science
and

of life.

It thus

brings
on

upon
one

itself the

opposition of psychology
upon the other and hand. its characteristic

the if

hand,

biology
the

For

psychology departs from

of

only safe point

states
use

view, which

is

"

descriptionand
"

explanation of
to

of consciousness

as

such

and

if it undertakes vital till

its

peculiar principle to explain body

not

all the onward

processes

of the then
it

from

the finds

impregnated
itself it
sooner

egg

death,
vast

"

only
but

wandering
can

helpless in

and

miliar unfaown

regions where good,

it is
as
a

accomplish nothing
or

for its hands

be

sure

later to fall into

the
to

of

biology,
devoured.

kind

of

cannibal

foe, and
with its

thus

quite
of of

Modern
to

biology, too,
with its finds

mination deterjustifiable in
terms

deal

peculiar problem
the claims

chemico-physical science,
animism

of this

form

particularlyoffensive.
different from all this must
to

Something
if monistic
"

of

course

be

meant,
as

Spiritualism ventures
" "

speak
character the

of

the

mind

elaborating
to

or

generating
be

"

the

ing bodily organism. Accordof the

the words

distinctive
must

metaphysical
used
to describe and

theory,
narily ordi-

these

relation

existing in
"

reality between supposed

"

the

entity mind
their word which

the

phenomena

to have
a

ground in the body.

is

tion Genera-

is,however,
certain the
sets

primarily adapted only physical substances,

or

to set forth
"

relations

between

in

case

reality of physical phenomena

the in is the mind

substances
to

be

denied

"

between

of

belonging wholly
may

the

physical spoken
But relation

order. of
as

In

figurative way
arise

perhaps

be

generating
which

particular thoughts, feelings, and

the
stream

volitions if this of the

of consciousness.
to set must

figureof speech Ego

to

employed

forth
not

the
be

its conscious

states, it

forgotten

MATERIALISM

AND

SPIRITUALISM

311

that any back

to
we
"

of interpretation the ultimate

it into of

experience takes
when

us

at

once

facts

self-consciousness.
more we

In

other the

words,
mind when such the

really mean
"

nothing

say that than

we
mean

generates
say

the states the

states

of consciousness
nature

we as one

that the

very

of

self-consciousness
are

is
to

that

of consciousness the

all referred

subject called
inasmuch of
our as

"Ego,"

or

"Self." the
as

Now,

all
own

perceptionsof
bodies,
as

visible

and

gible tanto

organs the existence of the the aims and with

same

well

all inferences

of the
are

actuallyinvisible
too

and may the

intangibleorgans
be

brain,

perceptions, they
as

spoken
One

of in who

figurative way keep

clear
in

generated by

mind.

to

of all

metaphysical assumption whatever, perhaps satisfyone's

as

succeeds

doing this, may

self
scious con-

such mind

figurative statements
as,

these.

To

speak

of

by

its

perceptive and
its
can own

thinking activities,
organs has
be
tainly cer-

generating
a

and

elaborating
It all of

bodily

ghostly sound.

scarcely,however,
as soon as

called is

absolutely devoid
made of in
to

meaning

the

effort

interpretthe figuresof speech

But, alas for
of the
any

involved mental
"

in this way satisfaction

speaking.
this form

complete obliged imply,

as

metaphysical spectre,
may

all

perceptions,
them
as

however mental
essence,

psychology
states

feel

to

regard
order of
are

and

processes, of

part of their
of
an

very

the with

attribution
mere

phenomena

parable incom-

mental Inferred

states

to another

kind

being
as

as

their

ground!

and

hypotheticalbrains
as are

truly
; and

characterized the the

only

in

this way which

or

stars

and the

stones very

metaphysical

faith

enters

into

heart
to

of the

perceptive inference
in the

hypothesis
it does

renders

them
and

perceiving mind
substances that here
as

form

of extra-mental
stars

material So taining main-

as persistently

and

stones.

again the effort

in
two

to conceive

of the mind
as

relations and

themselves

realitybetween
to
serve

body, with
of both

only

one

of the

beings

the

ground

312

MATERIALISM

AND

SPIRITUALISM

classes

of

phenomena,
the and

breaks

in

pieces against
There

the invincible
no

incomparability of
consistent
to

phenomena.
open,

seems

other either
to

logical course
both
"

therefore, except
of

deny all realityto

kinds and else

beings, and
to
come

so

the
to
we

relations

between*!; them,

thus
to

around because
a

phenomenalism
know the in their
we

again,"
to

or

admit
we

that

phenomena
both

be

incomparable
alike

require

tinction dis-

metaphysical ground. body

and mind
as

This real

is to affirm that but

know

able incomparknown

beings
relations.

because

capable
of

of

entering
it may

into

such

By
terms

similar

trains

reasoning
relations In other
same as

be shown
not

that

the

"elaboration,""production," etc., do
any of the real in which

adequately
stands
to

express
to

the mind

the

bodily
is not is

organs.

words,
to

to

perceive and
or

infer And in

altogetherthe
a

generate
of

to

produce.

there

ghostly sort particularly

words stands for the sum-total material
to the

ineptness involved
relations and in
to the

using

these

of the

which

the mind

organism

physical functions
It

of the

body.
both

clearlyappears, Spiritualism are they

also attack

then, that

Materialism
upon

and the

istic mon-

strong in attack, each

weak in defence Yet of

other;

but

are

both

themselves, each
can

against
said to the

the
be

of the

other.

they
or

scarcely be
;

equally weak

in either

attack has the

defence

for,on
vantages ad-

whole, the
over

theory spiritualistic
On
both

quite decided

the materialistic.
more

whole, its positions

more
our

can

be

rendered
to us,

and intelligible

defensible.

It leaves

in

the

last

extremity
"

of

fightwith

the
to

arch-enemy
the and farthest

of all

knowledge,
the human

with

agnosticism pushed
of all the the
"

possible limits
of

in distrust

activities

conquests
"

mind,
of jetzt)

"

I-am-here-anditself. which conquer And cible invinthe

now-being
this

(Ieh bin
the may

hier und

the mind from and

is indeed
reason

impregnable stronghold
at

any

time

come

forth

MATERIALISM

AND

SPIRITUALISM

313

entire of it

domain

of

knowledge
and

again.

But should

why
go

this

process

alternate is difficult

retreat

forth-sallying
unless Materialism

on

forever,

to

see;

and

Spiritualism,
are

as

mutually
outcome

destructive of the

metaphysical
reflective

theories,

to

be

the

only
It

philosophical
of

mind. all and the also facts

is,

therefore,
by
their both

in

the these

interests

admitting theories,
destructive Monism

emphasized escaping
and claim

imperfect
and

of

one-sided that

mutually

sions concluits

tendencies,
be

psychological complete philosophy

sets

up

to

the

true

and mind.

of

the

relations

between

body

and

CHAPTER

MONISM

AND

DUALISM

that commend it is sought discourse by which THE metaphysical theory of the real relations of body and
to

mind

for which

the

term

"

Monism
two

"

has

been

reserved, is peculiarities.
to establish

ordinarily distinguished by
The the
an

remarkable

first of these

concerns

the method makes

to

employed
the

theory.

This

method

upon that

thoughtful

critic

impression corresponding
criticism "shot of
out
as

described

by Hegel's Absolute, theory

one

sarcastic
as even

Schelling's evolution
of the
a

of the the any

though

gun."

Sometimes which

is

proclaimed
to

only theory (sic)can

laying
; and

claim

scientific without

culture
any

creditably espouse
a

this is done
to the
success

preparationbeyond
correlations of

vague

reference

of modern subtile

psycho-physical science
mental it is introduced of

in discovering and cerebral

new

and

phenomena.
criticism and

Sometimes,
of the

however,
rival

by

vious pre-

rival theories

Dualism, Materialism,

Spiritualism.
is then

These
even

theories and

having

been

found

or quite unsatisfactory,

absurd

self-contradictory,
; for

Monism the

assumed

to be

necessarilytrue
of
"

is it not

only possibleremaining
argument
it has from
"

form
resort

theory?
is seldom very ing; convincand

The

last

indeed it.

something
Moreover,

essentiallyundignified
the

invidious each

about

particularway
and the dismissed

in

which

of its three

rivals

is handled

becomes

exceedingly

instructive

concerning

possible

tendencies

316

MONISM

AND

DUALISM

physics temporarily prevails

"

the

accepted metaphysical
mind. The students of of

theory
the the

of the relations

of

body and
are

chemico-physical
by them

sciences
and

also

clearly persuaded
that
sort

reality of the body,

as a

of the truth the

same

it must
as

be

sidered con-

realityof
be

all material
as

things
the deal. theories them view.
be

are

; it may

therefore which

held

to be

known
are

having
to

propertieswith
Monism
; and

these

sciences
one

accustomed

is, then, only

it is

of

several

metaphysical
and
remote

by far the
the

most

scholastic and the

reason

of of

all from It is

both

popular

scientific
if for
no

points

then, scarcely,

for this

other, to
to hold

adopted

without

thorough

discussion

of its claims

the rightfully the

most

field of critical

philosophy.
of monistic writers

Now,

in

view

of the

wide-spread prevalence
brilliant and and

tenets

among
on

accomplished
it is

of the age
on

topics
physical metato

in

psychology

psycho-physics,and undoubtedly
make it:
a

the related

problems,
make,
but
we as satisfactory

bold
a

declaration

venture

to

Not

single treatise,
the
be

to its survey

of facts and
can

making

sion impresfound in is here

of soundness the defence

to

in

argument,
tenets.

anywhere
is

of these method

This in

why

attention
as one

called

the

of monism

psychology
monistic
concerns seems

of its

remarkable The
to the

peculiarities.
of peculiarity of the modern mind doctrine the
as

other

real relations

body and
the and that

character

of the
to end.

agnosticism
We
are

in which
"

doctrine

necessarily
teristic characone

assured
"

this is the essential

of the doctrine in

body

and

mind
must

really are
be

being ;
in the
nor

but

that

this

unitary being
and the conservation

thought
as

of

neither under
energy,

terms

of extension

motion, and
and

coming
of

principle of
as
a

correlation

and self-conscious, thinking, feeling,

willing
of

subject, after
about

the
men

analogy
know
now

of

mind.
"

Both
or

kinds think

being
know
one

which
"

all

something

they

something

have

been

merged

in the

identity of

MONISM

AND

DUALISM

317

being ;
nor can

but
ever

about

this
to

one

being

men

neither

know

anything,
we are

hope

know

anything.
body and
to be

Indeed, if
of
a

clined in-

to

press

the

question,What
is not

sort

being
but

is this

which

is the
nor

ground of both
and

mind,

is neither derived ? hand

we or are a

body
from

mind,

described

in terms
or

human
be

experience
warned away

with with

either
a

body

mind

likelyto
solemn

loftywave
seem

of the that

shaking of the head.

as

It would either

the monistic
to to

hypothesisregards it
ask the and and press such
a

profane or hopeless even

But
so

question.
reason

arbitrary a
to
us

limit

inquiries of

human

seems

both

unscientific

unphilosophical.
every to

Now,

thinker

upon

philosophicalproblems
of the
"

should

be And

ready
every
"

recognize the

limits upon

human

knowledge.
of

reflective thinker

problem
discovers
reason

knowledge
that certain

itself ultibe

the

problem epistemological
or

mates, beyond

back

of which

cannot

go, must

recognized
But
after
us

in

the

discussion has made

of all its
out

philosophicalproblems.
tenet

monism
as

metaphysical
a

appear
we,

before without

though

"shot

of

gun," why
the realm of

should

further
as

examination,

consider
to

substance the ?
more
"

charged disnatural, superThe

belonging, not
even

only
of

the
"

but

to
naive

that

the

unknowable appear

objectionsto
in

such

agnosticism
of this
to
a

will

fully

the The

detailed

criticism

theory.
to the

genuine impulse
the real

Monism defensible philosophical

anstver

where begins precisely

this

monistic indefensible between

problem of
have
us

relations

body
end.

and For

mind what

would is the facts

on

suppose in
us

the entire
a

inquiry must
so-called

situation has the it left

one

which

scientific The

examination

of all the of
man

involved
to

body

is seen,

hand,

belong

to the

of totality
account

the

physical world propertiesand

under
"

is, in respect of the scientific

of its ranked

functions, quoad body, just as

class of the

truly
the

the
as

eral gen-

physical

"

won-psychical

is any

318 material
as

MONISM

AND

DUALISM

other

substance.

But

the

so-called

mind the

appears

to itself

mind

only

as

it differences

itself from functions

cal physiare

by
mental material

the and

possession of propertiesand wow-physical. formally

to

which

Yet

this

particular collection
a

of

elements, which
so

is

reallyin
as

constant

flux while the

same

remaining

similar

to

be

called
even

body, is known
to

sustain

peculiar

and

unique
is need of

tions relaone

the

mind. bind into

Certainly, then,
a

there

principleto
and

unity, as
which this

it were,

all the known

facts

valid all

assumptions
the human
to such

complex problem
the
as

involves.

For

physical things, including body,

as

particular physical
the
to

thing

called related

well

mind the One

larly particuWorld.

human

body, belong

It is this aims
to

world, in its unity and

We

which totality

philosophy
of
a

understand.

cannot, then, approve

seems

retical theobut

modesty
unfaithful
to the

which

not

only
natural

unnecessary

legitimatetask
This task and

and

losophy destiny of phiseem

itself. left the

this

destiny would body

common

to be
en one
a

altogether unfulfilled unique

serves

by the bare
of man's
"

conclusion,based
and

relation
"

simply
to

mind, that ground.

build

being
far
not

so

speak
than

their this
we one

On

broader

foundation

should

securely,
also is. all One

only

the

knowledge
what the

that this
nature

Being exists, but

this
one

the

knowledge

the and

of

Being
in this
or
"

Undoubtedly
things and
"

body

mind
are,

of each their

individual,and being

all souls

that

have

Being.
Ground

Philosophers call
; and
were

this

Being

the Absolute
reasons

Worldbe

this that

the this

place, valid
One

might
faith
current at to

given
God."

for

holding
Will,
"

Being
Absolute

is

self-conscious,
calls

rational

the be

"personal

whom the

It will

noticed, however,
becomes

that

chological psythe take

monism very hold that

dogmatic agnosticism begins

soon

place where
on

true

philosophicalmonism
its of

the

terms

of

problem.
no use

It will
to

be

shown

the

theory

is also

psychological science

MONISM

AND

DUALISM

319

where

this

science is due

most to

needs

help; and,

as

well, that thinking.

its On

metaphysics
the Mind and make in

insufficient

reflective immanence

contrary, the assumption of the

that world soul

of Absolute

of Nature

to which

both the human

body
will

the human valid

belong,is
realm of

the

only postulatewhich

the whole

science. of psycho-physical

First, however,
has

it will be

advantage

to illustrate

what of the
to

just been
of

said

concerning the monistic

doctrine

relations
case a

of man's modern

body
writer. he is

and

mind

by brief reference

the is

Here

again
this

Professor

Hbffding

selected,because

one

of the most
on a

and fair,intelligent,

pleasing
from the earlier discusses

of

modern

writers of

metaphysical problem psychology.

and In the

point
the

of view

scientific
"

part of his chapter on

rival The
"

Mind

Body

"

Hoffding
and of

theories

of

Dualism,
he

Materialism,
because

Spiritualism.
its
"

first of the three

dismisses

inconsequence
the doctrine

in respect (chiefly, of the

"

of the way energy of

it deals

with

persistence of
convicted from

") and

"vagueness." "against body

is
"

Materialism

is then derived

offending
itself." "the

the

conceptions
a

experience
several

Spiritualism, as only
is of
a

speculative doctrine
or

holding that
or

form

product

of

one

mental

beings

thought

to

prejudicetoo

much A

"the

ceptions leading con-

experiential science."
of monistic is

curious
to may

confusion the
be

of

thought pervades the three pages

of this form the fact
"most

devoted
"

discussion
seen

spiritualism, brought
forward

as

from its

that Lotze

and

declared

to be

in distinguishedrepresentative Lotze's of
says

modern
in

philosophy;"
regard
to the structure

whereas relations

positionis
mind "is

that in

of dualism
"

body and

man.

The

of the

body,"
flux

he,2

gradually put together from

world, and
back involved in

scattered

constituents it is

of the

outer

perpetual
came.

continuallygiving
1 2

parts whence

they

Outlines

Psychology,Chap. ii. Microcosmns, vol. i. book iii chap. iv.

of

at its close.

320

MONISM

AND

DUALISM

With

what, then, could

blended with the than
come case

the soul form the

unity ?
of what that
as

If it is alternately the else

entering supply
in

body
can

and that

divided

from

decaying remnant,
in
to

unity consist
and

reciprocalactions
an new

unroll the
at

selves themof in

then
one

end, according
elements
to

course

Nature another life

can

in

adds
out
ours

those ?
...

work,

forces
never on

others become

of their
; and

relations the

Its inner of different

when

union

beings
while will
we

which

our

living form
gone

depends
that
for
; he

falls to

pieces, passing

shall all have

as

through something together,it

after
a

be

beings originallydifferent
"

contact
as

again separate.
Lotze's

The
not

reason

Hoffding's mistake
finds Lotze ing expressthe persistence

to

position is
as

obscure

doubt

to whether

the any

physical principleof
even

of energy

is in

way,

if its widest with the

possible
action inter-

applicationbe admitted, incompatible

of But been

real

body
the

and

mind. rival

when

three

theories

are

supposed
the

to

have

effectually disposed of,Hoffding

in the words: following
to

introduces

the fourth
to

theory bility, possitrine doca

of monism

"Only

then, seems
of transition the from the

be

left.

If it is

contrary
to

the

persistence of physical energy

one

suppose
theless, if,never-

province to
our

the

other, and

the two then the

two

provinces exist in
sets

experience as distinct,
be
so

of

phenomena
to

must

unfolded that there for is

a

taneously, simulevery
sponding corre-

each

according

its

laws;

phenomenon
(so far

in the world

of consciousness

phenomenon
as

in the world

of matter, and that The

conversely
life is

there with

is

reason

to suppose

conscious

correlated drawn

material

phenomena).
such
a

already parallels
be
an peated re-

point directly to
themselves
an

relation; it would
characteristic
were

amazing accident, if,

inner

while

the

marks

in this way, connection.

"

there Both
and his

not

tion at the foundathe

the

parallelism and
"

In his

"Allgemeine Physiologie

largerwork

on

Metaphysics."

MONISM

AND

DUALISM

321

between proportionality cerebral

the
to
an

activity of
at identity

consciousness The

and ence differpels com-

point activity
remains in that
a

bottom.

which
us

spite of the points of agreement

one

to suppose

and form.

the

same

principlehas
have
no

found take

its

expression in
and

double
two
on

We
or

right to
in
to

mind

body
"We

for

beings
the between
as
an

substances

reciprocal
conceive the

interaction.
the material brain and

are,

contrary, impelled
the
outer

interaction

elements

composing
the inner

nervous

system
"

form of

ideal

unity of consciousness.
In
so

far
to

as

these
to

words

of

Hoffding

contain

any shall it

valid
sider con-

appeal
noticed
as

facts and
or

intelligible reasoning,we
on.

them,
at

their

equivalents,later

Let

only

be

present, however, that Monism

is here the

introduced
other the three

the

sole have this

remaining
been

possibilityafter
to

theories which
"

discarded; but, further, that

is
"

light
of
of from

theory
"

supposed

shed
"

upon
us

the
no

facts
means

parallelism
For
a

and

proportionality
is meant

affords

understanding what
them. becomes
to at

by

the

"identity"
form Hence

derived of

this

point, as
the
we

usual, this
inner suppose is

monism
on

dogmatic agnosticism. "Concerning

teach

Hoffding goes
of that
matter
one

declare:
we

relation

and

mind works affirm "teach

"

nothing;

only
not

being
to outcome

both." that

[This declaration
the

simply

meant

psychology and
"

its direct

metaphysical
And
not

nothing,"
what kind

as

followingsentences
this ? does of

plainlyshow.]
has form it a double suffice ?
"

But

of

being is
?

why
one

form

of manifestation
one

Why

[As though
conceivable

could

here of the
some

talk

"manifestation," in
without

any

meaning
to
one

word, mind,
"

implying is, two

to

some

thing

manifested
not

that

forms

of such

being, and
which lie

form.] all-sufficing
goes
on

In

answer are

inquiries,Hoffding

to

say:
our

"These

questions
And then

beyond the realm

is

of

knowledge."
some

immediatelyit

added,

as

though
21

other

theory than

322

MONISM

AND

DUALISM

the

monistic, surely,set the limit

and
matter

to

our

knowledge
us an

on

this

subject: "Mind
author would

appear

to

irreducible the his

duality,just as subject and

appear which mind
to
was

object." Already, however,

have wandered the far

beyond
and
now

primary problem,
in
or

to express

general relations
matter,"
taken the

reality between
the
"

and

body;

for "mind

mental the
more

and

the material limited And domain

so as we

worlds," have
of discussion read
"

place of

suggested by
of and the

the former

terms.

The

identityhypothesis
one

regards these
same

worlds

two

manifestations

being,
and

both

given
form

in

experience;"
the
outer
same

or

again:
which

"The

hypothesis pronounces expands,

also and takes discloses

only that
in

power

lives,

the

world
as

of the

material,

itself in its inner

world

thinking, feeling,
of representation of and

willing."
it is not intended
as

Now,

to to
"

charge

every

the monistic with this Yet

doctrine

the

relations

body

and

mind
"

being guilty of such

discussion it is not of unfair

inconsequence
his discussion

vagueness

as

Professor
to
use

Hoffding's certainly displays.

as an

illustration for

of what the

this doctrine

is

ordinarilyfound
of the the

capable of doing
and the

rational

explanation
above

phenomena;

tences sen-

quoted
must be

really give
for its

principal points

which and

considered

thorough comprehension
the entire

criticism. Let
two

it be

noted, then, that

argument

consists the

of

parts, the first of which

or

may

be

accepted and

second The upon series

rejected ;
first facts of of
a

both
an

may

be

accepted or rejectedtogether.
part is
or inference,

part is

based alleged scientific generalization, the second

a an

experience;
to

inferences, having
claim We follow

metaphysical import
the the
;

and

presenting tion. generalizathe the and

"

logicallyfrom
both the the

scientific

deny
"

both

scientific

generalizationand "parallelism
and consciousness

philosophical

inference

"proportionality between

of activity

324

MONISM

AND

DUALISM

Since

it is the purpose
nature

of this

treatise mind
true

to carry

everything
to to

regarding the
the the facts
"

of the human back

to

and
court

its relations of

bodily organism
and this law

the

appeal,

"

principles
of

established

by
known

scientific

chology, psy-

alleged psycho-physical parallelism light of

as a

will

now

be examined itself

in the known

facts.
even

That

it

is not

immediately
and shown 243

fact,or
from
"

warranted facts
was

by

immediate

indisputable inference
to
"

the
"

has then

already been
said

be true.

"

It is

only
the there

it
even

(seepp.
the

f.)

"by
that
or

a we

complicated
can

and

doubtful

network
even

of inferences

reach

or knowledge (?),

conception
correlation

suspicion,that
and facts

is

strict

comitant con-

of brain-states many

states and

of consciousness.
even

"

Undoubtedly
sort

suggest,
the But

prove,

some

of correlation the of
"

between activities. and

activities

of consciousness
to

and be

cerebral
as a

is this correlation

spoken

strict
even

invariable
"

"psycho-physical parallelism
in the be
"

parallelism;
"

is
"

it

significantof body
and For
a

and

proportionality between
of these words ?

mind,
not

stricter

sense

it should correlation

forgotten that bodily and

Dualism, too, insists upon

mental it claims

between

phenomena.
to

Indeed, it is this general fact for which

best
easy

give the always

a

speculativeaccount.
to

It is not
means

discover
between

precisely what
the All activities
men

Monism of
sciousness con-

by

"parallelism"
the cerebral

and

activities. in space

know of
course

clearly
there

enough
can

what
no

parallelism
talk of space

is; but
of the

be

relations and

parallel order
Is it then is
one

between

conscious that the

states

brain-states.

to be

supposed
that
at

parallelism or concomitance,
? It would
x

of the
to hold
bral cere-

strictest order every

in time unit
some

then is

be

necessary

of time

there

happening

in the into

centres

chemico-physical change (cp

there

cfp't
in of

etc.),to

which
at

corresponds,as strictly
same

happening change

consciousness

the

unit

of

time,

some

MONISM

AND

DUALISM

325

psychical
view.

states

(ps

into

p's'). Now,
a

there

are

several
to this to

apparently insuperableobjectionsof
For, in the
that have that the first

scientific order is the

place, there changes

in which

good

reason

pose sup-

molecular

cerebral

substance

continuityin
of this
sort.

time

all physical distinguishes is to but say, in under

an

changes
laws and of be But
same

that They fall,

as

the

of molecular

motion
"

known
to

"

only

fect impersaid

conjecturalway

the

science chemico-physical centres may be

to

living organisms.
the flow of

The

cerebral with

always working, though

conscious order.
"

varying degrees of intensity.

is

states
a

apparently
consist of

not

of of

the
sciousness concession sucare

There
and

is indeed

so-called
not

"stream
a mere

this stream

does

of disconnected

individual
states.

states, some
all

of which

representative of past
at are,
as

Under
state

stances, ordinary circumelements

well that
as

least,each
residua

so-called of the

contains

it were, elements

preceding states, as
sure

other the

anticipatoryof, and
states.1 which

to

pass

over

into,

succeeding applied
"

The when

analogy, however,
to both

the word

"

motion

"

suggests

terms
no means

in this

"parallelism
argument
upon of

is

by

alleged psycho-physical of the much complete. And

is based concealed

Monism

for

complete parallelism by
by
molecular the

misleading figures of speech analogy.

What is meant what

by the
motions
or

fect imperin the

cerebral of
centre

hemispheres;
neural the
processes

spreading,
centre to

ment, move-

from

cerebral

cerebral

along
of

what connecting association-tracts;

nerve-

by
of

cession suc-

local

commotions from
or

or

sequences

mitted trans-

nerve-commotions
"

centre

to centre

in the

brain,
What of
can

all this may

be

imagined,
the

at least

conjectured. (the only

But of consciousness
some

is meant
movement

by
is

succession

of conscious-states so-called stream

form

which known

have)
1

by direct

experience.

of the
37 f.

Compare

and Explanatory," "Psychology,Descriptive pp.

326

MONISM

AND

DUALISM

important characteristics
so

of the

two

kinds

of movement
common

are

totallyunlike,
time,
terms
"

even

as

respects their
it is absurd
even

category

of the

and

as

to space,

to

speak,
their of the is

"

that

parallelismand
seem

concomitance,
The whole

in
mass

stricter

meaning,
and in indeed

inappropriate.
entire
in
nervous

brain,

of the both

mechanism,
in time. The

ceaselessly
sequence
in
;

motion,

space

and

movement

of conscious

states

is often

abrupt, discontinuous

and which such and

it is
are as

always
selective of ends
some

determined

by purely psychical processes,

or

inseparable aspects
to be

factors

of

the

states,

"

attention, discriminating consciousness,

ideas of

gained by
than other

the retention of the

states

and

nation determi-

rather

in the mental

train. Yet of the

more

clear

does

the

inappropriateness of
concomitance
as

this

use

words

parallelismand
that,
not
so

appear,
one

when
two

it i3 considered series that any of terms

far

is

known,

of the
"

infrequentlydrops entirely out, periods

of of time.

and

for considerable

Moreover,

scarcely
and

general principle
is any attain
a

physiological psychology
certain than

psycho-physics
processes correlated
must

more

this,

"

the

nerve-

given degree of intensityin order

may

that
more

conscious for the

states

result strict

at

all.

Still is

puzzling
undoubted

theory
the

of

concomitance

the

fact that series

necessary

degree of intensity in the

with
as

physical
and in

apparently varies
upon sensation definite
amount

the well

same as

individual,

dependence
In the

psychical
and

physical

conditions preand

perception, imagination
cerebral processes

thinking,
attain
or no a

necessary of

must

certain

vigor and
emerges
a

insistence,as
in

it were, In

correlated
"

psychosis
it would of

consciousness.

deep sleep
view
a

if the
"

old-fashioned
seem

priori and
that there
states.

metaphysical
is sometimes Blessed
are

be

discarded

complete
that

cessation
can

all conscious and slumber

those

lie down

for

hours, and

then

MONISM

AND

DUALISM

327

wake But

as

though

their souls of

had

meanwhile

ceased

to

exist !

if,for the sake

running along parallelto

thinks of antic is and

the chemicoto

physical series
up
at

of events, the soul kind

it necessary

keep

least

some

grotesque performances
in

in dreams what
cases

while shall accident

the brain be
to

engaged
?

repairing its
of concomitance the
at

ture, struc-

said the

of the skull

theory
When series hours

in

of

patient, just place where

it be

trepanned, resumes
it
was

the broken

psychical
off
some

the

obviously
that has
some

before, must
the work ? of

held

other

disparate and

unremembered

psychical
the

series

been but not

running parallel with destroyed

the obscure of strict
to

oppressed
It
was

cerebral

substance

perhaps
of the led Professor enclosed in

feelingof

these

difficulties in

the way which words

sets

theory
the

parallelism or concomitance, qualifyhis

statement

Hdffding

by the
"The
two

parentheses (see p. 320).

be

of

phenomena
to

must
; so

unfolded for
a

simultaneously, each phenomenon

far
in the

according
world in the
reason

its laws

that is

every

of consciousness world
to

there

corresponding phenomenon
as

of

matter, and
that

conversely (so
life does included
cannot

there

is

suppose

conscious But who

is
not

correlated
see one

with here ?

material
are

phenomena)."
two sets

that

two

contradictorystatements
of

in

sentence

For
to

the be

phenomena

be unqualifiedly at

said the

unfolded

"simultaneously,"
for every

and

the

same

time

propositionthat
there is
a

phenomenon

in the world in
to to

of matter of in
"

corresponding phenomenon
be

the

world

sciousness con-

qualified according
Or does

the

phrase
that

the
responding cor-

parenthesis.

Hbffding
"

mean

imply

phenomenon
or

in

the consciousness of lower be assumed lack

we

of the Absolute,

perhaps
cord that

in

some

consciousness
ours,

ganglia and
as

spinal
with
states

is not

is to

parallel
? have

those
in

cerebral
stream

phenomena
and

that

corresponding
call
our own

that both

of consciousness monistic

Now,

Materialism

Spiritualism

328

MONISM

AND

DUALISM

ways

of

explaining

such

facts which

as

the

foregoing, that
of Monism
on

are can

vastlysuperior to anything
propose. materialistic
as

this form

Indeed, it is just these

phenomena
For it consciousness

which

the them
mere

hypothesis most
the
"

relies. of
are

points to
are

proof

that

phenomena
since here these

"epiphenomena;
brain, whenever
of other material

only phenomena analogies in

of

the

(and

various

the behavior

substances

might readilybe suggested) its

reach has

chemico-physical activities
intensity.
of

only
its

given

low

degree of
it

Spiritualism, too,
of mind of

own

appropriate way
does,

accounting for this class

existence both
a

of facts. which
as
an

Believing, as
it

in the

entity is capable of
can

producing
purposes

kinds

phenomena,
all
manner

freelyresort, for
and

of

explanation,to phenomena.
and be attributed it has

of unconscious

yet truly mental

Spiritualism can
"sub-conscious"
to

consistently
modifications that is

speak
and

of "subliminal"
to

states,

the

same

mind aside

scious, con-

whenever

temporarily laid
tenet

its function

of

being conscious.
But how shall the

metaphysical
the

of Monism

account

for such it has

in the law of parallelism, after strange interruptions itself

on

established

assumption
Let the
us

of

scientifically
to suggest

proved complete parallelism?

for its
use

be

permitted

something
one

like

following mythological body

nor

language.
as we

The

being, which
but

is neither

mind

know

them,

is of

totallyunknown
its choice of its

character,
of
sions occaa

nevertheless
on

feels somewhat
to manifest

particularin
both

which

aspects, or faces,in

strictlyconcomitant
show of the
a

way.
"

Sometimes, indeed, it prefers to namely,

have those cerebral
processes

only one
low

of the two, of the

degree
of
to

intensitythat
cerebral
itself in the

for their But

end, chiefly,
whenever of
a

repair
"

substance.

it

decides

manifest
a

physical "set

ena, phenomsomewhat manifest

with

in (albeit greater degree of intensity then it also decides

peculiar way),

concomitantly to

MONISM

AND

DUALISM

329

itself in the become Several

other

and
as

psychical "set
it
were.

of

phenomena,"

"

to

conscious,

puzzling, not
asked
assumes.

to

say this For

irreverent, questions might

unknown

pertinently be
monistic when the

about

being
how
a

which

the

theory
cerebral and

example,
has

does

it know tensity in-

manifestation character
to

attained
or

sufficient

correct

warrant,
in

make

necessary, ?

the does
to

corresponding
it leave
so

manifestation

consciousness
"

Why
mind
"

it to the manifestation
as

called

conscious

say

much,
the

it

certainlythinks
called mind
assume

itself to say, shall

go

ing concern-

what

preciseform
not to

of manifestation

be ?
so

And much and be

festation," mani-

why

should

the manifestation say

on, with
a

immodesty, willing,or
the monistic

greed, to
as

for itself should

as

real
never
"

controlling existence
even
or

mind

Why

it

able, to recognize itself

merely
one

"aspect," or "face," of metaphysics surely seem

this
answer

that be

realitywhich
? These until
a

asserts

to

its

ground
at

questions would
is

unanswerable,
may

least

it

suggested that
But this

unitary being
involves of
a

itself be

mind-

being.
the

the surrender

of the unintelligible in

hypothesis
two

strict and

temporal
also of character

concomitance the

sets
as

of

phenomena,
unknowable

metaphysical
common

conclusion

to the

of this

ground.

Perhaps, however,
as

the

word

parallelism must
the

be

preted inter-

meaning
between

an

respondence absolutely complete qualitativecor-

conscious side.

states

on case

one

side
term

and

brain-states

on
"

the other

In this

the

portional "pro-

might

be

accepted as
in the

somewhat passage

better

denning

the

real

meaning. by
the
two

But certain

already quoted
intends

(pp. 320 f.)it seems

different

that the author for he

something
the

words;

declares, "Both
the
to
an

parallelismand
consciousness bottom.
"

the and

between proportionality

activity of identityat
maintain

cerebral

activitypoint
seems,

Professor

Hoffding

to therefore,

330

MONISM

AXD

DUALISM

that

not
"

only

do

the two

series

of

phenomena
of
a

run

on

side

by
one

side,

except in the drops for

a

frequently recurring
time

cases

where
"

of the two also each the and

to

entirelyout
such of

existence,
way
as

but

that

they
series

vary
or

perpetually in
sequence its

to

make
to

individual,
one

individuals, belonging

have

exactly corresponding individual,

belonging ("proportionality"),
is to
say,

sequence the other there

of individuals series. is
"

That

for

every

brain-state,
state, or
to
a

"

B",

correspondent strictly If, therefore,we

conscious had

mind-state, M

Mn.

attained of
"

completed psycho-physicalscience, given any one of possible intervening brain-states infinite number
Bd
or

the say

B9

"

and Ma

to

find be

the
a

exactly corresponding
which
and

mind-

state, Md
one answer.

or

would

problem
brain

could
are,

have

only
of

Now,

since

both
to

mind both

although
consist

in

ways

quite peculiar
the of entire

themselves, history of

capable
would

development,
of two Such
to have

life's

each

series
a

correspondent phenomena. qualitatively

as

theory

this is

exceedingly captivating; it simplicitycoupled

it is scientific
a

seems

all the

charm

of extreme
as a

with

the
it

highest degree
not be

of value

explanation. theory ;
and
"

Let it may
"

however, forgotten,
without
upon

that

be

added

fear
an

of

successful
meagre

contradiction
amount

the

theory
when

is based facts.

extremely

of indisputable

It is

only

the science

of cerebral

physiology,
a.

investigatedby
science
any

itself in ways
most

appropriate to
in either the

chemicoand
or

physical
without

of the

highly complicated order,

theories

influence which

from
can

psychology
or even

metaphysics,

impart

knowledge,

reasonably conjecture, precisely what the brain-states But as yet even general nerve-physiology has had almost
success

are. no a

in

solving, in
an

truly scientific

fashion

(that is, as
istry chem-

problem making
and under electrical

appeal to recognized principlesin physics),the

behavior of
a

molecular

single nerve
that

stimulation.

Is it strange,

then,

the

332

MONISM

AND

DUALISM

even

though
But

it may it is land
a

often wide of

be

an

indirect
to say

"

relation

to each

other. this
narrow

jump,

not

from long flight, the

opinion

and

conjecture to
the

proud

heights of
And
we

the

principleof psychology
as

strict

psycho-physicalparallelism. partiallyexplored
and waste
ocean

decidedly object to binding

of
to

continent cerebral

the unknown
were

of
and

physiology

though they
halves of
one

but two

equal
to

perfectly symmetrical
Moreover,
that any
more

sphere.
seems

careful

analytic thinking
makes and the mind the
one

show
or

interpretationwhich
of brain tries to express

"parallelism"
of
terms
common

"proportionality"
that of which

quality, like
of space
or

principlein
Here the

time, is largelymeaningless. arguments

been
states

fallacy
that

of most

is not

difficult to
out

realize,although it has
It is assumed in be

scarcelyever
if conscious

pointed
may be

clearly.
as

known

variable may

intensity,
ing consideras a

quality,and
to

time-rate, and
under the
same

brain-states

conjectured

be variable the

then, by categories,
goes with
to

consciousness

which

all the

former it

sort

of

mysterious surplusage, so

speak (which
But

is,of
is

course,
may be

impossible to explain),the psycho-physicalprinciple

announced in
as

proved beyond doubt.

there
sort

there

no

consciousness that
may

general;
as a

is

no

simple

consciousness

be

regarded

of universal

"mind-stuff," to
of the brain-states

be differentiated with which it

according
is

to the varieties

correlated.

There

are

only
is

the but

actual
an

concrete

mental

states; and
for
are

consciousness

straction abwith
ever

dependent
these
states.
as

its the

origin
states

on

our

experience
On
;

Nor
are

of

consciousness

simple,

they

known
are more

in

self-consciousness.
or
"

the have

contrary, they always

many

less is meant

complex

they

factors,
"

if

by "factors

partialpsychical
all
to
"

processes.
the

Some

of these
"

so-called these
states

or factors, aspects, of

conscious

states

and

such known

as

are

necessary

there

being

any

conscious

to the

Self

at all

MONISM

AND

DUALISM

333

not but

only
it is

have
even

no

known

corresponding
activities is
to

cerebral could

activities,
be meant classes of

impossible to conjecturewhat
cerebral That for say,

by corresponding
mental mental and

certain

performances.
of

they
have any
most two
"

are no

uniquely
common

activities; and spiritual

an

they
with

even categories,

analogous sort,
least

of the

bral cere-

activities. fact whom of which M.

It is this
at

indisputableand
one

astounding
savants
"

influences

of the

to

Flournoy
This

refers

to deny the principle (see pp. 29 f.),

psychophysical parallelism in
it.

the

way
now

in which be

monism

states

general denial
if activities, would This

may

illustrated

by

few

of the many cerebral

appropriateparticulars.
it could
ever

The what
terms matter

be

known

precisely
statable in of so-called
as

they

are,

doubtless

all

be

found powers

of motion. enable into

is all that

the

it to
or

do, whether
as

it be

considered of

gated aggreor

masses,

acting in
; but

the form The

molecules,

as

atomic

action

within
to

the molecules.
move

material

world,

indeed, never
so

ceases

then

movement
are

exhausts, all, in the

to

speak, its capacity.

be described statement This
as

Material
as

changes
true

last in

analysis,to

changes of relative positions

as

space.

is

of

the

brain, when
chemicomatter.

considered

capable of being
as

made any

the other

subject of portion
within the of

physical science,
Ceaseless molecular

it is of and and atomic

movements

the mass, of
so-

nerve-commotions,
called

changes
and

under thermic

influence

chemical, electrical,
the series of cerebral

tute conditions, constiwith which

to

phenomena

the
run

activities

of consciousness

are

supposed, by monism,
is to and is all of

parallelor qualitatively physical

the
same

proportional. That
one

say,

the

"set

of

phenomena"
order.

essentially
the

fundamental

When,
other
nesSj
"

however,
of the

analytic
"

attention the

is

turned

upon

set

phenomena,
case

upon

activities
to

of consciousno means

with

them

is found

be

by

the

334

MONISM

AND

DUALISM

same.

The

developed psychical phenomena

to

are

always, on
different

the

contrary, found

be

of three with

fundamentally
For is

orders, although co-existent

and fact

varying degrees of intensity

the
a

complexity
to

in the

unity only
which

of consciousness. Self testifies

one

which

the

behavior
not

of the do

fold three-

fact; namely, remember,

to the

I sense, may be
or

perceive, imagine,
as

think main I

(all of
branch I

considered

ing belong-

of intellective

cognitiveactivities), Knowing
all
thing, some-

but

also

and feel,

act, strive,
and

or

will.

feeling somehow,
the such
same

doing somewhat,
conscious
as

belong

at

time may

to all full-orbed be

states; and

yet all
not

states

considered selective

unities

abstractlybut
the
to
one

reallyseparable by
consciousness
same

attention

within

stream

of the of

; and
as

they

must

all be referred

and

Ego

their and

subject, or

ground.

Now,

to

speak
of

this

three-sided
as

yet uniquely unitary*series

or

mental

phenomena
the all of

paralleledby, qualitatively
different
same

proportionalto,
which
able unwarrantare

fundamentally
and

series of brain-states

the essentially
even

order, is
use

to

make

an

meaningless
the variations

of terms. relative
"

Moreover,

in

intensity and
in the amount

plexity com-

of these total

psychical
which

functions

of the
so

consciousness
"

they respectively absorb,

related the
true
are

to

speak
in
or

do not
a

appear
as

to be

to the

cerebral of

processes

such

way

to

favor is

conception
that
no

parallelism
scientific
or

proportionality.
exists
as

It

definite

knowledge
concomitants

to what

the cerebral main has in

conditions

of the

three

different

orders almost
answer

of mental

phenomena.
that
can

Physiological psychology
called scientific
or

nothing
to

be What

to

say

the

question :
the

aspects,
are

of characteristics, those

the

cerebral

nerve-commotions
on

of representative
we

aspects which

side

of

consciousness of Will? their

call In the
tone

Intellect; what, of
case

Feeling; and
sensuous

what,

of

bodily

or

with feelings,

strong

of

pleasure or pain

MONISM

AND

DUALISM

335

however,
processes

it

seems

to be

variations

in the

of intensity has

nervous

which

psycho-physical science
When in the
a
"

to chiefly
"

take

into the account. stimulations

too

dynamo-genetic
way, and conscious

value
not

of the become
an

increases

certain

does

intense, the
of the

corresponding

states

develop

increase That

and intellective, affective, life of the

conative

activities.

is to say, the whole forms with here in of

mind, in all of its three

in the
"

fundamental of correlation

functioning,is expanded
increased

some

sort

intensity
word of

in

cerebral
a

processes.

But

the very the

"expansion

indicates
none

varietyof changes
which of

states to

consciousness,
or

of

preciselycorrespond
a or

extensive

intensive
seem

tudes magnino

physical sort, and

likeness whatever

some

of which

to bear

analogy
The

to such

magnitudes.
is established increase life becomes

important

point, furthermore,
as

by
in

experience, that, intensity beyond

more a

the

cerebral

activities conscious of
a

certain absorbed

degree, the
in

and

more

feeling

painful
and will

kind. the may

waves

Indeed, by exceedingly great and

sudden

increase

in

intensityof
of of
and

the

the brain-processes, almost

or

intellect

temporarily be

quite overwhelmed
here is
to be

with

huge
odd

painful feeling. Now, complicated relation

unsuggestive
How
use

certainly a
the

very

sort

expressed by
like the relation

simple, naive,
tionality. proporbe trated illus-

of words

parallelism and
is

complicated
And
as

might

by hosts of psycho-physical facts, if such

were

illustration

demanded.
states

what

is true
to

of the affective in

aspect of
is the the

conscious also true

related

variations conative
as

brain-states But

of the of of
on

intellective

and

aspects.

difficulties

the

general problem,

brought

before

principle
increased
seems

"psycho-physical parallelism," finding that

a

are

greatly
ties faculto express

each

of the
set

three

so-called

to demand

different which

of formulas
to not

the

varied

relations

in

it stands brain. And

the

chemicoso, but

physical performances

of the

only

336

MONISM

AND

DUALISM

the modern
a

theory (now,
of observation function
"

in its main and

established outlines, of the

on

firm

basis

experiment)
a

tion "localiza-

of cerebral

introduces

great variety of other

complications.
The the

facts,and

the

immediate
some

legitimate inferences
such statements
as

from

facts, then, warrant

:

ing the followof the and

All
are

variations

in the

chemico-physical processes
one

brain

substantiallyof
movements,
various with

order; they

are

atomic and With

molecular
over are

intensities differing
the cerebral the
areas.

ing extendthem three of

portions of
variations and

correlated

in

conscious

states

of

fundamentally different
which is

irreducible
to

orders, neither

wholly analogous (not

processes. be far it

say Each

like)to
of the

the

ing vary-

chemico-physical orders,so
to the
most
as can

psychical
all

spoken
follows

of
a

as

proportional at
the

cerebral

processes,
are

great variety of rules,

of which of these

wholly

unknown

; and

varying
enter

tions proporeach

as psychical activities,

they

into

complete
conscious

conscious
states.

state,are

very

different

for the different

Suppose, however, knowledge body

my
"

that

the

condition A

of

our

scientific human of

be

illustrated enemy
"

concretely.
forms
an

certain
on

that of my On the

image

the retinas

eyes.

physical side, diffusive

centres

nerve-commotions
a

in the so-called of

visual On

of the

brain, of

low

degree
extend

result. intensity,

the side of

consciousness,I perceive
then other

the external
over

object.

Similar

nerve-commotions

various

association-tracts;and
involved. has done

centres, possibly
that wrong.

somewhat is my the

distant, become
and that
an

I remember
me

this
On of in

enemy,

he

such of
a

physical side, auditorycentres

a

acoustic

wave,

low

degree
processes

now intensity,

effects the excitement of the cerebrum. insult into

a

of certain On the

the

psychicalside,
And now,
at

I hear once,

whispered leaps

from

my

enemy. different

the soul

markedly

characteristic

MONISM

AND

DUALISM

337

state

of

conscious
and

life; I become
of the
or

exceedingly

angry;

but

thoughts of duty
I decide fall upon it is to
to

self-respect immediately arise,and

anger

put down
man,

(or,if not, buy

a

I let it rage,

and
as

the

rush the with

off to sudden

pistol). Difficult
intense emotion

suppose

that pace

and

is

preceded, or kept
ness

and by the intensity instead follow of

as

extensiveitself the

of the

cerebral

commotions,
which in
our

being
its

excitant

of these
not to

commotions the

this result, For

inquiry is

point

present contention.
the

this contention

is to

the effect that

too

principleof psychophysical
and

parallelism proves
in the account

meagre such

unintelligible experiences.
; and

which

it

gives of

manifold

Where

it is
to

it is painfully intelligible, meagre

where full

it and

attempts

remedy
is

this

meagreness

by becoming

it definite, In

utterlyunintelligible.
words
as

brief, such

"parallelism," "concomitance,"
are

and "proportionality,"

the like

all taken

from the

relatively
same

simple They

relations

between

beings belonging to
the scientific

kind.
plexity com-

are,

therefore,not adapted to express

relations which

the infinite

of

study

of And

psychoif
one

physics
stretches make
to

and and

physiologicalpsychology
strains their obvious of for this infinitude

reveals.

meaning,
whose

in the
one

effort to

them in

cover

then relations,

begins
to

talk

figures of speech
to
a

interpretationan
the
or

appeal is
a

made

crude

psychology on
the

one

side, and
"

mythological physiology on frequentlyhappens

now were one
"

other;

else

as

quite

too

one

begins to

talk utter the

nonsense.

And

disposed to
"

maintain
one

tude attisceptical
own

toward
an one

Monism,
mock upon How

whether

be,

in one's
a

right,
"

Agnostic, a Materialist, a or Spiritualist, might

at this

Dualist, temple safely

sets

strange kind

of of

god, whose

is erected

the does

parallel walls
this

the

psycho-physical
its way its two of

principle. through
of

unitary being

find which

all the

complicated performances
22

proportional manifestations

perpetually demand

it ?

338

MONISM

AND

DUALISM

We

have
must

already noticed
have in

(p. 329)
the

the

which difficulty
at which

this

being
up itself

knowing
mind,
this
now

right time

to wake

the
as

suspended psychical series, and

a

begin
the

to

manifest

conscious But is the

parallel with
to

continuous

physical series.
with task. select the that which in

is slightindeed difficulty found be involved does and in it

compared
its

daily
to

Why,
a

psychical series,
form of manifestation in

habitually

three-fold form

yet cling

one-fold

of manifestation
if it receives
on

the

chemico-physical
laws of Nature
at

series?

Indeed,
the
terms
"

from

the

large
the

which

it must
and

manifest brain of
are,
as

itself in

the
to

physical series,
it manifest it receive itself any

since

body
in

belonging
"

chemico-physical order, parts

as

Nature,
way

why
at all ?

should Does of its

mind

three-fold of the

of the from

conditions

psychical form
them how

manifestation that the

the consciousness does which

of the

particularmind
all from the if it One
were once

it manifests Absolute

; or

it,perhaps, receive
would
to

Mind,

surely know
as a

Unknowable

Being ought
manifest
does to

behave this way

mind,
all ?

going
more,

to

itself in

at

And,
way

how

this
up

unitary being
such

know

the

right
forms

petually perthe

keep

infinitelyvaried
an

of

psychical manifestations,in
to

appropriate proportionality

the

variations ?

in To

intensityand
such all have

localityof
at

the

physical

manifestations

questions as
But and

these, Materialism,
least
some can

Spiritualism,and
at
an

Dualism
to

attempt

explanation
with the Monism
"

propose.

Monism

respond
wonder ticism, agnosas

only
that

agnostic negations
is forced
at

warnings.
into
a so

No

this of very

point

complete

into

confession

ignorance alleged

complete

to

render upon That

the unintelligible which the it is founded.

scientific

principle

principleof psycho-physical parallelism,or

is not

portionali proalso the

only

from its

the

first

inadequate
to

but

becomes

unintelligiblein

attempt

summarize

340

MONISM

AND

DUALISM

lelism adherents definite the

one

is

concerned.
to similar

Here

Professor

Hoffding,
be

and

all

doctrine, might well

asked

In what does tional proporfaith in

chemico-physical process
Being
to

of the brain-substance is

manifest
own a

that itself, conscious

parallelor
in any

the
"

monist's of such what

or

metaphysical changes
"

the
at

"

reality
And

being, or
or

indeed atomic the

real
are
"

being
the which let the

all ?

molecular

strict concomitant the monistic

of proportional such
at

Identity
? But

theory predicatesof
of
our

being
a

illustration level. It is
a

objectionsbegin

somewhat

more

vious ob-

plain psychological truth

of
a

that
are so

the

most

primary
in nature
no ceivable, con-

processes

reallyintellectual
as

life

unique
have

that, considered
not

intellectual

activities, they
And this

to say

actuallyknown,
processes. of human

parallelor qualitatively
truth
so

proportional cerebral
all the

appliesto
far
as

phenomena
become

consciousness, in
scientific

such For

phenomena
no

objects of
can

observation.

mental

phenomenon
mental other life it

be

an

object of knowledge
without that

for him
as

to whose

belongs
"

being known

such

and

no

phenomenon,
of

is, without
to

criminated being disstates in

assimilated,and
total
stream
as

related

other

the thus

consciousness.

Every
and

mind,

when

acting

discriminator,comparer,
to

relating agent, with

to

reference of
as

its

own

content, is certainlynot

be

thought
which

existing
does

and

acting apart
sit literally
or

from

the

very

life

consists Intellect

in the content not

discriminated, compared, and

aloft
and

related.
"

"preside
that

over as

the the his

sensation-content skilful eye is

a

the

ideas, classifying them

letters
come

"

mail-agent pitches the

the proper boxes
or

under

into

bags.

But

immanent

intellect rather

necessary

part, is the essential

active

aspect, or
state

essential

itself spiritualactivity
state

of every
an

ness, of consciousat

if such all. And

is to

be

made

object of knowledge
is the

this

which spiritualactivity,

fundamental

MONISM

AND

DUALISM

341

thing in
selective

all

knowledge,
and

involves

in its of

higher manifestations

attention, the
alive

feeling
you

(of being self-activity

of ideas and

mentally
and

doing, if

recognitive memory, will),

the mechanism
to

the conscious

adaptation of by callingone
"

of the ideo-motor What is meant

bodily apparatus
like
men
"

ends. practical in

chemico-physical process
"

the cerebral

substances

or
can

unlike

"

another,whether
in be

partially or
what precisely able what known

totally,all

understand, although
no consists, can man

features this likeness

say. All
or men

may

to satisfactorily

also of

understand

is meant
to

by

the likeness them.

unlikeness

psychoses
it is in
states

as

the

subject of
and

For, indeed,
unlike mental ends.

this that

immediate all

recognition of like and

knowledge begins
as

all argument
or

Considered

merely
may

respects their sensationbe allowed

to

one ideation-content,

perhaps
or

speak
like cerebral

of

like

psychoses being
processes. that is But

parallel
as or

proportional to
is meant

cerebral process

to

what

by
the

parallel
this is any

proportional to
to which

intellectual work of

activityof relating,as discriminating,

"

such,

to the self-conscious
we

something
clear To avoid
at

find it

quite impossible to

attach

conception.

misunderstandings,
"

so

frequent

and

gross
to

are

they

just
of

this

point,
"

let the

problem proposed
be of the

the

advocates

exact

psycho-physical parallelism
The

kept

steadilyin

mind.

complete inadequacy
resolve weaker all

logical psycho-

theory which
into sensations associated under be and

would revived

mental of

phenomena

images
of

past sensations
confessed. this twice-

certain
to

alleged laws
both and

contrast, similarity,
and

etc., may
The dead into
recent

said

be

demonstrated others and methods from will

attempt

of Ziehen

to revive

theory of
its few

the mind's

nature

activities

by injecting
medical

veins, according to drops

of red

the

of modern the

science,a
known
as

blood

vigorous infant
no

physiologicalpsychology,

succeed

better

342

MONISM

AND

DUALISM

than form
more was

the earlier of the

remote

unscientific

attempts.

Indeed,
worse

the

modern it is far

theory must
from any

inevitablyfare
and and
or

; for

indubitable

well-known

facts than of
a

the

English

Sensationalism One
one

Associationalism

generation ago. "apperception;"

of words for

may may but

approve

disapprove of
be

the term

adopt
one

or

rejectany particularview
not

"apperception;"
mere

should
"

deceived when laws.

into these

taking
words What is not

for

realities, especially not,

instead for of known facts and

stand
must

myths

be accounted

by every

psychologicaltheory
occur

simply

the fact that mental

phenomena
of

in series time-

having

variable may with

qualities,quantities,time-rate,and
be conceived
as

order, which

paralleled by

cerebral

phenomena
is the like Even
or

proportionatelyvarying qualities,quantities,
time-order. this other What
must

time-rate, and

be accounted
own

for
to
own.

fact that I know

unlike
some

thing,or thing, or

state, of my
other
state
a

be

of

my

the

simplest consciousness
the
mere

is of similarity

far different

fact from

existence

of similar
"

processes,

physical or
it were, of in

psychical,plus consciousness,
the

thrown

in,

as

lump.

And

the

developed complex knowledge

course,
a

things
affair.

like and

unlike the

is, of

yet

more

complicated
like that and made

Let, then,
run on

chemico-physical
admission

processes, be

unlike,

forever; let the

a

ness consciousto

is

general phenomenon
let the further
are

incomparable wholly
that

these

processes;
states

discovery be made (when

different
content-

of conciousness and with and

some

regarded simply

wise

respect to quality,quantity,and
of revived
sort to

time-rate

of

sensations in

images of past sensations) tional proporthese processes,

as
"
"

and the

is then

the

consciousness

of it

considered similarity,

unique

mental
"

activitytha,t
these processes

is, to
? On

be

spoken
such
or

of

as no

proportional
can

to

the what
mean;

contrary,
an

one

form

the

slightestconception of proportionality might

applicationof
that

the term could be

of the terms

MONISM

AND

DUALISM

343

employed
variation

to

make

a intelligible

law

of

the

proportional
if
some

in the two

kinds

of

phenomena,
of the

even

luckyhimself

investigatorin
to have

cerebral

physiology
nature

should

suppose

discovered

the exact

requisitecerebral
and of the

changes.
What elaborate memory; has been said of both the

primary
true

more

processes for this

of intellection mental and

holds

recognitive
these lective intel-

achievement also there that

involves

processes,

contains Here

something
are

unique and aspects

of
or as

belonging to
factors of

itself.

again
states

certain
be

the

conscious

may

spoken

having
the tends in of

their

correlates The

in the

chemico-physical
of ideation of similar

processes

of

brain.
to show

psycho-physics
recurrence

undoubtedly
ideas the

that the

associated

consciousness similar neural their

to

is somehow processes

dependent
in the The in
upon

upon

recurrence

same

cerebral

areas,
member, re-

including
than others
"

association-tracts. and
to

disposition to
certain
"

imagine,
is somehow have
been

think

ways

rather tions associarelated

to them.

dependent
established

dynamical
different

which

between

neural And
on

elements, and
one

upon

the functions,
measure

belonging
our

if this

fills up

the scant
a

of of

valid

inferences
may

subjectwith
render

liberal

amount

conjecture,one
of the term
recurrent
"

perhaps

the meaning intelligible

"

physical psychosimilar

parallelism
in far

as

existing between
the train

in series,and brain-processes

of associated such. whole of But

images
this is

consciousness, considered
indeed from For

merely
for the

as

accounting
I remember
as

recognitive
know
as

memory. the past the

same

what

I recognitively
to my

in

of time, and Self

not

belonging
now am.

past, to the past of

memory,

that

This

therefore,
Timeof

involves

only

ideation

and

but comparing activity, of

consciousness, consciousness

Self, and
use

consciousness

Self-Identity. Here
in the confessional

again
of the

"

to

the

language employed
even
"

rankest

materialism

we

344

MONISM

AND

DUALISM

have enable shall

not
us

as

yet the
conceive

"

rudimentary
of in

"

organ

which processes

would that

to

chemico-physical
a

vary

or proportionately,

form

of

qualitativeparallelism,
Here

with

these face
even

forms face

of with

consciousness.

again,

then,
that be

we

are

to

unique spiritual activities

in
an

cannot,

and figuratively

analogical
and

way,

correlated does the of

not

with

activities man's

of brain

molecules
a

atoms. to the

Thus

plain
the

memory of

propose

problem

advocate which

principle
cannot

psycho-physical parallelism
but all.
cannot
even

only

be his series of

answered,
science of
at

be

brought
more

into
a

terms

of

For

something
a

than

definite addendum

with ideation-processes, here

vague its

general

consciousness, is
forms of that

seeking

proportional, its parallel,chemico-physical

and

processes;
are

special, unique,

incomparable

life spiritual have

no

with demanding recognition,

or

problems
been
l

parallel
in this of

proportionalin
But

any
"

physical processes.
has

knowledge

as

repeatedly urged
from the all the The

treatise, and

shown
"

elsewhere involves call mind. into the

standpoint
of

psychologicalscience belonging to
cannot

developed
unknown

activities

what

we

mystery
of
an

knowledge
being
of

be

resolved

mystery

manifesting itself
and enforce
treatment

in two

paralleland
To

proportional series
make this denial
a

utterlyincomparable phenomena.
to

clear

it

appropriatelywould
of the that

require knowledge.

detailed It
must

critical suffice at of with

any

theory
the

of

present
exact true cannot

to say

position taken
and
not

cates by the advo-

an

psycho-physicalparallelismis incompatible theory

even

of

knowledge;
in
terms

only

so,

the the

position

be stated

consistent

with

fundamental In

postulatesof knowledge. parallelism is

far from

-then, the alleged scientific principle of psychobrief, physical

being

the

self-evident

con-

See

"Psychology, Descriptive and

Explanatory," passim-,and

especially

chap. xxii.

MONISM

AND

DUALISM

345

elusion often

of and
so

modern

psycho-physical research
to be.

which

it is

so

rashly assumedthe the concomitant

Even the

the

tions simplest relaorder

are

between

phenomena
and

of

lowest

of

sciousness con-

and

cerebral

activities
to

far too

fluctuating, complicated,
under this

changeable
in connection. broken

be

subsumed
we

principle.
is

Of

parallelism

space Of

cannot

speak appropriately in
time when there
one

this

parallelism in analogy.
of
a

only

an

incomplete and
out

And
plete com-

tries

to think

clearlythe conception
finds the

qualitativeparallelism, one ending

absurd. be in Scores in

principle soon

inadequacy, and finally becoming

order

unintelligible or
appear express
to

of different complicatedformulas
even

necessary

very
so

imperfectly to

the

varied infinitely in both

sets

relations upon
"

"

subtile,and delicate,

able changemind. should

as

dependence
of

conditions between this

perpetually arising in
the

phenomena
its of

body

and

the law

Suppose, however,
curb finally that the
as a

that

alleged
could

scientific
some

pride and

put itself into

take

such

shape
not

the

eye

understanding
It

in its would

outline, still
follow

metaphysical theory called

matter
as

"Monism"

of

course.

is

by

no

means

self-evident from
sets

argument,
"the

Professor and
an

Hoffding

seems

to

assume, two
"

parallelism
"

proportionality of identityof being

and
sets

the bottom.

of the

phenomena
to

to
more

"

at

On

contrary, the
seem

obvious the
two

inference intelligible

would

lead

from however

of admittedly incomparable
may
run

phenomena,
of entities

parallel they
in
some

and
to

however
two

proportionalthey
as

may

respects appear, Or, in

at all
case

kinds

their

ground.
conserved

the
us

principle of
turn

parcimony
materialists

is to be
or

risks, let
one

either kind
sets
on

and spiritualists, work necessary this would

to

make

known the
two

of of the

being

do

the

produce
either

phenomena.
one

But
to

lead
or

to Dualism

hand,

or

Materialism
is the

Spiritualism on
most

the

other.

And, indeed,

Monism

wasteful

possible form

346

MONISM

AND

DUALISM

of

metaphysical theory for Body

to
we assume

the relations mind

we

between
; and
a

body
if
we

and
are

mind.

know, and
any real

know

compelled ground
and

being
we

to furnish
can

metaphysical
one

for

the

phenomena,
kind of
sort not
one so

then

afford

kind unknown ?

of

being for each

unknowable
are

phenomena.
of

But

this third
it here

being,

what

does

If the

phenomena
be

incomparable reality as
the its so-called and Monism But

that

they cannot
and the

properly
our

referred lies
; and

to

manifestation, then

choice mind
out third

between

body
has if the

so-called

thus

materialism

spiritualismmust
no

fight it
as a

between

themselves.

standing
either the the

metaphysical theory.
of the two
or

incomparable

acter charrialistic mate-

sets

of

phenomena
for the

forbids

the would

hypothesis, then spiritualistic

seem

dualistic the
as a

hypothesis
Monism

time
no

to

hold d'etre

field. rival

again, however, has then

raison

metaphysical theory.
Nor
can

it be

said

on

valid

grounds
with do

of

general
nice

physics meta-

that two for

mind
we
are

beings which
at bottom
to
"

behave

such the

regard
and the
; unless

the

as principle of proportionality

body
being

must

be

"

one

and

the

same

prepared
in

admit

that all

particularbeings, by
connected
at

virtue

of the

general fact
behave

of their them
a

being
all.

all, imply the

Unity always
with

Reality of
with

Oxygen regard
into

atoms, for example,

for the

strict

principle

of

proportionality,when hydrogen
in their
atoms.

they
But

come

chemical follow

relations another relations with

oxygen

atoms

formula with
carbon

behavior and

under
so,

similar still

chemical

nitrogen atoms;
atoms.

another

formula

Indeed, it
varied atomic

is the

general principleof proportionality,

izes characterstructure

with all the all

particularformulas, which
relations,and
in terms
assumes so

rules

the

of And

things as

considered science of

of the atomic that of there

are one

theory.
about
"

yet chemical
different kinds

seventy
bottom
"

atoms, instead

only

at

348

MONISM

AND

DUALISM

called which

* principleof identity
our

marks

the extreme
pass.

limit

beyond
and

comprehension
be

cannot

This

principle cannot
and ends

itself becomes made.

to pass

proved; only
as

for the

all

proof begins
of
to
or

valid

assumption
to

this

principle is
it

Indeed, the very attempt

it under critical into

question this principle,

review,
more

explain
and all these

what

means

by resolving it
is absurd and of of

something
"

simple

fundamental,
respects
the
"

self-contradictory.In identity
differs
reason

the

principle
"

totally from
"

so-called of been which

principle
for
with

sufficient

(of the
has of

nature

enough
and

our

present
the

purpose

already
is

said,

which

principle

identity

sometimes

compared).
Without further

descriptionand
a

limitation, however,
abstract

the

principle of identity is
when announced
as

purely
barest

principle.
A A

Even

with formulas it is the "A

the

possibleamount logic,
"

of limitation,
;

in the non-A
to
"

of formal assumed

and

A the

not terms

that is

experience
must

defines

which

principle
is A"

concretely applied.
be

Even
about
; and

in

affirming that particularA

what the A

something
as

known

what also
cannot

stands

subject of
as

the

affirmation
"

employed

predicate is, reallyis,or

the

otherwise
same

it
as

be said whether
;

this A

is not, the

that A the

or, in

other

words, whether
the self -same

being designated by
as

letter A

reallyis

being

known

in

two

successive

experiences within
or

the constant there form

flow of the stream

two

of consciousness,

whether under
a

reallyare
of

very

ilar sim-

beings related Now, imagine

it would
"

the

judgment.
"

be

most

interestingand
of similar

we

venture to

to

most

puzzling inquiry to
a

address form

Professor

Hoffding, and
What which
1

to all advocates

of Monism:
a

do

you

reallymean body
is
nor

by affirming"identity" of mind,
in the

being
of

is not
what

but

is the
"

common

ground
to

Compare
f.

said

author's

Introduction

Philosophy,"

pp. 205

MONISM

AND

DUALISM

349

both, and yet is of nothing less than

the

nature

unknown
be

and

unknowable The
sets

? in

Surely
which is

this
source one

can

meant:

being
of with

ground
changes

or

real
ever

of the two and the

phenomena

found all the

remains

self-same

amid itself, But

in the

forms
at
once

of its two-fold
:

manifestation. is

reply is ready
with

Such

declaration it somehow

less meaningbe

regard to talking. unity

of

any

realityunless
kind the
be at

known,
which

or

at

least is
the

assumed, what
As
to may

of

realityit
of the
to

is about

one

meaning

self-sameness

and

which

attributed

mind,

we

have

already explained ourselves

and these has every knows
a

length (chaptersV. and

contrast

VI.);
which

by way
words also

comparison
indicated.

and

the
to

meaning
be

must

bear, when

applied
it

physical realities,
to
as identical,

been

What

is

self-conscious, remembering, and

itself to

self-reflective What
or a

mind

be, is then
"

perfectly clear. example,

an

it is for
mass

physical reality
"

as, for

atom

of
one

matter

to

be

identical
to

is

clear; relatively
into terms

but

only

if

may

be

allowed words

back interpret which

to
are

of self-conscious
in
a

experience
way
a we

always employed things.

nor

figurative
it is for which
be

when

applied
know
"

material mind
cannot
one

But and what

what

being
do

that

is neither and remain

can

matter,
as

about it
"

not

know and

to

is, to
no

identical,

to

the

self-same,
about
use

ception con-

whatever the monistic

be formed.

Indeed,

such

being
like

theory has absolutelyno

and

right to

words

"identity," "oneness,"
With

"self-sameness."

"Identical!" this With either with

to

what, indeed, is this

of the
must

X,

this

totally Unknown,
identical ? identical the with
same

unitary being
itself ?
matter

psychological monist,
so, since

This
or

be

it is not
a

mind. such
same

But

how have

can
no

being remain
of
a

its

Self,if
the

being
?

kind

Self,with
monism its X

which

remain
we are

This

inquiry forces
that do

of the stands
"

type
no

to criticising
can

the admission

for

realitywhich

be

anything

or

anything,

not

to say,

350

MONISM

AND

DUALISM

perform
series of

all the wonderful itself

and

complicated functions
two

of manifesting

appropriatelyin
Its

parallelbut incomparable
a

phenomena.

is identity-being

ically barren, aesthetnon-existent "the death-

and

ethicallyworthless, inefficient
at
once

and into

abstraction; let it be

tossed

over

kingdom
The is and

of abstract

thought."
the consideration be very in the of kinds of

moment,
as

however,
it must the

being
old

introduced,

interests

of the

reality

applicabilityof
over

word

the identity itself, the

puzzle
and of

the debate mind

incomparability of
as

phenomena again.
of For
"

recurs;

all the

to the

true

metaphysics
over

of the relations human

body and

must

be gone

with kinds of

knowledge
and take
to

comprehends
and the between
more

only

two

beings,

mind,
must

things;
its choice be
no

metaphysics
the two. than
some

psycho-physics
is to say,

That
an a

If this X

is

anything reality,
"

merely
kind of the

X real

(a letter that stands

for

and

being
its

it must

be, in
X

order
must cannot asserts

to be

declared for

one

and

same or

with

Self),then being.
which

stand

either

mind-being
two.

material which

You

identify the
with and the
most

The

formula

experience
is in
;

irresistible in all

conviction, and

assumed

demanded of

and empirical investigation, this: Mind is

not

all statement mind is not

to
;

is empirical results, with

matter

identical

body
of A

or

brain, for body

"

and

brain
matter

belong
(A is A

another and B

species
is B
;

being,
is not

to

so-called The

but

B).

bility incomparaof the

of the whose the

phenomena
are.

forbids

identification

beings

phenomena "unity

And, indeed, the

"self-sameness" mind and
to

very
are or

meanings

of the words when different, The monistic

"and

specifically
brain. mind and taken mis-

applied to theory of

body
in

the relations itself upon

"

realityof

body begins by founding

an

inadequate and

empirical generalization,
it builds

the so-called this insecure is

as

principleof
foundation

psycho-physicalparallelism. Upon
up
a

metaphysics

which

and unintelligible

MONISM
.

AND

DUALISM

351

even

absurd

as

it is unwarranted

by

its

alleged foundation
of

in fact. We view view return, then, to the speculative has the

Dualism,
To

as rize summa-

this

already been
arguments
in

explained
its

and

defended. dualistic for the

behalf,the

theory

is the

metaphysics popular and only justifiable

who wishes
to

investigator
the the

confine

himself mental

as

closelyas phenomena

possibleto
or

scientific of the and

study

of either

ena phenom-

physical sciences.
conclusion of
a

It is also the critical of

our

only intelligible
mind.

defensible

metaphysics as applied
and

to the

study
we

of the real relations indicate of mind which

body
the

Before,
the

however,

again
lead

how

into investigations

metaphysics
from and also how

out

into

general

field of
so

losophy phi-

they
prove

have the

themselves absolute

borrowed

much,
a more

they

truthfulness

of

and intelligible examine briefly

to have

defensible certain

form

of monistic may

we doctrine,

shall

which objections

not

seem

already
real
to

been

removed. sufficiently dualistic mind view have of the reference the

The

ordinary objectionsto the

between the

relations certain

body
this

and

the and

conceptions of
to criticise

the nature

applicationof
for their view

ciple prin-

of causation.
are

On

point the opponents allegedsubstances

the

of Dualism

wont
"

its adherents

respecting
; and

the

interaction" is

of these two

to this

criticism the

generally added
view with To the

of reconciling impossibility the sistence per-

dualistic

physical principle of
up

of energy. would entire another

our

clear and

completely
such that
on

this

obscurity
of the

require a thorough
branch of

comprehensive
which

criticism

principleof causation,and philosophy than

A few words attention. discussion

criticism is

belongs to
now

ing engagaddition

this

point, in

to

the

already given
suffice.
"

in

earlier

chapters (see

pp. 210 ".), must The

to

word

"

interaction
one

may

be used

appropriately enough

under describe,

term, all relations in realitybetween

352 the

MONISM

AND

DUALISM

body
as

and

the

mind, if only clear

of the word

and

consistent and

tions concep-

to the

meaning

be formed that

maintained.

Indeed, this is the only single word

in
a

appropriatelycovers
What

general
wishes

way,
to

these know

relations.

psychological precise character

the formulas classes. main

science of the

is, of
number

course,

the

indefinitely great comprehend

interaction brain energy into from and

of

relations, and
different

that
An

express

their
no

intelligent investigator by
word the
some

means

understands of

by
energy of

the from

actual

influx
or,

physical

the

mind;

conversely, a
the brain.

return

psychical
it is

the mind which

upon

But, then,
critical metaphysics

nothing
such

of this sort

and intelligent any form of of

as

intends whether between different between

by

admitting
be
or

interaction, taking place

or

interaction
masses

conceived

different

molecules

of matter,

between

psychoses psychoses
upon this like

in the stream
as

of consciousness; of

or,

again,

activities other well

mind,

on

the

one

side, and
of interaction

brain-states

the may

side. be

Crude

notions

left to
use

those in

physicists who
own

despise metaphysics, for

For those who it have the

exclusive

their

realm. critical list of of

as

slightest acquaintance
be said
terms

with

metaphysics conceptions energy," though

the and

scarcely need
understand

that

the whole

which

like

"transition of

"conservation
were an

and

correlation from What

energy,"
is meant
x

energy active

entityseparable
is
two

concrete

active

things or

minds,
of any the

quite absurd.
of and the

by

interaction
"

beings (for example,

x

and

y)

is

simply this,
related
at

action

action the

of y

are

ency dependceivably con-

in

such

manner

that
in terms

relation law

may,
or

least,be stated
x

of in
a

some

formula. then
a as

More
a

concretely,when
of fact y and

behaves
or

certain

way, in

matter
;

behaves,

has

just behaved,
we
x

certain
or

way

conversely.
in the

Therefore of both

say, and
y

the is

reason

explanation of found,
each

the behavior

to partially

be
a

one,

behavior

of the

other.

But

such

MONISM

AND

DUALISM

353

reason

or

explanation

is

never

more even

than

partial.

For

partiallyalso, and
the be

or often chiefly

almost
two

exclusively, beings is
mode
to

explanation of
that

the interaction "nature"

of

every

found

in the so-called

of the beings which

a

act; inter-

is,the interaction
has
no

is recognizedas itself the

of

behavior

which

than further explanation

self-activity beings equally taking

of

of the beingswhich
The which
is

interact.
between

mystery of that real relation

different is

designated by
and which

all terms

of interaction be the kinds of

fundamental
or

great, whatever
the tell

tween beings beas

among

interaction
us

is conceived

place. Only experience beings interaction

can

can

between

what

kinds

at

all is for

possible ; only scientific inquiry

terms

set the formulas

the stating
one

of such

interaction,

if it exist at all. that unlike

Shall

affirm,in loftya priorifashion,

But the entire modern upon of the fact

beings cannot

interact ? the world

chemico-physical theory of
that
some

is built

seventy fundamentally different kinds

interaction under
an

beings,
ally actu-

by

their constant and constitute

infinite

varietyof

cumstances cir-

according to
the
be

innumerable

formulas, do
this of

of things. reality conceived of

as a

Shall kind

interaction

between

atoms

sition physical tranor as

requiring contact
a

of atom

with

atom,

involving
which it

continuity in place ?
of

the

physical
the
ever

substratum

within

takes fact what

Then

present and
the of the

utterlymysterious
And

gravitation contradicts
any advocate and between of two

assumption.
monistic
as

by

right does

theory of the
to the

relations

body unique
the

mind

dogmatize
That

sibility imposis.

such of and

unlike

beings actuallyexisting together

can

under That

terms

interaction?
even

be which

the

sun

earth, and
medium

the remotest

fixed stars,
to

without each

any

known in
an

between

them, pay attention

way; that of the

other
atoms

indefinitely complicated
enter

the prothis

various

which

into

the constitution

tagon of the human

brain

conspire together to produce

23

354

MONISM

AND

DUALISM

primary
with whit the
as

substance

which
as

(even according
manifestation of
"

to

the

monistic

hypothesis)serves

the of

realitycorrelated
all this mind is every

phenomena

consciousness, body
and

mysterious as
in
a

the fact that

constantly

interact On with grows the the

great varietyof ways.

of Dualism hand, the alleged incompatibility of the

other

physical principle
of the
same

persistence of

energy

out

crude and

metaphysics, with
its
over

its misleading

figures of speech
Need this

unwarrantable

dogmatism.
Let

ground
it

be

gone

yet again ?
to

physical
of

science, as approximate
masses

advances, continue
mathematical

reduce the these

to

manageable,
maintain it generalize

formulas
when each

interactions
masses

in very its

quantitative way,
relations within with the
at

only
make

simple

other. of such

Let

triumphs
supreme then let and

sphere
a

and relations,
to

one

attempt
it call

formula formula
"

common

them
"

all ; and

this

by the
With
in

title

the

conservation
to those

correlation

of energy.

respect

even

and qualities the different and

changes qualitative
senses

material

things
to

which the say;

take

account

of, this principleof

has

conservation
upon
our

correlation with

of the

energy

nothing

experience
no

physical world, qualitatively

to

considered, it has
even

light whatever
of and As

throw.

And

within

the

sphere

of relations

quantity,the phenomena
of has

of molecular
at

physics, of chemistry,
overtax

livingorganisms already been

of the the off it ent differ-

present far
can as

its powers.
no

said, it
behavior action is from

yet give

adequate

explanation
far indefinitely of the

of the

simplest muscle-nerve
current.

preparation under

of the electrical

How

explaining
of the Would
are more

the

quantitativerelations
well, then,
in the it to
to wait

elements conceive.

brain-mass, it is scarcely possible to

be until umphs its tri-

it not

nearly complete
before before
we we
"

grosser
"

portions of
to

the the

physical sphere psychic half,

"

allow

pull the pall over

its
name con-

venture

in

CHAPTER

XI

ORIGIN

AND

PERMANENCE

OP

MIND

IT
which If at

has

been

our

intention
to

thus

far
in

to

keep metaphysical empirical

of mental has the science life. seemed

discussion describes
any

close and the wide

its basis the

that

explains

phenomena
this

time
too

departure
for
or a

from

basis with
a

somewhat

leap commensurate,
to amount to

strength
"

of the human wide" of

mind,

even

flightin
wish

regions

"thin

air," it
in facts

has

still been
to

our

frequently
to

to descend

again
the

obedience in

the the other

call of

science, and

survey

anew

which In

speculative points
words, the
of mind
in the constant

of

starting should
aim of has
been to
"

always ground

lie.
a

metaphysics
from

science
and

psychology,

borrowing

general metaphysics

from
as

physical and
seem

physiologicalscience only such

to

conclusions ency consist-

might
to
our

necessary

give completeness and

be of

conclusions. and

It should faiths

remembered,
all human

however,
nature
are

that

the

naive

instinctive

also facts ; and is rather the

these

facts cannot of critical

so

safely be disregarded. metaphysics

as

It
alytically an-

business

to consider

such them with

one

faiths, and
another science.
a

far

possible to
other facts

harmonize and laws of

and

with

the

psychological
as we

It is claim

by pursuing this
has been

course

that,
for
our

trust,

valid

established

metaphysical
Certain
or

views. which
cannot

problems remain, however,

even

be

cussed, disthe

approached

for

presentation, in quite

ORIGIN

AND

PERMANENCE

OF

MIND

357

same

way. their

They
close

are

now

to be

considered,chieflybecause
the their

of

connection examined. be
to

with For of
in

problems
solution
a case
" "

which
so

have far
as

already
solution

been
can

spoken
be taken

such

they require
that

large
the

account

of considerations
to

belong

to

philosophy of Nature,
to the

the

metaphysics
After be

of ethics

and

of art, and and

to

philosophy of religion.
in this

being
handed
to

raised
over

touched these

upon

they treatise, philosophy,

some
"

may

other

domains with

of

perhaps
time. the called and how
are

be

met

and

grappled
came
"

there, at
this does

future is

Whence Mind ?

being
it go,

which
or

"Human

Where

where
to

exist

(ifat
tions relaforms is the

when all),

its present ? Where and

relations what is

the

body

terminated these

by

death
are

it,even

before

terminated, when
it

all conscious

or activities,

of its

manifestation,have temporarily ceased holds, the particularset

that
an

What

place which
form

of functions of

which
men

it

exercises, in vaguely
a

vast

System fancy, and

of

Things

which

abstract their all

conception, and

to which

they give
awe

name,

pleasing
and ?

perhaps exciting
man's mind and

in
a

themselves

in What

beholders, by beginning place of

in their

it with in Nature

capitalletter
These with
are

is the
vast

questions so
to

import
to which to

many-sided

respect

the

considerations
no

they directlyor inquiriesas

the mind.

indirectly lead, simply

to

that

appeal

psychological science they

are

will

at

all

satisfythem.
their life. are,

Yet

the

origin, nature, destiny,and

of significance
as

have They all, therefore, the what arise.

roots,
Were such

questions merely, in
these

phenomena
Crows

of mental

phenomena
would

not

they undoubtedly
do not branches sit

questions
meet

never

or solitary

in

companies
over

upon

the withered

of forest-trees to meditate

similar

problems raised
Nor that do
our

by
hunt

the

phenomena
with when

of animal beloved

consciousness. the

most

and intelligent
us

comrades,

dogs

walk

and

living, and

sometimes

358

ORIGIN

AND

PERMANENCE

OF

MIND

grieve
or

over

our

graves
own

when dreams

dead, disturb
in
a

their

occupations
interest

interprettheir problems
To
be
more

way

to

signifyan

in

like these.

questions as precise,
of the human

to the

origin,continuance,
as

and value

destiny
in
a

mind,
a

and

to

its

place

and

world-system, have originatein

about itself. issue in

psychological origin. They

of the mind The solution which which raises

themselves such

the nature

inquiries

they

receive, unless

they
the

totallyvain

must speculation,

be, if not given or suggested by psychology, at least shaped in

accordance conclusions The with

facts,laws, and
the

legitimatemetaphysical
is, like all similar
; it may

of this science.

inquiry after
to be
an

Origin

of Mind

liable inquiries, be answered

way

quite misunderstood
even

therefore

in

or unsatisfactory,

and unintelligible

absurd,

through

the

use

of I

inapplicable analogies or
come

figuresof speech.
may

Whence the

did

The

reflective
to raise

Ego
this

certainlyattain
This in the is

development
comes

necessary the mind

inquiry intelligently.Whence
man?
a

of
"

every cially espe-

question with
form in which itself. from

which

metaphysics
in
terms

crude

it is found The

theological question
with the

circles
are,

"

naturallybusies
course,

of this

of

derived in

human

experience
which
not
come

passage
at any

of

things

space.
"

Every thing, #,
b, or
c,
"

appears

place, particular
noted

a,

having previously
from
can

been

there, must
it
a,
an
m

of
an n

course or

have
a

some

other

place, be
found
at

or
c

p.

No

thing

be from

newly
some

6,

or as

that
m

has
n

not

arrived In the

there

"whence,"
this is
as

such
true
as

or

or

p.

popular
fall which
no

confidence eye has

of

the

meteorolite,whose
familiar has
stone

witnessed,
the

it is of the of
a

has moved

marked
some

boundaries

and field, the owner's

recentlybeen
with
same

"whither" The

because

territoryhas been
the

enlarged. metaphysics
however,

plain man,

who

is

unacquainted
not

of modern

physics,does

feel in the

way,

ORIGIN

AND

PERMANENCE

OF

MIND

359

about

the

new as

tree vacant

which

he

discovers

in

the

spot that he

remembers in
was

in his

boyhood days.
by the wind

Its appearance
a

this

place is
In

accounted years the

for
ago

by his being told that

or

seed

planted

there

by

some

human
an

hand.
a

spite of

attempt in certain quarters

of

to make

priori principle out

the

the

persistence of matter,
of
an

and

in

spite of
such truth

of conceiving alleged impossibility of

lute abso-

beginning
a

things, the
feel

average such
not
a

mind
an

does

not

nize recogThe

principle,or
this

impossibility.
all ; be
nor

is that

principleis

prioriat
any
x

is the

impossibility absolute.
of
as a

If, then,
a

may

conceived also
come

growth,
of from
as

albeit
new or

physical growth,
at
n or

it may

be

conceived thither

being
m

a,

b, or
p.

without

having

some

Strange to tell, however,

it
so

the
in

popular imagination, although

some

recognizes the
more

mind in

as

sort

development (and analogous

of
a

nearly,
of
a

respect of its presence,

than
to the
as

to

the

growth
made
at
some

tree

passage

in space
some or

stone),

prefersto
and
or

conceive to enter

of it the

transported from
either
two. at birth

other
at

place
this

body,

conception,
for

time

between very

the
nature

The

reasons

preference lie
of the observed of the

in the

of

self-consciousness, and
activities their
to the
ments move-

relations

of conscious

body,

as

necessitatingfor
of That

genesis and
and certain

expression however,
these
a

certain

figurative ways
the

thinking
critical mind the and
true

corresponding figuresof speech.

which

metaphysics,
the nature

lays bare
to

realityof
the

of its real

relations

the
as

body shows

meaning
them
to

of in the

conceptions as
way. Whence nowhere space, in space. In

well
terms

absurdity of taking
the ?

literal

of space, the mind

only
must
as

answer

question,
comes

comes

be, The

mind is

from
now

; for it never

was,

mind, in space,
of
as

not

in

and

it cannot

be conceived

coming
to

and

going
answer

The

just given

must

not

in itself be understood

360

ORIGIN

AND

PERMANENCE

OF

MIND

the

prejudiceof
be

the

doctrine

of
now

transmigration existing.
meaning
them
to

of

souls, or
shows

of the what in

immortality of the souls

must

It

only
true

held

to be the

real

of these
be

doctrines,
at all.

case

there

is evidence

for of

holding

By

"the

transmigration
can

souls," nothing

or intelligible same

defensible which that time its

or

be

meant

except this: The

soul,

x, to

at

present sustains
which
now

peculiarrelations
its

of interaction b
or

body place

has

place
to
or

at

or

c, in

past
had
or can
n

sustained in

similar
some

relations

another

body

which

imaginable
of "the

wholly conjectural m
of mind,"
go

p.

The the

doctrine

immortality
does the has have mind had
"

too,
?

answer

question,Where
The
same

at death

only body
with

by saying:
at

mind b and
c

which will

its connected another this p.

same

the

places a
it will be

and

body
But soul clear

"

which
at

somehow

connected
m

; and
n

body will be
what
or

the

conjectural places
meant

and

and the

is

properly
with
a

by continuing to
has

be

mind,
in cussing dis-

changed body,
the there
as

already

been

made

identityand unity
is

of mind.

Since
"

absolutelyno
to
us
"

proof, or
that existed another
comes

even

dence impressive eviof any mind be is No in said

it
man

seems

the
as

present mind
the
same

individual relations that the if

"

previously
with
"

of interaction

body,
the

it must mind
"

question as
we

to

whence

ingless mean-

attempt
"

to state it in terms

of space.
on

mind

comes

from
to
are

anywhere.
those

Every mind,
indirect it
can

the

contrary,

begins
which

assume

and hold
to

figurative relations
space, whenever
as

the

only

ones

it

begins
and mind
as

those known

activities

in which

its very found the

as

existence

mind, Every
of
a

to itself to

exist, are
of after
a

to consist.

must ;

be

conceived

analogy

rather

growth
If
man

but

also of such it

growth

the science of

ogy psychol-

shows
an

that

actuallyis.
the

inquiry into pursued

origin of the
not

mind

of the

individual but of

be

in terms

of the

geometrical order

ORIGIN

AND

PERMANENCE

OF

MIND

361

biologicalscience, the
Thus and the the
on

answer

is

scarcely less satisfactory.

between the of creationist mind
was

ancient

debate theological theories of

an

traducianist

the

genesis

carried both mind. so-called of

by both

partieswith
student

almost

complete disregard metaphysics

holds that of
to the

science psychological But the modern

and of of

of critical

biology who
from

evolution

of the mind

man

of the lower

and animals, is scarcely less figurative

was

than unintelligible One may of

the

old-fashioned

advocate

of traducianism.

know
,

at least what

is meant

by speaking of the derivation

whether that of
a man

particularbodily organism,
lower

or. of

the word

animals, from
covers

other certain

organisms.
observable of

For

here

the of

derivation

activities of

generation,of embryonic growth,

characteristic what is meant
terms

birth, and
One may

subsequent
also know mind far too
;

physical development.
derived
in

by the development of the

from

individual
are

although
often

biologicalevolution
in
a

employed

psychology
No connected

thoughtless
or activity,

and

really

impertinent way.
state,
and
can

previous mental
with
as

conscious activities

really be
as

the
to

following explain
the

states

their in the

progenitor,so
same

the

genesis
and

of the action
even

latter of the

way

in

which

existence

parents explain the origin of the

same

offspring;or
forms of later forms.

in

the

way

as

that

in which the any

the of

earlier the

bodily development explain

Nothing
states

origin
of the

really
can

remains
enter

of

previous
the

conscious

which

into the

next

following states, as the

or as

spermatozoon buries

itself in the unite

egg,

atoms

of the

single cell persist and

one

in the

genesis of
every

two

cells from of the

another

by

bifurcation

; or,

again, as
blood.

tissue

animal

body speak

builds

itself up

by taking

into

itself the

lum pabutheir
no

brought
To

to it in the

arterial

of

parents
or

as

transmitting their
to
use

minds that

to

in part offspring,

in

whole, is
the

words

have

assignable meaning.

That

character

of the

individual

362

ORIGIN

AND

PERMANENCE

OF

MIND

mind

which
to

begins
the

to be

and

which

develops,in
differs

the

peculiar
have

relations

transmitted in

bodily organism
itself detail, mental

which

already been according

whose science It
act
as

examined the

significantly
those in

to

different

of peculiarities this

of well

physical generation
as

organism

begins,
shows.
to

ordinary
fact of
one

observation

abundantly
which

is this

general

experience
of far
are

gives
be traced to be

the

materialistic The in
reasons

hypothesis
for this

its
as

strongest arguments.
can

fact,so

they

back found

the

series of known

events,

undoubtedly

in the

physical characteristics
under That
as

imparted by generation to the

organism
etc. man,
so

the

tion, biologicalprinciplesof heredity,variareal with the

is to say, the it connects And him since which in the

genesis of
the race,

the

individual the that

as
a

far

pertainsto
of are, and afford mind

bodily organism.
stream

characteristics the

of consciousness

is called
case

rule, notably similar ancestry, the

best But similar and
to

of

offspring
seems

their the

materialistic of all the

emerge

hypothesis
facts. further all

to

solution

known
on

difficulties
to those

reflection

which

are

that with

accompany due reference

attempts

to state

clearly,
rialistic mate-

defend

to all the

facts,the

metaphysics
individual mind such

of mind.
no means

For

the

development
to
can

of the mined deterover

by

appears
as

be
be

wholly
carried

by
of each and

ancestral of

conditions life.

in the transmission mind

a

physical
of

The

rather which

is the

life

unique psychical history in

activities If the conscious scientific of those

repeated
take
us we an

self-directed

Ego
which
terms

important part. recognize

our

psychology requires
occult
up
causes

to

the

influence

in

almost

complete ignorance cover

"

with

like the
to

original"nature recognize
attend latter the the

of the mind,
more

it also

equally requires us
conditions

potent and
and

obvious

which These of its

acquiring

improving
rather

of "character." the

conditions

emphasize

independence

3C4

ORIGIN

AND

PERMANENCE

OF

MIND

theory, parents
(" from

somewhat indeed himself

as

coarsely expressed,
generate the
"

assumes

that God and

as never

the

body,

but

that

produces
puts it
to

?)

an

entity called
into this

the

soul,
But has

ready-made,
one

it were, of
a

body.

how formed perof

shall
any

conceive of those

soul, or

mind, that

activities
to

in which
"

the very this

existence

soul, or
numerous answer

mind, is known

consist,
the

problem suggests suggestion having

of
an

inquiriesto
can never

which

remotest

be

obtained.

And

after

somewhat

scornfullyrejectedthe unitary but

has
been

unknowable

entity which
as one

suggested by psychological monism

of both
sets
an

the
cannot

truly
be

responsible cause
consistent the
as

of

phenomena,

and of
a

yet accept
soul
"

equally
Nor

unknowable

entity in
to be
a

form the
cause

that has
no

reallynot yet begun

which
"

soul,

of

phenomena.

is it necessary

further every of the

as

to

point

out

the

absurdity
after

attaches
"

itself to soul ;
or

attempt
manner

at the

conception of posited
in

ready-made
of
so

in

which,

construction, it is brought hither,

its tenement every
at
a

it were, In

and

body.
as

the origin of brief,

or

mind,

far be

such
at

origin is
the
exact

knowable

conceivable when that

all, must

put

point of
and

time

mind

begins to act;
activities. But
even

its

origin is
this

in

of these

its first conscious mind is

not.

Before

first be full is it

activity the
admitted

thus mind

it cannot

that,properly speaking, any

a

springs into
every been mind

being
in
a

at

leap, as
of
more

it

were.

For
as

the has is

origin of already
and
course

process

development;
and
more,

seen,

reallyexists
and
runs
as

and

more

more

of

same self-

unity as unique spiritual

The existence
to

its

of

development
origin,as well

on.

of mind

with respect to its its the

with

respect

the

degree of
which
are

is nothing apart existence,

from
when

those

activities in

life and

growth of
It
a

mind be

consist.

These

activities It
a

its existence.

begins to
fuller in

they begin.
in

springs constantly into higher meaning

of the

being,
a

"originating"

word

per-

ORIGIN

AND

PERMANENCE

OF

MIND

365

petual
on.

process, very
more

as

the

development
is its
one

of these in which

activities the mind emerge

goes
comes

This

development
and
more,
as

to itself

higher

faculties

and

take In the the

control
a

of the series
way,

of conscious

states.

modified

however, the theory of creation

of the first

affords of

only intelligible explanation perpetual

which be the process the of

origin,and
At thus the

originating (or rising into being),

human been
to

which
at
now

belongs to left,a
the

individual

mind.

point

inquiry,having
vague rise reference and

brought
the Order of

far, must
as

of Nature
stream

conditioning
human be said.
to

development
seem

every

of
can

consciousness The mode

nature

would of

to be the

last word which

that

being and

development
can

belongs
of

the

unique
The

of the mind under

be

tained. asceronly partially

conditions and

which

the

stream

sciousness concan

begins
be

flows stated.

along
; but
on

its accustomed
are

course

only

in

measure

These

indeed research

subjectsfor
reveals
tain cer-

continued

scientific which

research

this the

conditions
course

take hold universal Universal for the

great and
and of

all-inclusive world-wide

of

the

world's of this

being

events.

Out
to

Being,
of this

without
stream

seeming
of
con-,
"

wholly
without the

be

accounted In

by it,does
of

every

sciousness

arise.

midst

Universal from

Being
it,but

getting all

its laws

development
a

on

contrary, showing plain signs of

certain
stream

unique,

self-

determined
run

development
its
course. can even

"

does
"

every
"

of consciousness
so

Into

It

at

the

end, and

far

as

human
merges

observation itself. that But

follow,every
soul returns Nature's

stream

of consciousness
we

in this final relation

to

cannot

say

what

is real it

the
as

Nature, having originally

The world world of

received
seems
no

gift.
one

things
of souls

richer

in content ceased
to be.

because

of the

has

seemingly
into the

When, however,
over

this

problem
of

of the soul's

originis

carried and
a

larger domain

general philosophy,

366

ORIGIN

AND

PERMANENCE

OF

MIND

clearer of

definition
one

is

sought
well
"

for

our
a

conception
and

of the

Order
with

Nature,
the

may
:

reach the

substantial

agreement
at the

the words

of Lotze
germ

At
an

place where,

moment

when,
coherent

of
of

organic being is formed

amid

the

system

the

physical course
or

of
reason

nature, this fact

which
not

furnishes that

the incitement

the One

moving Being
from
"

induces wheres othera

all-comprehending
but
even

present

here

"

to

beget Only

himself,besides,as
soul "the when"

consistent
to

supplement
of any any
sure

to such

physicalfact,the
as

ing belong-

this

organism."1
soul

to

moment

the

being

begins, neither

biology nor

psychology
neither ence scitakes

furnishes
can

scientific that first has

information,since
of activity

tell when
as

consciousness the

place in which,
souls A consists. somewhat when

repeatedly been

shown,

of reality

similar the

line of considerations of the

terms

has

decisive Mind

influence is raised.

problem
the

Permanence which
are

of the

Here, too,
"

customarily
every full of false
to

employed

and
no

which other

must,
terms

indeed, be employed by
exist
"

thinker, since analogies

critical and

are

all

so as

misleading figures of speech

The
once

make

interpretation quite indispensable to popular conception holds

been

the ascertainment that the

into

of truth. after it has

mind,

originated
same

and

put

the

body,
the

permanently
same

exists

in this

body,

with it

the substantially

form

and

degree of existence, until

That is to say, the

departsfrom
in current

body

at death.

prets popular conception interterms

use

the

space-relationswhich though they

of mind And if this in
were

the

imply
states.

as

true literally
as

of the

being and
conscious

relations

considered

the real

subjectof
be

popular conception
of
or

given

religious ordinary
and the Thus

turn, whether
tenet

favor

in

opposition to
same

the
erroneous

of the

immortality

of

mind, the
to

impossible assumptions
1

continue

be

made.
81.

Outlines

of

Psychology (thirded.),"

ORIGIN

AND

PERMANENCE

OF

MIND

367

extinction
over

of any above the

soul

may

be and

conceived

of

as

something life-history
of force is

and

complete off,some
in order
on

final cessation the mind's exercise the

of consciousness.

After is forever

the actual

continuityof
additional
to

broken

thought really
that
some

necessary exist.

terminate

mind's and

claim

to

Or,

the

contrary, the faith

will
be

hope
at

this

is uninterrupted,or life-history in the future after

to

resumed

time

the

bodily organism
upon
an

has

suffered permanency It is
even

dissolution,is
of the

made

repose

alleged
in

unconscious totally necessary

existence
to

of the mind. the be

thought

by

some

maintain,
must

interests

of this faith and

as a

hope,
that

that the soul in the

a

always

active, at least

dreamer,

even

profoundest sleep.
soul
a

Here, indeed,
is confidence
course

the

thought

totally unconscious
the better soul.
not

scarcelyworth
in the

preserving forever gets

permanence the of such
a

of

naive

This

view

of any of the

quite
under conscious and

overlooks

fact,that, if
conditions
a

in

sleep,at
cessation death of

rate

certain
states

other takes
most

complete
the
are

all

place
of
serve our as

without dreams

body;

also

that

scarcely

of

character for Our

an

fit to make "immortal

them

worthy permanent
this

tion occupa-

mind." aims
to leave

treatment

only
in

question of
this aim

the permanence ethics be well

physical meta-

of mind and
to

satisfactory shape
of

for

deliveryto phenomena
valid

the

philosophy

religion;

and

may

accomplished by briefly considering certain

known
to

psychologicalscience, in
conceptions of the mind's
relations
to the

the

light of
The

reality,identity, unity, phenomena

of conscious round

and
are

real of the is

bodily organism.
:

following order subjected to

If the whole
means

states

all the
are

of
to

observation, direct psychological variety in

of mental may be forms

and

indirect, which

known

modern

science, all degrees of intensity, complexity, and

mixtures

(so to speak) of higher brought

to

and This

lower

activity are

view.

general

fact

368 illustrated with total others

ORIGIN

AND

PERMANENCE

OF

MIND

by comparing certain classes of conscious

that

states

closelysucceed experience
or

them
one

; or

by contrastingthe
with that of earlier and
more

conscious

of

individual the

another

individual;
in
case

by

viewing
of the that

stages of
mature

development
stages, in the
realization

the

light
mind.

later
comes

of any
as

mind

at all

fullyto

the

of itself

If,for example,
with every
one

we

compare

the

phenomena

of consciousness

another, as they occur

we experience,

in the diurnal

changes of
in the
so-

adult's

observe relative

great fluctuations

complexity, and intensity,

called Periods vivid
anger,
"

predominance
forms of mental

of the

higher

"

over

the

"

lower

"

activity.
with
a

characterized

of by great intensity

sensation

coloringof pleasure or pain, or fear, etc.,

the
or

by strong
noble

emotions

of of

by strenuous

and

sentiments

are art, duty, or religion,

quickly followed nearly

emotions
or

by other

periods

where

sense-consciousness the

quite disappears,
sentiments The
man

quiescence of feelingtakes pains,

shallow has
or

place of positivepleasures or
and up. and
runs

and
and

the

stream
seems

of

thin, or
most moment

quite dried
in

who

justbeen
who has
a

profound
ago most

thought

witty in speech,
and resolved

considered reflectively

upon As

the wisest he descends of

and

comprehensive plans,falls asleep.

steep
curve

along

its

into the extreme

ness fast-

slumber, what

he calls his mind

briefly disportsitself
are

with above

and silly

incoherent

images
it

that

thrown

up

feebly

the threshold
unseen

of consciousness
; or

by the mysterious forces

a

working
to

below
most

wills,as
and

poor

slave deeds.

of nature, Thus do of

perform

the

insane
ones
run

immoral

the

great and

wise

of

earth, during every

the whole scale from

period

twenty-four hours, performances.

that
moment those
seem

through
scale and half
a

of mental

This animal the

itself extends

transactions
may be

half
assume

vegetable(ifwe
soul than for
a

for the

myth of
more

plants to
trace

true)to
is most

that and

have

in them

of what

exalted

divine.

ORIGIN

AND

PERMANENCE

OF

MIND

369

What

is true
states

as

to the almost

incomparable varietyof
of such minds of mind-life the mind

scious conas

in the

brief whole when

daily experience
compass
we

best

epitomize the
illustrated

for the race, of

one man

is also with
a

compare

that of his fellow. of measurement

or some

Some and

of these

differences

admit

of

sort

reduction

to terms

expressible in
other formulas.

more

less

accurate
seem

mathematical irreducible the

we

and
to

But any

of them
terms.

and

in inexpressible led
to

such

Thus shall both in

psychologist is
that and in

ask

the life in less

question,"How
which consists intenser

measure

growth of mental

deepening
in ? How

broadening, both
not state

feeling and
rational and number of

and higher analytic skill, shall

we

in free and of
'

choice

in terms the

mere

quantity
'

the

difference the

between
one

fields

consciousness
and

in

the

life,on
and

hand, of
on

Aristotle the other

Kant

or

of
most

Shakespeare
Hackliinder time
more

Goethe, and,
of the

hand, of the
of Peter
at

degraded Bushman,
the than range
two

less hopecould three

or idiot, never

von one

who soldier, of the

remember

of gunpowder ingredients in

"

'

The

of conscious

states,

respect of all the

discovers
are

characteristics

which

psychological
when the the countless who

science

in these with

states, appears
the
race.

immense among

highest
does
not

compared

lowest

multitudes

of the human in his

Every individual, too,

a case

afford life-history indeed

a

of "arrested

ment," developestimated

who

has

true

mentaj

runs life-history,

through

wide

extent

of manifold

differences
most
"

as

by comparing his earliest with his

mental

mature

and

cant signifi-

performances.
respects the
race,
race

This and

capacityof development"
respects the individual
all-inclusive with the lower istic characteranimals.

is, both
member

as

as

of the

the

important and
as

of the mind
In view
as

of man
a

compared
the

of such

study of

phenomena

of consciousness
states

the

foregoingcomparisons suggest, all

1

the conscious
45.

and Explanatory, Psychology,Descriptive p. 24

370

ORIGIN

AND

PERMANENCE

OF

MIND

may whose
rests

be

regarded
upper the

as

capable
is

of

arrangement

along

scale foot
to

termination

but quite indefinite,

whose
appears

upon from

zero-point where
Two

consciousness

emerge
are

the unconscious.

questions,both

of which

ing partly scientific (or, at least,have their points of startand of an in facts that admit empirical investigation)
once

at partly speculative,
are

suggest themselves.
with the
so

These

tions ques-

both

connected

problem
varied

of the

permanence of the
sciousness consame as

of mind.

First, are
to be

all these
as

phenomena
one

regarded
to that

belonging to being
which and

and knows

subject,
"

namely,

real

itself of

really existent, identical,

powers of

unitary by being

exercise and

its

recognitivememory, self-consciousness,
Second, is this
same

tive reflecof
as

thought ?
"subliminal
a as
"

to be

spoken
so

permanently existing, though unconscious,

modifications and mind that
or

and

capable of
that

performances, being
the
at

"

is, as
itself both

does do

not, for the time

of the work

know least, To
answer

mind,

any

of mind

these

gives questions affirmatively

to

fullest

possible support
of mind.

the
once
on

popular conception
appear, the
same

of the permanence these

two

It will at
not

however, that

questions
the the

do

stand that

grounds

as

claimants mind which

for

support

of

critical have

metaphysics
established.

of

previous body,
ions divis-

discussions The

so-called

"tripartite"
interests

division

of

man

into

soul, and
in the permanence

the spirit introduces

latter two

of its three

supposed

of the

and superiority
over over

relative

of certain
man

conscious

activities

others. and above him

By
a

giving
the

to

"spirit," as
the
more

something

soul, this theory thinks

other animals.
states

truly to separate
since their
some

from

For which

why, indeed,
may
serve as

principle

of conscious
seem

subject would

to be be

needed that

for at least certain

of the

animals, should

it not

said

they

too

have

souls ?
to

And, further, if it
when

belongs to

the very

nature

of souls

exist,even

they

372
those

ORIGIN

AND

PERMANENCE

OF

MIND

to

which
or as a

he the
sort

has

in

common

with
in

them. is
to
one

Man's
not to

"reason," regarded
in
a

"spirit

that

is roof

man"
on

be

of mansard

built
are

dwelling
tially substan-

block, all the dwellings in which

alike. from On those of
man

otherwise
set

the called

contrary, in every
lowest
to those

of characteristics,

pronounced highest,
the soul of is any kind of soul
account

the other that

soul

differences

itself

from

species of animals.
kind which it of those of every that

Indeed,
no

each

just
the

really is, and

other, on
of

of the and

peculiarcomplexity peculiar
mark character it off from

states

of consciousness

history
kind.
a

development

which partite tri-

other becomes the

And,

the finally,

division,which
realm of

bipartitedivision
of

in the it finds
to

mind,
to

reaches

height
"

absurdity when
same

itself forced the

the assign essentially it entitles it

an

psychoses now
"

subjectthat
immortal

animal

soul, and
the
name

then
"

again

to the

subject which

with dignifies

of

rational

and

spirit."
of the mind's is to be down

If then

the permanency

being
to the
"

and

activities
at

in all the states the lower of forms

of consciousness of such
states
"

maintained
very be

all,

zero-point assigned
to be

complexity, intensity,
same

and

ideal value has

must

to the

subject as
in all the

that

which

been To

discovered this view

self-known
no

higher
on

forms.

there

is

scientific On

objection ;
the
"

the

contrary, everything is

in its
mere

favor.

one

hand, without
considered
as

something
of

more

than

consciousness,
or

content

sensation, feeling,

ideation,
"

without

identity, ^/-consciousness, the reality,

of the mind could these
not

and all.
once

unitary character
But
on

be established

at
are

the

other

hand, when

characteristics
activities in

established exercise
we

by

the

development
such another

of those

the

actual

of which need

and identity, reality,

sist, unity con-

do for

not

subject to
and

be

as responsible,

it were,

the

inferior activities of consciousness. reflective

In

self-

consciousness, recognitivememory,

thinking,

ORIGIN

AND

PERMANENCE

OF

MIND

373

the mind

shows In

what the

it

reallyis,
"

being with
aesthetical
nature

intellective and
as

capacity.
emotion

higher
In
as

forms

of

ethical

and

sentiment

it expresses

its true

capable
sible respon-

of affective choice which reality free. But

changes.
it exists

and deliberative, intelligent, the supreme

to
a

finite exhibition who

of that

belongs
it
"

alone

being
"

is self-active and the

sensuous

the and

same

mind

also
are

suffers
most

bodily pains
those of the and

pleasures which
animals
;

nearly

akin

to

lower

it, too, wanders

of

ent in the incoheracts

almost and

idiotic

imagery

dreams, and
many

with

an

unthinking
forms in

machine-like

in regularity
not

of its habitual

of conation. hours itself

or over as

Indeed, it
or

whether infrequently, self, it-

waking
sets

in natural

hypnotic sleep,divides
dramatizes
one

and against itself,

was

in the

most

wonderful

fashion,

shown

in

of

earlier

chapters (chap. V.).

It is

scarcelynecessary
a

in detail the low

to

to

argue

the

proprietyof
all those different of

making
conscious

unitary

mind

permanent
or

subject of
in kind
or

states, however

high why

in

which intensity, Some

belong
of the

each

individual this is

stream

sciousness. con-

reasons

habituallydone
And,
activities of the Self and

by scientific psychology may, however, be between first, an interchange, as it were,

consciousness those Items that of
are

mentioned.
those

that
not

are so

actuallyappropriated to
and the far
as

is constantlytaking place. appropriated, reflective

"

self-conscious down below

knowledge
"

not

quently infre-

drop
and
never recur

threshold
appears,

of consciousness

again,so
various

except in the shape

of vague
we
some

and

flitting imagery
of almost
at
once

in dreams.
to

Again, judge
or

that

which in low selfits

are

obligedby
moment

considerations unconscious

occurred
some

revery

in

dreamy

state, all
and

springs
the

into

the clear mind

lightof
of
acts

consciousness very
own

accuses

astonished of in

being
of

progenitor. The

pale images
make up,

past

highly

developed self-consciousness

part, the phenom-

374 of the of

ORIGIN

AND

PERMANENCE

OF

MIND

ena

most

purely vegetable conditions

in

of mind attribute

; to

and the

acts

recognitive memory,
a

turn, serve
was

to

as Self,

part of its
of
even as
a

true

life,what
notice.

deemed originally

unworthy

passing
is and
two to

Moreover,

the there

scientific
no

study
which

of

mental for

phenomena
that sification clas-

plainly shows,
into
assumes

sufficient warrant lower the

higher
are

tripartite theory assigned

of the
spectively re-

nor

the

classes soul

of faculties any

to states

and spirit

separablein
make
one on

plex com-

of consciousness Genius and

which the

up

the actual

life of chic psy-

the mind.
or

tact, on

hand, and
the other
or

blind

psycho-physicalmechanism,
each other's of

hand, often
hand
in

simulate hand

performances ;
a common

they
which

work

for the attainment

result.

In all the most arises into the of the

deliberate
stream

thinking

and

planning, that
from the

of

consciousness
or even

depths
the

psychic
dation founof

automatism,
of the

(seemingly) from
life. We side
our

unconscious the

psychic being, mingles freely with

are

current

self-conscious
or

beholden much of

to

this
most

scious half-confruitful
many

unconscious
we

for

the

results of what
our

call and

intellectual

and for effort, The

of

most

successful the

brilliant that
are

plans.

lines of obscure conscious those

selves our-

of feeling,

reasons reason

effectual blend hands

without

knowledge
which
we

of the

why,
in
our we

with inextricably for the

hold consciously of others whither

guidance of

and

have

willed intelligently

to go.

In every

of the actual performances and the real life-history brief, mind

are

quite too
the than

much

of

unity to permit
the

the

position suptwo

that

agent, the
one.

subject of
of those
as

history, is

beings

rather

Each be human

great psychological

principleswhich development
Here,
once

must every

assumed mind
may be

exemplified in
this have that

the

of

emphasizes quoted

truth. where1 else-

more,

conclusions
as

been
1

established

the

results

of detailed
658 f.

scientific

and Explanatory, pp. Psychology, Descriptive

ORIGIN

AND

PERMANENCE

OF

MIND

375

examination
"

into

the

import

of

actual

mental

phenomena. belong
state to

There

are,

it would

seem,

certain

which principles
man

all

development

of the mental every

life of

; and

every

of

consciousness, and
stage of its

stage of so-called
to conform

faculty in

every

formation, appears
thrown To
to

to these terms not to

principles.
real We the
;

They cannot, indeed, be

formulas.

into the
be

of 'mathematical increase

attempt this would put forward

content to

science,but only
must,

the
state

pretence of science.
these becomes
:

therefore, be
vague

in principles their

somewhat and
we

general

way

which

nature

distinguishthe followingfour
; the

The

of principle

tinuity Con-

of Relativity principle ;

the

principleof
...

ity Solidar-

and

the

of TeleologicalImport. principle understand breaks that

or

By leaps
as

the

principleof Continuity we
life is regarded
as a

when sudden

the mental
are

whole, no

found,
the Stated which defined, and

whether

as

between

itsfactors and
states

or faculties,

between

successive different
more

and very

stages of

its

development.
by

the positively, factors the

are

distinctions and the shade

making
faculties other the
;

the
in

differenced life of the

so-called into which each

real of

mind and

the

evidence

growth

progress

mark

different

parts of the life of consciousness, in each

and each
one

period of
the

growth
whole
nature

degree
process
so

of progress, of
as

are

such In
a

as

connect

into of the

becoming.
science
can

word, the very

is it,
seen

mind,

far

observe

in
an

this unbroken

vital flow. of

Its

being is in being just such

uninterruptedstream
between this

psychic life."
of of
a

ences [The important differand space, from that

or a

kind

"continuity"
a

which
to

belongs
increase
to

to

the

movement

body

in

the

in
a

intensity of
maximum,

physical

process 139

mum mini-

have

already (pp.

f.) been

ciently suffi-

emphasized.] "By
the

principle of Relativity,as
"

we

understand

it,
"

negativelystated,

it is denied exist

that

any

psychic
its
own

factor

or

complex psychosis can

without

having

definite

376

ORIGIN

AND

PERMANENCE

OF

MIND

quality,quantity,tone
influence upon determined factors and
"

of

value feeling,
or

in

combination,
factors and
it stands life.
state
to

and choses psy-

simultaneous

successive

by the relation in which

in the entire mental
or

to other
"

psychoses
every what

Or
or

stated

positively
mental

individual it is

element
as

form

of
the

is life'

only

relative

other
. .

elements, picture

states, and
two

forms of the

same

mental

life.
may

Putting

foregoing principlestogether,we
life is that
or
"

say the true

of mental

of
may

continuance
so

of interdependent
"

psychoses;

if

we

be

far

metaphysical
a

tive descripbeing with

ends psychology
a

in

adopting the conceptionof

and
an

unique unity of
"

nature

equally unique historyof

intend
to

development "By
all that the is

principle of Solidarity we accomplished

two

emphasize
under the the

in

mental the

development, working
latter in which of word.

foregoing
widest life in
and

principles,by
is

habit, in
The the

possible meaning
its

of this
a

mental

development
of all the be

whole

continuity

relation
must

different But

factors, aspects, states,and

more

stages
with

recognized.

than
"

this,

"

to

speak
every

no
or

unmeaning
the

figure of speech,
the

the

effect of
and

partial
upon

complete working of
or

psychic

mechanism

is

felt
this

the weal

woe

of the whole
toward

development;
some

tends development necessarily

hind than

of unification
'

of result.
to the
'

To

say

this is in

scarcelymore
we are

to call attention

truth

that

psychology being
a

dealing with
whose

cal biologiis

phenomena;
our

the

called life.

Mind',
the

history

the

subject of
forms

study, is

Furthermore,
most

it is of all the

known
most

of life

incomparably
undefined attention

of full, at first, call

complex, possibilities."
fact of the No science of the

Finally, "we Import

of mind
purpose

to the

Teleological
life of final the

of all mental is in
come

development.
and

possiblewithout
the collocation
to

recognizing the
arrangement
the stream

presence

which

nomena pheflows

have,

as

of consciousness

ORIGIN

AND

PERMANENCE

OF

MIND

377

on.

Activity to
and selection

some

purpose

is the

ruling principleof
distinctive

mental of
a

development.
of man's and

The of

self-conscious, intelligent adoption

means

plan
acme

for its The

pursuit is
more

of the this

development.
the in

comprehensive
the

plan

the wiser

selection the

of means, scale

higher
ethical

is the

standing

of the individual But ends

of intellectual and

development.
sentiment
seem

suggested by
to control

aesthetical

adapted
the with latter which

large spheres
the very that the end
sort

of human
nature

activity ;
the its

and

from especially, it sanctions

at

of

mandate
own

promises
premacy. su-

has satisfaction, But meanwhile

least the and end

of

phenomenal

principlesof Continuity, of
unconscious should
be

and Relativity, that were, when detail any

of conscious

Habit,

forbid it

consciouslyaccepted
the entire life both

as isolated,

from
we

bodily and
become

psychical.
that

And

in every regard the working of all these principles, of mental

development,
in the ends

we

aware

the

import of finalpurpose
the conscious

mental
on our

life extends far beyond

own

adoption of

part.
not
nor so

In

other
as

words, the
a

stream

of consciousness
we

appears whence the its

much

current
as

flowing
a

know

not

whither; but
both
"

rather

current

designed
surface and

from and

beginning,
hidden hidden But

as

respects its observable

depths,
what

partly self-directed
to

partly impelled by
of
a

forces,

"

the

fit
most

performance
fit

certain there

work.

that

work does
"

is, if

any

such

be, scientific psychology

not

investigate.
fine,
a

In

combination actual

of all these

principles,as they
for every so-called

appear
stream

in their of

operation,secures
that and and
a

consciousness

continuity, related
that ideals which Mind."

action,
as

solidarity of judged by
to the

character, light of
what of mental
even

intelligibleimport
are

the

ends
we

necessary

history of
science and

call

Soul,

or

The

phenomena,
absurd
are

therefore, shows
views into which

how
we

unscientific

the

378

ORIGIN

AND

PERMANENCE

OF

MIND

are

led

by adopting the

division tripartite this division

of the the
"

being
and

of

man,

especially since
to two to

assigns being, as
in the

psychical
these On that alike

phenomena
two

rather subjects, different orders

than of

to one,

belonging
the

it

were.

the all

contrary, this science

different
to

culminates of

conclusion
are

orders

phenomena

which

entitled
must

be called
be

psychical,or
to
one

phenomena

of consciousness,
are

assigned together
of

subject;for they
the

cably inextri-

bound the actual the be

under

foregoing principles into

conclusion
to

unity

mind's

life-history. This
as

affirms
must

permanence
not

of mind

the

one

being
to

which
are

assigned
other which the the

only

all

those

activities this

which

actually (as self-conscious) appropriated

also all those conscious
are

Self, but
more

activities any way

and known

seemingly
ever

passive
arisen But

states

in

to

have

within what has

stream

of consciousness. of mind
to say

metaphysics
which
are

about

alleged

psychical processes
or

"unconscious," "subliminal,"
to

"below

the

threshold,"
common

employ
"

certain

justifiable
? What

figures of speech
and
or

in when

scientific uit has

or

psychology
no

where

is the
no

mind

conscious

states;
sciousness conso

better, when
or

psychoses,
the most
stream
or

phenomena

of either in fact
"

self-consciousness, exist; when,

far

as

can

be

judged by
"

unprejudiced interpretation
of consciousness has for the ? Is

of the indications time Mind

run

the

obviously dry,
be

disappeared underground
still

to

spoken

of

as

the

existing and
?
as

permanent

subjectof
Even
on

such

hypotheticalprocesses
such

approaching conceptions
And in he

questions

those

which
to

have strive
are

just
for

been

raised, it is again particularly necessary

to

clear

attach have the

as

to

the
a

words

which

employed. experience
these

must

had

uniquely gratifying
ways of

consulting
as

customary
the different words

proposing
answers

questions,
to

well has

possible

given

them,

who

found

always employed

in

380

ORIGIN

AND

PERMANENCE

OF

MIND

such called But

activities
"

were

considered
"

when
were

the

phenomena

of

so-

double besides

consciousness these

discussed

(see pp. 169

there

f.).
are or

semi-conscious for which

(?) activities

certain

experiences
"

"unconscious
are

cerebration"

"subliminal
as

psychical processes
theories
to

customarily assigned,
An

two

rival goes his

of

explanation.
the vain
some or

accountant, for
detect the

example,
error

sleep
is

after
or

effort to

in

reckoning,
that he

to

solve

difficult
at

problem
has
no

in
reason on error

figures;his sleep
to

dreamless,
has dreamed

least

he

suppose when stands

he

of the in the

subject most morning

detection mind the

his
at

mind
once

fell

asleep; but

detected, or the problem without

solved.

further
of

reflection
error a or as

is

immediately
of

Perhaps
upon mental done

this the

solution
to

problem
have

flashes

in such of the of

way

suggest that order,

must

real

work, though during

similar the and

unconscious

been

hours

sleep.
in any

The kind

the inventor, the planner naturalist, of

thinker

research,may
may
be

have

experience.
asked
or

[At
much

this

point it
should

perhaps pertinentlybe
laid this
on

why

so

stress

seemingly
For associated and

abnormal

able remarkwhich that

phenomena
determine every all the

of

order. of

the

influences

train

ideas, and
movements

(for

matter)

articulated
seem

habitual
enter

of the

bodily organism,
consciousness
;

largely to
in subliminal of
"

only partiallyinto
to the

they belong
is
"

large measure
or

mental

(?)

region Indeed,

which the

below
"

consciousness. those

perception
make
as

every visual

object
or

psychical
in
a

activities

which

the

tactual
no

object arise
"

consciousness very the

just what
somewhere

it is and and

other

goes
as

on

to

large
eye

extent

somehow,

so

to

escape

of
we

consciousness.]
pass

When

from
are more

the facts of than

more

ordinary observation
may with

to the facts that

impressive,we ordinarily
hour mind." It is needless

be

puzzled and

delighted by
"unconscious

the

astonishing feats
for the

performed by

ORIGIN

AND

PERMANENCE

OF

MIND

381

present purpose
remarkable remembered similar of how

to

select stories.

and Yet

repeat any
here

of

the

more

these
common

again
mere

it should

be

and
on

ordinary, as
part of almost

facts,are species
A of deeds B

performances
even a more can

the

all

animals;
that

the
more

plants unconsciously (?) perform

than human wisdom. The among
man

simulate

is esteemed because he

than
set

ordinarilyfavored
cerebral and wake

his

fellows,
train
as

his

psychical mechanism,
to

sleep serenely and precisely4.15

as a.

soundly, and
But many somehow
structure

catch do

the

at

m.

plants can
have
set

almost

well

this, because

they

the for

mechanism them. Other

in their

inherited

molecular

plants
to reach

know,
for the the those

without

consciousness, just in what

Here in for

direction

support they seek.

of instinct

might
animals lack of
a

also be instanced and men,

as

all
as

phenomena
of due

well may

performances which,
as

better

word,
of

be

spoken
"

to

tact, and

many

of the

doings
and

genius,
store to

the

deeds Or

of if

mathematical,
one

musical,
of has

mechanical of Yon finds

prodigies.
illustrations Hartmann's

is in

lack
one

large enough only

and
to turn

ready

at

hand,
des

"Philosophic
collected there
true

Unbewussten,"
score

and the

one

examples
For
true

by
of

the
man

by

hundred. less is

it is

by

no

means

alone, but
lower
as

it is rather that what

of him

than in
a

of many

of the
so

animals,
to

done

for him

planful way
of the

express

itself in the
or even

bodily manifestations
in the what very is
content

of the stream
stream

of

consciousness,
far
more

is itself,

than

consciously done
can

by
that

him. all in

There

be

no

doubt

explanations which performances

is that
as no as

do not these
new

recognize the proof

are

of mind

such truth

quite unsatisfactory.
for such for the

The

wholly
with in

explanations

performances,
The
"

compared
of mind the
to

the
sciousness, con-

explanations given
are

performances
have

possible.
"

and psychology
no

philosophy
employ
and

of

the so-called

Unconscious

terms

382

ORIGIN

AND

PERMANENCE

OF

MIND

no

arguments

to

present which

are

not

themselves

the

products
is

of human

consciousness.

First, then, the

appropriate materialistic
facts in the somewhat
as

explanation
tion." cerebra-

proposed

for

these

term

"unconscious
a

It is indeed for such all

mere
a

difficult to find For of course,

as mean

clear

ing mean-

term

this.

strictly speaking,
is unconscious.

cerebration is
a

(cerebration

such)

Cerebration
must be

word

which,

if it

anything definite,
of molecular in the which shows

allowed
"

to stand

for those

peculiar forms
"

change
cerebrum.

the Now

nerve-commotions

occur

psychology physiological
in
"

that certain
or

nerve-commotions

this

organ,

whether would other

centrally
seem,

ripherall peof
"

initiated,

it chiefly, for

from

lack

intensity,but
are

also

perhaps

unknown

causes,

not

accompanied by changes
cerebration, therefore,
is obtainable the cerebral And
as we

of consciousness.

scious Unconwhich
nerve-

means or

nothing
that well

about

any

knowledge
in

supposable, except
are

commotions

substance it cannot have

panied unaccom-

by consciousness.
there the may
one are

be doubted

that

instances

where,

already seen
whatever

(pp. 325 f.),

psycho-physical parallelism (in properly apply

of the two it is
to this

meaning

we

term)
has

is broken ceased

quite off,because
to exist.

series parallel very with

for the time

But
to at

certainlya point

strange and
true
one

illogical procedure
processes,

identifycerebrations
the very where

psychical
common

just
these other

the

characteristic known
us.

(namely, consciousness) of psychical processes

the
account

all that

is

about On the

has

wholly

deserted

hand, if the materialistic

it

hypothesis is
actual
to
more

found

inadequate in
or

gives

of those known

psychoses
correlated

states

of

consciousness

which

are

be

with

brainit in

states, it will scarcelyprove

the interests of

to satisfactory states

revive

explaining subsequent
concomitant
states

of consciousness
are hypothesis

by

means

of

hypothetical cerebrations
no

that, ex

productive of

of consciousness.

ORIGIN

AND

PERMANENCE

OF

MIND

383

When,
in the

however, the

opposite or
of the about

spiritualistic hypothesis,
ing unceasas

supposed

interests

permanent being and

unconscious

of mind, activity

reasons

processes

though they
at

could

be of
own

true

psychical performances
encounters

without

being phenomena
one

consciousness, it
most to

ism materialwhat this and that and it

of its
now

exposed points.
call

For
or

hypothesis
mind
or

continues has from lost the of

psychical
the How

mental,

soul,

every

known

characteristic

distinguishes it
soulless
answer

non-mental,
mere

material,
then which ? Of
can

performances
the invincible

brain.

materialistic like the

argument
form much

might
tions, cerebrawhen

well

take
or

something

following
is

doings by the

brain, there
ever

as

proof
be

consciousness for

lapses as
that human
or

before.

It cannot that

supposed,
man

example,
"

this

sound

sleeper, or acting
skull in
an

in

swoon,

this

animal

instinctive

and
"

yet planfulway,
has with all at its
once

that

clairvoyantor hypnotized subject,

the the But cerebral these that
one

lost from

substance

cerebrations
now

innumerable.
are

particular
is, they
sal univermental

cerebrations have
no

occurring
of
as

unconscious;
"

in consciousness, representative all true known. mind-states And

the and

characteristic

real

existence,

so

far

yet your

spiritualistic belong
the
to

hypothesis asserts
are

that these

unconscious affirmed

performances, too,
to

to

be

called
can

psychical, and
be
to

the

mind. of and

What

clearer scientifically the

than

propriety
existence

assigning

them

only subject
cases,

of whose real

in activities,
to the

all such ? But

there

is any
can

proof,
"

namely,
can

brain real

if the brain any

do these activities

things,
as

be

the

only

subject of

such call

the

spiritualistic hypothesis is willing to why

not

genuinely mental,
? In is
a

of all the the

phenomena
with the

of consciousness that the unconscious

other
times some-

words, from
to

conclusion

be

identified that

mental, it is
is
mere

but

step

to

the conclusion

consciousness

surinsignificant

384

ORIGIN

AND

PERMANENCE

OF

MIND

plusage of
these

the mental

; that

it is

ep"-phenomenal.
but

Not

only
tal men-

unconscious may

mental then

phenomena,
be

all so-called

phenomena of
the brain ?

thought

of

as

reallyphenomena
that is with
test

Spiritualism, having
by all theorists
to be

once

parted

with

of

the

psychical (namely, consciousness) physical phenomena,

as

which

acknowledged
every
own

quite incomparable
can no

kind

of

longer appeal realityof

it have its

to its

ment argu-

invincible has any

proof
value

for the would

case

the

mind. from the

And dark

what

that

saved

abyss of non-existence,in
of the

argument

from
to

the nature unconscious

subsequent
and

states

of

consciousness
were

psychoses
would

mental For

being
an

accepted ?
as
"

Nothing,
be be of affirmed

it

appear.

of such
"

existence

unknowable
can can

and
;

merely hypothetical
and All
to

mind-stuff

nothing
value

such

an

abstract of be

entity no
and
terms
are

assigned.
value
to

affirmation
must

existence made in

assignment
of conscious far
more

existence Further

mind-life. than

which difficulties,
as soon as

merely
out

polemical, emerge
the

the effort is made affirm mind. for existence

to think

meaning
and
"

of terms

that

of unconscious the
term

psychoses

unconscious

Surely,
any sort

chosis "psythat
"

is riot to be processes

employed
factor

of processes

are

not

in consciousness.
a or

It is

preciselythis
state
"

conscious is meant

state, or

aspect of such
The is

which the
scious; con-

by
and

the word thus

we

psychosis. psychical
of
as

psychical is
non-conscious conscious.

the

distinguished from
; or,

the
at

physical,which
least, which
it
ease
we

conceive
not

the
as

do of

conceive

of

Nor

does upon

the the and

nor

pains

thought simply
To
are

to

change
in

the word

which exist

thought
are

is bestowed.
on

conjecturethat
neither
our

processes ness conscious-

going

which

of

our

brains, but which

the matter. For

must

be these

called

"mental,"
which
con-

does
are

not not

help
in

either
must

processes
some

our

consciousness

be

in

other

ORIGIN

AND

PERMANENCE

OF

MIND

385

sciousness, and
the

that other Self

consciousness
alter

must

be
must

assigned to
be called

subliminal

(our they

Ego\

or

they
in

the consciousness

belonging
"

to the basal

ganglia,the spinal
no

cord,

etc. ; at

or
"

else
are

being

processes

ness consciousnon-mental

all

indistinguishablefrom
cannot but

the

in

general.
Inasmuch, then,
as we

imagine, not truly mental

when
to

to

say prove, the real

the existence basis

of unconscious

processes,
as a

in fact for whose

are are

believingin
the conscious

the mind's processes

seem

existence
no

being
We

conscious gone. is real

processes
seem

taking place ground

as

would

be

wholly
:

forced, then,
scientific

to the

following conclusion affirming the

which

There

ample being
of that

for

permanent
constitutes

of the mind entire

the

subject of
An be

all the conscious

states,
the

stream

of consciousness mind. may

of life-history

each order

invincible
on

argument ground
mental of

of the fact. is

metaphysical
But
to to

built

this
or

talk

of

unconscious

psychoses
"

states

talk

of the

inconceivable,
as

of
were.

"wooden And
to

iron," of the
reason no

"unconscious-conscious,"
the permanence
are

it

about actual
to

of known

mind,
or

quoad
assumed in

mind,
as

when

psychoses jeopard
Such
a

taking place, is philosophy

in of

all

sound

argument

the

mind.

spiritualistic hypothesis can

to

only end

reducing our
about "souls-into to

metaphysics
themselves
"

unverifiable
as

and

meaningless jargon
that

abstractions,such
;
"

and "things-in-themselves," entities

mythological
of abstract

belong
of

the the

"death-kingdom" living realm shape

mental
naive to Now, finally,

thinking,
under

instead

of known leave

realities. the be
matter

discussion

in this of

will

doubtless
"

to unsatisfactory

all students

life,

to

those of

who

remain but

bound

by

the

ordinary
The air:

metaphysics
who
at
are once

reflective

untrained

minds, and

also to those former will

expert in metaphysical criticism. ask, with

25
a

puzzled

or

scornful

386

ORIGIN

AND

PERMANENCE

OF

MIND

Where, then, is deep

severe

the

mind,

when in

it is not

conscious
or

(as in
cases

and

dreamless

sleep, or
And if the

swooning,
does
not

in

of

accident)?
all its powers action reappear
at

mind and

abide
to

always,
forth it

with into
ever

still existent first favorable

ready

spring
of the

the in

opportunity, how
full exercise
at

can same

being again, in
it had

powers,
some

just

as

though sphere ?
this.

been

work be

meanwhile admitted such

moment
an

in that mittent interclaim and

invisible is

Surely,
How

it must

there

something ghostly and

mind
as

unreal
can

about
one

it at

invinciblyto
the next Even those

be the realest
cease

of all realities in the

world,

moment

to be real at all ?

wise

in

metaphysics
more

will

sympathize,
the

while ular popis the form with

yet only partially

all the

with intelligently,

objections. They
mind of the ? for

will

not, indeed, ask, Where

the

they
and

know

too

well

follyhidden
it to be

in that

question. dignity
this The
to the

But

they
the

will

feel
to

inconsistent all which be

power

persist,which
any be

thought
behaves

attaches in

word

reality,that
way should first of the two

being
to

intermittent
answer our

said

real. in

to the

questions just raised

of the doctrine difficult to find.

objectionto
mind's

previous development
is

of the The

permanency

by

no

means

question, Where
known it must stuff
"
"

is the mind of its of

as one own

"

whether

while

it is selfwhen mind-

as

conscious conceived receive

being
and

and

states, or
;'

be
can

inert
answer.

unconscious Taken

only
The

as literally,

applied to always
or

the

spatialmeaning
mind

of the word is never,

"where,"
whether

it must

be answered:

conscious the selfto

unconscious, anywhere.

Spatially considered,
conscious
a

conscious conceived

subject
of
as

of

all

the like

states gas
an as

is not

be

diffused
nor

subtile
out

through
located

all the

bodily members;
over

as

spread

with
nor

bution equitable distriwith

;
nor a

the

cerebral

centres;
the

specialresidential

preference for

pre-frontalareas

388

ORIGIN

AND

PERMANENCE

OF

MIND

The

facts of order in

experience belonging to
are

the

above-mentioned
one

general
while

of

two

main

classes;
of

of

these

is

emphasized
the

the

daily experience discovery of

every

individual, First, spatial

the
dition con-

other

is the

modern

science.

then, all experience of the

relations of

spatial qualities and

with of the

things

is

indissolublyconnected
certain
are areas

and and
many
use

of activity of these
areas areas

bodily organism
known But the with

themselves the
same

immediately
and those

by
more

of

other

of

bodily organism.
"

certain especially, and interesting,

experiences fraught
"

often
or

most

most

with

immediate of

threatening pains and

the

pleasures
as
our

consist
so

perceptionsof
of
our

bodily organism
For

part,

to

speak,

very
as

selves. front
our own

example,

arms,

legs,and trunk, so
is

far

the

side of all these eyes

as areas

members

concerned,
and
as

are

known

by
;

extended spatially of the external

or

moving

in space
are

and

various

part of the body

stantly con-

being undesignedly felt

other certain
or areas more

intentionally explored by
of the
same

by (chiefly,

the

hand)

body.
far
a as
"

But

sensuous definitely
"

experiences,so
localized

ful paintone
"

pleasurable,
may

with be

however
"

slightor strong
are

of the

feeling they
external
or

tinged,
organs
or

in

some even

of
our

interior of from

of the

body.

And in

purest
are never

exercises free

thought
at

indulgences
The

sentiment
some

least

the

of possibility
reason

tinge

from is

this "somatic
more

reverberation." when

for all this that attention

the

evident
constant

it is considered of all
use

as itself,

the

accompaniment
and

consciousness,
of the motorof and so-called for the
we

requires as organism

its concomitant and the

support the

consequent
For

modifications instances

"motor-consciousness."

further

psychologicalexposition of
now

this class of
a

phenomena

may

content

ourselves

with

reference.1

To

"

and Explanatory," Psychology, Descriptive pp. this

519

f. and

to the

earlier

chaptersof

book, pp. 87

f.

ORIGIN

AND

PERMANENCE

OF

MIND

389

The

metaphysical meaning
cannot,

of the

foregoing
in
us

order

of

nomena pheof

however,
effort to Their

be do

expressed
this lands

terms

of space.
a

Indeed,
gross

the

very

in

region
states

absurdities.

metaphysical meaning
between conscious

is expressible and

only
the In other

in terms

of relations

spatialqualities and
words, the

changes

of the is
a

bodily organism.
naive, concrete,

popular language
of conscious

impressive,and yet figurative way

connection of certain

expressing the dependent

upon in the observed
can

states

changes
one

of the

bodily organism.
as

Only

this way

any seated

speak

of the mind

either

spread throughout, or
follows with
to

within, the body.

the Essentially modern states. science This of
same

conclusion relations has in"

respect

to the

of the

of the brain

the conscious the

"

science

indubitablyshown
the

that

sciousness con-

being

peripheral parts
is
as itself,

of the

body
a

is

illusory ;
of

that The

this consciousness
same

it were, may

figure

speech.

kind

of consciousness in the
or

be extended the been

into the stick that is carried that is

worn over

hand,

or

into

clothing mentally experipheral periis

the head

the the

trunk. connection
states

It has

demonstrated

that

of all the

parts of the body with

established
case

the
nervous

of consciousness
; and

through
been

the central

system
that

in man's

it has

made

highly probable
science has

this connection
to this

is

only through

the cerebral

hemispheres. particularareas
or

In addition
on

modern general conclusion,

gone

to

point out
cerebral

specialconnections hemispheres
states

between

of the in the

and

particularstates
To the
"

factors

complex
aim of

of consciousness. known of the

as

establish localization
one

all this

is the

the doctrine But

area,

of cerebral

function."

all

hope

findingany
soul and
may

single point,or singleminute

seated hypothetically
seems

where

be

to

have have made

perished;
been
us

this not

because

the limits of

knowledge

reached, but
with

because

increased

exploration has

familiar

the whole

territory.

890

ORIGIN

AND

PERMANENCE

OF

MIND

The

meaning
has
.

in

terms metaphysical

of these

facts of cerebral and the

science,as
same

already been
it is the

said, is essentially one

with

that which
now

the popular experiinterprets critically ence.

Only
of the

brain, with its several areas, instead

is known
to have states.

body

at

large,which
with the

these We
are

mysterious

real connections face been

to

the conscious very such

same

here,then,
has

face with

problem
"

which that

already
tions rela-

discussed in

with

detail, namely, body

and

of the

realitybetween
the

mind.
the mind literal

If,now,
of all

attempt
as

to

vindicate

interpretation

spatialterms
permanency, the

applied to
is that its

in the interest of its still exist with

supposed
of and

abandoned,

there

grounds
the total

objectionto

view

being
that

ceases

yet temporary cessation

of consciousness. shows

Examination all hold the

concern

of these

grounds, however,
which
men

they
to

the

conceptions
the and

feel is to
"

compelled
say,

regarding
answer

in general ; reality what questions,

"

that it is of

concerning
"

to

reallyto be," to
"

come
"

into

"

being
"

to

pass one's

out

"

being,
And

to

become,"

to

appear,"
common

to

manifest

self,"etc.

here, contrary
are no or more our

to the

opinion,our
our

fundamental

faiths
no

vague

and

tain, uncermore our

ignorance
with

is

greater
to

knowledge
we

limited, with strictly minds, than

For

respect
to

the

existences
we

call

respect

those of

existences

call

things.
sidered, con-

all human resolves

experience
itself into inferred

things, too, immediately

"

only this,

series souls
even

of

intuited,

remembered,
all

or

impressions.
the of

Not

alone, but
be The

physical beings (and

in
a

latter,it might

said,
known

are especially)

constant

process

becoming.

beingof all thingsconsists they lapse,as

and then
to
:

in their modes

of becoming. When
our

they
in
to

all

constantlydo, from
which such
we a

consciousness,
as

return
seem

forms
warrant

remember

sufficiently they
their

similar
we

metaphysical hypothesis,
all the while of
;

affirm been

They

have

been in

reallyexistent being.
This

have

permanent

permanency

ORIGIN

AND

PERMANENCE

OF

MIND

391

being,while
or

no
our

knowledge
with this
are

of them of

is, must

be taken

on

faith

rather

all

knowledge
also

things, as

permanently
and

ing, exist-

is suffused In like of
never manner

faith. ontological the observed

changes
be

ances performwhich
;

things explained by changes and

been

performances
observed
seem

have
a

observed

and

never

can

and

not

few

of these from those The

so

unobserved which whole far

as

performances thing has

ever

to be very

different

any

been

served obactually and

"

to do.

theory of
it And

the conservation upon is the What so-called

lation corre"

of energy, of energy, of the atoms token

to

depends
so

storage
behavior

is of this order. in chemical

no

imagined
can

combination.

give greater
is known But

of

being

real

thing,as
entire
to be

any

ordinary thing of
as

be, than

luminiferous ? The

ether, for example ?

structure

why

tiply mul-

instances

modern

physical
in
"

science,if this science is

real

understood

of representative
nency permacording ac-

beings
"

and

real

transactions, is sustained

by
to

similar

metaphysical hypotheses. Nowhere,

visible
are

science, is the
; the
are

and

the do
not

tangible also
remain, but eternal,and
to

the the it is

permanent

things
unseen

that
are

seen

things
these It the this

that

supposed
as we

to be

which

explain things
to what

perceive them
thinker

be. decide from all

follows, then, that every

as

reflective
can

will

problem
of
to

that is real
to

be validated

hypothesizing,according reality. But

the

his

ultimate

conceptions of
is

the world in
most

between

material

things and minds,

one

respect

subject now
decisive such times way
to

under

discussion,there
The
not
"

important and

difference.
as

hypothetical
in consciousness
at

doings of things,at
"

they

are

(that is,not
measure

in any

observable),are
the in

least

in

some

analogous
This is
be

doings
so

which
as

have

been

observed. of

true certainly to

far

all these
"

forms be

doing

can

reduced

modes what
meant

of

motion,

while,to
in

sure,

it is

quite

inconceivable

transaction

of reality
"

which

things are

capable is

by

mere

"

tendency

to

392

ORIGIN

AND

PERMANENCE

OF

MIND

motion

; since

only

minds

can

"

tend

"

to do

and

not

actually

perform.
When, however, minds
are

deprived of
will

their
as

consciousness,
has
as

all that is characteristic

of their existence
one

minds

totally

departed.

Whether
or

then
nor,
"

speak

of them

existent thing anynent permato the

yet unconscious,
in any relation whole world way

if

by
"

thus

speaking

be meant the

intelligible,will depend
one

upon
as

which of

conceives

of them

having

reality. The
to

existence which
as

unconscious any
to

minds
at

have, if they are

all,can
be Unconscious in which
meant

be
a

thought of
certain exist

having
that
"

existence
all

nothing but
and

abiding relation only in

reality.
"

finite minds

World-Ground What

all minds such

a

things have
as

their existence. the

not

is

by

statement at

this,and
does

proof of

this statement,
to

if it be the

accepted
with this

it all,

belong,however,
the

present treatise fullyto discuss.

come,

We

negative conclusion
mind,
as

as

to

nence perma-

of the of the

being
all be

of unconscious And
now,

to

reconsideration
to us,

phenomena.
can

it

seems

the

nomena phe-

accounted

for

in strict
to

consistency with
most but

psychological principles which experience;

the

apply

the

ordinary genuinely

subliminal hypothesisof entirely is unnecessary. what is called

"

psychical activities again,however,

to

It must

be
"

remembered

that

ordinary
we are

is often found search for its

be

the

most

mysterious, when
the solution

in

ultimate The

grounds.
that supposition into
or new

of

problems, or
cessation

the flashes

of intuition of the

truths, which

sometimes

follow

periods

relative

seemingly complete
due The conscious
comes

of conscious
cesses pro-

activities of is Even in

reasoning,are
most
new

to unconscious

but mental

quite unnecessary.
exalted truth
"

fact
use

of

experience is
of
our

this

our

ratiocinative

powers,

the
a

that

to

us our

is not

wholly
of

"

it is

not,

as

rule, chiefly
in is general,

the result of valuable

conscious
a means

reasoning. setting

Argument,

as chiefly

ORIGIN

AND

PERMANENCE

OF

MIND

393

forth the the how

truth, rather
on

than of

as a

means

of its

discovery.

Let

thinker

any is

form

complicated problem
the mind.
not
as

consider

its solution

reallygot by
with tide that up

In the full tide of carried

conscious the The into

discourse of this

himself,it is
he shot from

along

on

surface rather this

as

reaches

the

desired

object.
below

is the

truth

the hidden for seizure In similar

depths

tide ; it appears

presented

to consciousness

the

gift of
hits of

the

unconscious.
rare

fashion

are

the

happy
than

inventors,the

achievements upon

of art, the the mind

one

and plans of political rather

to

militarygenius bestowed
out

consciouslywrought
the significant and

by
of
"

it. of

Nor

can

fail

notice with

as

connection
nature

all such
"

ence experiinstinct,"

the conditions the

tact," of

and

of especially

astonishing performances
and of susceptibilities

of somnambulists, of

and clairvoyants, hypnotic subjects, aesthetic sensibilities

our

persons

hyperkinds.

various of
are

Indeed, it is

growing conviction,as
all these

students

logical psychorily ordinawill

science,that
considered
most

phenomena
further

(which
most

inexplicablebecause
as

rare)
and

be explained finally combinations of the

only

extensions

unusual

most to be

familiar

psychological principles.
it were,
to the

If,then, credit is
activities of which
our own

given,as

unconscious

minds

for those
or

results in consciousness

follow states of relative be extended

our

absolute

unconsciousness, such
the credit of

credit must much of

For quite indefinitely. and

most

brilliant

impressive activityin
to

sciousness con-

undoubtedly belongs not

to somewhat
or

consciousness

; it
as same

belongs thing is

to

some

One

of whose conscious.
even

doings
And with
;

we,

conscious

Egos, are
true, not

not

immediately
man

the
a

of

alone, but (and

of the in
our

relatively great
of those

abundance)
animals and among and of the

also

lower

animals

it is true

which
sources

we,

ignorance of their real psychoses

consider psycho-physicalactivity, of

of their It is true

the lowest.
even
"

bees, of ants, and

of

beetles,
micro-

as

the

study

of the

psychic (?)

life of

394

ORIGIN

AND

PERMANENCE

OF

MIND

organisms protoplasm
the

is

pointing out
of the of life !

"

of many

of those the
more

tiny specks
careful
use
"

of of

that powers

previous to biology, Nay,

higher
"

microscope, talked
it is true

of

as a

entiated undifferof the

matter

of not

few

plants as

well.
we

Again, then, are

brought face
and

to face with

the

dependence
human itself immediately it is not have

of all the self-conscious mind upon

the conscious

life of the

the activities of that of which This

it is not

conscious. limited
a

dependence
the casual and

is

complete;

to

rare

occasions, or

to conscious

activities that

dramatic
a

effect upon

thoughtless observer.
and

It is and It is of

dependence
to

which

accompanies
entire

interpenetrates,

is necessary

the explain,
to

life of consciousness. and all forms

a

equally necessary
that Shall

explain all psychoses

of that the

motion

give
we,

indication

originatingin
human
as a

mental

ground.
Absolute
as

therefore,declare
at

postulate of
mental life

Mind, working
all

the be

basis of

of

must psychical life,

accepted
We the

helpful,or
the true
a plete com-

necessary,

and postulate for descriptive believe this

to

ogy explanatory psycholbelieve that

We

be
on

true.

of those facts interpretation

which

allegedlaw of
of Absolute
as

parallelismrelies, requiresthat psycho-physical metaphysics which

in
source

monistic Mind and

the postulates and

immanence Will

all

reality finite ;
science,and

of Absolute
causal

the

ground

of all those so-called

every

connections

which
assumes

physical psychoand taken

form

of science,both

discovers.
our

But

in

simply raisingthis question we

the supreme
that
"

have

appeal before
It is
now

court

of the

general philosophy.
extraordinary need
mental of cesses, pro-

evident

it is not
"

any

hypothesis of
in order
to
us justify no

subliminal

or

unconscious conscious

explain

known

which activities, of mind It is ever when-

can

in

maintaining the
activities
are

permanency

conscious
but

taking place.
of
men

simply
of

the

vague

persistentworking
which makes

that

popular

form

metaphysical impulse

imagine

that

every

CHAPTER

XII

PLACE

OP

MAN'S

MIND

IN

NATURE

'

"HERE taken of

is

no

doubt

that

the

interest
to

which

men

have and
ditions con-

A
nature

in

speculations as
in

the

real

existence other the

the

mind

dream-life, swooning, and

been

of consciousness, has of these

same

largelydue
of

to

bearing
The

speculations upon
is also true the It mind titles
was

the doctrine

immortality.

thing
in mind.

of the discussion

of certain

problems applied
the latter of the of

involved
to the

and reality, identity,

unity,as

the from

supposed

demonstration

mortalit im-

of

its so-called

nature,

as

this

conception
criticism

was

constructed

by
of

crude

combination Kant

of reality, and unity,which principles identity,

to

subjected
of Pure its critical laid The

under Both the

the

form

the

"

Paralogisms
and

Reason." refutation down claim in the More whose

alleged

demonstration
remote

were,
a

however,

alike

from

the

lines life.

by

truly scientific study

to
an a

of

actual is
seen

mental
to be

of both

priori character

unjustifiable
those he

lightof

scientific

empiricalpsychology.
Kant, and
human mind

the conceptions which particularly,

argument

for

the
to

immortality of
the
terms

the

criticised, attached
and

reality,identity, unity, applied

in
to
as

permanence the

(or kindred

terms), when

to

the

subjectof
which both

phenomena
the

of consciousness, arise These

largelyfrom
the

misleading figuresof speech. parties to

"

terms,

meanings
are

controversy gave

them,

not
or

either reallyapplicable
to

to the

Ego regarded Ego,"

"

self-known considered

the

so-called

transcendental

the

Self

PLACE

OF

MAN'S

MIND

IN

NATURE

397

as

"

The thing-in-itself."
at

Kantian

criticism,if it could
ad
so

be be

looked
more

merely
which

as

an

argumentum
it cannot be

hominem,
the

would

conclusive.
on or

But the

regarded ; (namely,
of for the

for the very

"

point

refutation

turns

gism," paralosentation repre"

alleged illusorysubstitution
of
a

mental

logicalsubjectof thought
that

the known

real itself

subject

in

which

knowledge
out

inheres," etc.) is
our

incapable of being thought experience. dogmatism

the have
or

in

consistencywith
that the old for the
as an

actual

We

may

then, declare,
an

theological/

had

built up

argument
valid

immortality of

soul

which, if it had
conclusions
;

been

argument, would

reached ethical which

possessing no
said forever
was

practical, sesthetical,
the criti- ^ this have refuted
a

value is

and, with

equal confidence, that

to
no

cism

nowadays

dogmatism only destroyed what

of

of

value,by

process and
as

reasoning
The

as

to inapplicable

the
as

subject in hand,
was

in unintelligible whole

its

use

of terms,

the

refuted

tism. dogma-

subject of immortality therefore,requires v

for the

an

new entirely

and metaphysical treatment. psychological

arguments ThejRO-called
soul tend The
concern

immortality of
of

the

human which it is
so.

really
to
more

consist

of

variety
the

considerations

render

reasonable and

faith, or
among

hope, that
these the

important
the nature of
or

decisive

considerations

of the and minds

World-Ground,
is

plan

which

the'
is

system
ethical

things
not, and

serving (whether
which in the the soul

this

plan

what the
"

its final purpose relations its

is,if any

such sustains

pose pur-

there the

be),

and

to,:
of

World-Ground,
minds.

or

place

planful system
course,

things and
the

Such

considerations,of

lie

beyond ophy philos-

comparatively narrow
of mind is

sphere of
of

our

present philosophical
of the

inquiry. And

yet the voice

psychology and
the reasonableness from the

by

no

means

here. insignificant

Indeed, in
of the belief

all inquiry into ourjudgraent, in

immortality should
To this

take

its start view

psychological brought

point of view.

point of

it should

also be

398

PLACE

OF

MAN'S

MIND

IN

NATURE

back wander
true

just

so

often,

at

any

rate,

as

the

discussion

tends

to

into the is it that

speculation. Equally regionsof unintelligible by

the deathlessness with
our

of mind

something
of mind.

must

ybe
of

meant

which

accords

previous critical
permanence talk of the mind
to
our

discussion To

the

identity, reality, unity,and

more

speak
1

it is folly to plainly,
we

continuing
any
ceptions con-

in

being when
of its

have

ceased
nature

to attach

words

definingthe
nature
1 "

of

the We

being continued, or
shall
now

the

allegedcontinuance.
of the have

briefly pass
of upon
tal men-

in

review

the results far

as

metaphysical treatment
an

life, so
doctrine

they

immediate

bearing
from

the

of its continuance

after death.
cannot

flvyft
nor

The

immortality of
as

mind
a as

be

proved
and
an

its nature

regarded
the

that

of

real

self-identical
to

unitarybeing ;
order
to allow

is its permanence,
sure

known

of itself, and real

inference As

of
to

its continued what is the

permanent
nature

existence

after science

death. of

of

mind,

the

psychology empiricallypursued
of

and

extended

by

cautious
a sure

and

however, legitimatereflective thinking affords,

means a
non

judgment.
mori
"

This

by

no

means man.

enables If then,

us

to

affirm
"

posse

of

the soul

of

by the
that
to be

natural

immortality
may

of the mind
to be

it is meant
a

to claim
as

its existence

be known

of such

character

incapable of ceasing to be, it

natural

is

follyto
either mind.

assert

the doctrine science been

of-

immortality in
or

the

name

of the For

of psychology dantly abun-

of the that

philosophy of
the
cannot

it has

shown and the

the identityor reality, be maintained

even

self-sameness,
in this and

unityof

mind

bodily
tive reflectence existhe

life without

self-consciousness, recognitive memory,

It has also been of shown

thinking.
or

that the continued

as

permanency

mind, regarded
is experience, and
a

bridging

over

gaps

in this constitutive which is warrantable

metaphysicalhypothesis thinking actually

And
no finally,

ness, intelligible only if self-consciousand reflective of each gap.

recognitive memory,
exist

again

on

the

other

side

PLACE

OF

MAN'S

MIND

IN

NATURE

399

answer

can or

be

given
does

to

the

question,In
of in

what the

that
mind

has

any

value
once

meaning
actual

the

existence

consist,if
ceased be
no

these live
on

activities
as mere

consciousness

have

To whit
as.

forever

unconscious

mind-stuffwould
once

better than, and

not

from, different
sink down

for
to

all

perishing
and

mind. But self-consciousness

as

may

zero,

even

consciousness,
life
or

still existent

in the lowest may say.

forms

of dream"

in
"

half-animal
as

maunderings,
is wont
to

dip
The

below

the

threshold,"

psychology
of the

continuity
be deduced
as

unimpaired
mind,
from
as

forever

real,self-same,and unitary being of

therefore

belonging to
we

its nature, cannot

what

know

by experience
As far
as

of its behavior clear

ject the subgoes,

of conscious appears rather

states.

knowledge
to

it

to be the habit

of the mind and when

to

lay aside
are

betimes

all manifestations

of its

being ;
of
any

they
which

in fact laid
our

aside, there

is

nothing

worth

faith

or

hope
On
as

can

attach

itself, except the prospect of their resumption hand, the conception of such
know indubitably mind
to

again in

the future. and unity reality the very

nature

the other
we

that which human

belong to
scale of these every

of the

raises it in the which

being incomparably
characteristics. soul is indeed

above

all existences

lack

The
a

known

and unity of identity, reality, It is also

own a

pricelesspossession.
own

possessionwhich
above

places
which

its
can

dignity, in assigned
with
to

its

estimate, far
Moreover,
those such

that

be

things.
among

forms
seem

of mental parable incom-

are activity

themselves any from

most

which

most

of the the

manifold view

activities taken

of

things. They
of

appear,

even as

point of

by explanatory psychology,
mind,
"

distinctive

of the

superiornature
virtue of any self-known actual the

unaccountable,
mind the with mind

by pre-eminently,

connection
nature

of of

things.
as

It is this indubitable
to

revealed

itself in which

the

exercise appearance

of its of
a

so-called

higher faculties

gives it

400

PLACE

OF

MAN'S

MIND

IN

NATURE

certain

independence of
condition
can as an
"

existence.

Strictly speaking, indeed,

"

Vno
"

such

independent"
by any
those

or

unrelated totally of

existence

be maintained

form

being, whether reality

physical or
which the

psychical. All metaphysics

of of

elements

of material
as

physics assumes
on

originaland dependent degree

and each of

dependen in-

change, and
and the existence

which every

it makes kind and

every

kind

of

complex being
are things),

change
tions transac-

(that is,all
of their The
even

and

transformations

themselves

dependent
"

upon modes
"

other

for

being
when of from

and

for all their characteristic which

we

of behavior. known and

as
"

existence

call

the Mind exalted

is

never

observed its most

in

its most

states
"

in the released

exercise

activities highly spiritual On the

wholly

bodily conditions.
the brain

ence contrary, the existstill the

as

and

functioning of precondition or
the mind

appears
of

the

pensable indisand

concomitant
in

existence

of activity forms
or never

even

these

its most

highly spiritual rarely

of the material from and

of

activity.Moreover,
runs

the stream

of consciousness the

quite clear
thrown of

of

coloring by
it, as
the

sation-experi sen-

into from also

it were, thoracic

pheral perithe

organs

sense,

abdominal of

cavities,and
brain. At
in

probably
same

from

the

lower of

ganglia
and of

the

time, in all forms

its

knowledge

cially espeaes-

self-knowledge,with
and ethical sentiments and knows manifests
some

equipment

realized

thetical the mind in

no mere

and itself of the

are

of self-conscious
as

choices,
an

manifesting
to

ence existWith every of the of of

sort

independent
we

bodilyorganism. compelled only

the another say,

figure of speech
transcends

mind

thus

completely,not by springing into

the very into

powers order

cerebral

mechanism but also

nomena, phethat

existence,as regions of
the

it were,

mechanism and

by passing
various and

space,
terms

time, causality,
that

of ideality

kinds, where

apply to
lutely abso-

the existence
no

of activity whatever.

the cerebral

centres

have

meaning

PLACE

OF

MAN'S

MIND

IN

NATURE

401

For

example,
a

the

human of

mind

the anticipates the

future
occurrences

and

on predicts,

basis

experiencein
not
own now.

past, the
this and

which

will be but

are

Into

future,which thinking, it
of

is jects proistence, ex-

itself the its

product
own

of its

imagining
similar

continued
as

and

altered yet characteristically existence

as

well

the continued of the is

never

things.
of

But
nerve-

the existence

forms brain, and of its particular other than

a

commotion,
This
way

purely here-and-now
the mind. over, Moreas

existence.
in
an

physicalexistence by
every such

is,therefore,transcended

absolute all

of activity the

knowledge, as
actual

such, enforces
of the

same

conviction upon

to

potential independency
of of
our

mind, inferred
mental

the

basis way

experience with
For
moves

activities in the

transcending the sphere

all mind
"

of the

correlated

being
"

and

activities of the brain. In of

knowledge
"

is of the universal. so-called

"

knowing, the
" "

in the

sphere of
the true

law,"
many and brain is at

genera

and

of species,"
"

relations

common

to

of the individuals, all times is

never

of categories," But and and

no

for all spaces of the

and other

circumstances. than
concrete

the existence

individual ; its

being

every

instant
atoms

such precisely

other,
"

so

many

less count-

of oxygen,

hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus,

in such proportions precisely ; the
same

and

the

combined like,
never

its character

is,indeed,
the

twice

; it never

partakes of
flux in the

unchanging, but only consists brought by

the
in other

in and

of the ceaseless excreted

of materials

and blood-supply ways.

and urine,the faeces,

While, then, the material

the
correction

conditions rebuke of

of all mental the

life

tain conv

and

transcendentalists' and is in

high-flown declamation
of the
as justified

about
same

the

supremacy

ency independsome

soul,yet that

declamation truths which

"

sort

representative of

scientific

chology psy-

is

quite
lend

too

prone

to

overlook,
its

because, forsooth,
at
a

they do

not

themselves These

to readily

attempts

strictly

scientific treatment.

truths
26

are

however; they truths,

402

PLACE

OF

MAN'S

MIND

IN

NATURE

are

truths

of fact that human

to

are

realized To

in the say

experience of they they

has

every

fully developed
the soul's power is to removed But
to
we

soul.

that

demonstrate been

exist

after the
more

bodily substrate
than
can even

affirm

of them

sustain.
"

deny
may
to

that say them the

"

they suggest the possibility, or

the
more

haps per-

of probability than there

to

this continued

existence

is to

deny

is need. the

When,
taken and

now,

question as
with

immortality

of mind

is

to the

phenomena
the

which

physiologicalpsychology
may
most

psycho-physics more
express

deal, we especially
results of

factorily satisnon

inquiry by affirming a
the deniers of the

liquet.Here, undoubtedly, it
of For the the

is that

trine doc-

immortality are
facts which show it

strongest in their appeal to the facts.

the soul may
account
are

beyond dispute that

can

lose

all

being

claim
as

to

have, on

of the failure

of its material the existence For conditions known and the the

conditions and fact mind

these

conditions

supplied by
ism. organmaterial its

working satisfactory
appears
ceases

of the cerebral certain in which

to be that under

from

all that

only
order

being actuallyconsists. intelligible

are

But, then, there

which These
must
are a

other taken
as

facts into

of the the full

same

general
final
to

also be in fact such

and

account.
as

have

just been
of
we

referred

cating indithe

sort

of

independency
a

bodily
have

conditions

for

mind. that

It is also after brief else

fact of which

repeated experience
from all forms of the so-called

periods of cessation,either
from (more especially) mind
resumes

activityor
forms of its and

higher

the activity, of

its
are

being with renewed

also in
many
case

vigor

fulness
as are are

power.

There

strange
of the

such facts,

occasionallyobserved
those who have

the

dying, or
of
extreme

reportedby

been

in

conditions

or ecstasy, of clairvoyance, of apparent syncope These side. suggest wholly be set one death, that cannot

of possibilities
must

no

little interest
"

and

importance, even
the

if

"

as

be admitted

thev

do not

demonstrate

conclusions

404
such the

PLACE

OF

MAN'S

MIND

IN

NATURE

thing
the

is

possible at all,to
mind
to

find

by reflective thinking
stitute continuance con-

place

of man's

in that discuss

system of beings which

the of the of probability the

world, and

of mind

after the death

body.
Place of

When Man's

constructingthe
Mind that in Nature
so

title of this
was

chapter (" The

means

") it
theme such

by

no

intended

dicate to in-

large a
conduct

would
a

be at all
to

comprehensively
any

discussed. several upon

;

To

discussion

worthy
be
a

tent ex-

other
as

sciences

besides

psychology must
such

drawn sion discuswider

and,

has

just been
of

repeatedly said,
cultivate those of

involves than the those sciences

branches

much philosophical discipline

to

which

it is intended
are

here. that

Among
enter

involved the

all especially extension

into

anthropology, in
the of
our one

widest

the term. and the

Among philosophy
In

branches

of

philosophy involved, ethics

been mentioned

have religion much

narrower

again and
we are

again. prompted

closing ble possiof

task,however,

to indicate

direction

which

subsequent researches,if it becomes

be

to undertake

them, will
has thus

compelled

to follow.

The the

view

which

far been of the

advocated

of the

being
the

mind, of the body, and

be

relations between

two

will doubtless
as
an

rejectedsomewhat
and from obsolete all those

contemptuously by
Dualism. forms If of mind

many,
"

old-fashioned
a

by

"

dualism which
one

be

meant

dissent

theory
in

assert

the substantial
two

identity of body and

in either
or

of the third both then

existences which
to

(in

either

body
"

or

mind),

some

somewhat these
we are

is neither

of these

two, but of which

"

be in

regarded
the least

as

aspects
from

or

"

faces," etc.,
of yond be-

do
a

not

shrink For forms is

being accused
been

advocating
from which

dualistic each

theory.
of these dissents,

it has of

shown

question that
our

so-called

Monism,
to meet

dualism

quite inadequate
In other

the demands
or

either of scientific consistent

explanation for thinking.

admitted

facts

of clear and

reflective

words,

THE

PLACE

OF

MAN'S

MIND

IN

NATURE

405

and Materialism, Spiritualism, that doctrine

are

Monism

of the

pattern in which
many

is affirmed

by Hoffding, Bain, and

and

others,
title of

all alike both

unscientific

unphilosophical.
arrogates
and
to itself the not
can
,

Especiallyis
"monism"
assumes

that tenet
an

which way,

in
to be

exclusive

which that

infrequentl
appeal with

the

only speculativeview

confidence both these

to modern two

psychologicalscience, quite deficient in important regards. It is neither scientific nor alleged scientific
of careful is
; and

philosophical. The
tenet

basis

for such

tive specula-

in the
not

empirical law

psycho-physical parallelism
Where meagre
to

will

bear

examination.

it is clear in
meet to

meaning,
law

this law
case

altogether too
when under it for

the

real

facts of the
so as

the effort is made all the

enlarge the
becomes

to

provide
in

facts, it
the

hopelesslyconfused
argument
law On and end and in the

meaning.
based

Moreover,
upon the

metaphysical

conclusions

alleged empirical
of the be the facts of

or unintelligible

in the absurd.

the laws

contrary, the

speculativetreatment
our a

presented
has the Mind
a course

for
to

consideration result which That

as a

by
may

science

psychology
in somewhat the Human

led

summarized
we

following way.
realizes of it
or

being
Its

which and

call

itself

unique thought
acts

living
far
as

totalityin
science
can

development. imagination
in the and

origin,so

trace

frame

the

conception of it,lies
that
acts

in the first obscure

of consciousness

probably
increase

arise in

early
in the

life of

the

embryo.

These
are cessively suc-

complexity and

as significance

they

repeated
As the earlier ; and

so-called

stream
ones are

of

consciousness. upon

respects their content, the later

as

dependent
and

time-rate respects intensity, of

duration,
are

quality and dependent

of the But
nervous on

combination the action

sensation-elements, they
stimuli upon the

all

of external

periphery

system.
the earliest consciousness discernible which

from

periods an gives
token

of activity of the

criminatin dis-

dawning

406

PLACE

OF

MAX'S

MIND

IN

NATURE

of the and

and intellect,

the

consciousness

of

that self-activity the words

is

peculiar psychical element

will
are

for which be detected.

conation
own

reserved
"

are

to

By

its form

self-

realizingactivity
and
to

and discriminating,
even

in the

of growing
content
a

voluntary attention directingand

flow of the itself.
stream

creatingthe
"

of consciousness
as

it becomes

Self

It sets itself

subjectof

its

own

experiences over
them, in all their
content to

against
and

those

experiences, and
itself,in
and
most

attributes

and of intensity, quality, diversity it sots

over a

complex
and

itself ;
ner, man-

marked

emphatic things thought.

understand in the

against

in

opposition to

all the
or

of

its

experience, whether
does progressively
as a

perceived,imagined,
it constitute actively

Thus itself

and
"

real, self-same, and

these words have and

unitary being,
life of of reflective
on

meaning
It recognizes

which of

to the actual

self-consciousness,

recognitive memory,
its
own

thinking.
"

dependence
and pleasures, the the

the

bodily states,
of its

that

is,the

necessary

connection

of its

experienced bodily self-consciously

more

pains

and

indeed

purely spiritual
of the in
some

states, with
areas.

perceived or
same

inferred

condition that its

bodily
sort

At

time
are

it also

believes upon

these and

bodily members
volitions that
can

dependent
and

desires,ideas,
And

for their
the most

perceived or
subtle
to

inferred

changes.

nothing
science essential

extended
in

of investigations least of

bring

forward of

show,

the forms

impairs
the

the

truthfulness

both

these

popular
of psychology which of in

persuasion.
Thus do science psychological
"

and

the

metaphysics
a

reach
.

thejconjcjusionto quote
emphasized
regarded
life of
as a
"

declaration

we

have
can

elsewhere

that

"

the

development

mind

only

be

the real

progressivemanifestation
the action of the that

consciousness

of the and

being which, although tak-

ing

its start

direction

from
to

physical
are

elements

of the

body, proceeds
to laws

unfold

powers

sui

f generis, according

of its own."

PLACE

OF

MAN'S

MIND

IN

NATURE

407

On

the takes

other
us

hand, the scientific study of bodily development

in
a

different totally

direction,
"

namely,
its

out

into

the

general

field of so-called The

same

nature, with
atoms

variety of
its most the in

living physical forms. precious and

other the animal

constitute

highly organized
tissues,
"

substances those

(for example,
which
are

protagon of the cerebral

centres) as
nay, the
sources even

found

in the

surrounding air, in
these
atoms

water, the

soil,and
from such
a

plants. Indeed,
and
or

actuallycome
very
came.

return

"

some

of them

within speedily, The

few

minutes

hours

"

whence

they

chemistry of
know bodies

the cerebral

and tissues,

their molecular

their thermic, electrical, and physics,

so

magnetic changes,
matters, also

far

as

we our

anything
with the

about
rest

these of

obscure
as

connect

nature

fallingunder
any
new

its laws.

We

have for the

some

no absolutely

right to
of

assert

kind

of existence
in

body

on

account

the

tions temporary relato

which

stand parts of it,especially, It

the

nomena phe-

of consciousness. what of its it

was as
our

always is,as
part and

real the

thing,precisely beginning,
nature's

at the

beginning, and
; it is

before

being
"

body
Its

parcel of unity
it in any
are

physical
formal

stuff."
one

and reality, identity, words

merely

; not

of these the

appliesto
so-called of the

respect as

they
Yet

all

apply to
of the

being of

the mind. between mind and the the opment development devel-

again,
of that

the

connection

unique being
temporary and
which and

constantlychanging complex
we

of

physical
the other and of

elements intimate

call

the Or

body,
rather
"

is

doubtedly un-

most to
use

peculiar.
of this word

since
or

singular

number

"connection,"
the
most

of any

available mischievous

word, is fraught with

consequences
"

leading misety vari-

an

indefinite

peculiar and
the
or

close the

relations,or
mind. These

connections,exists
cannot

between

body
vain

and

be

ished diminany

their of

actual

concrete to

existence summarize

destroyed by
them in
a

manner

attempts

single

408

PLACE

OF

MAN'S

MIND

IN

NATURE

term,
from and
so

or

to foist in

over

them

rather law.

than

duly
are

to

generalize

them

any

one

supreme

They
But

what is to

they

are

the business far

as

of

psycho-physical science
them.

accept and

possible to explain
greater and

thus

far the progress

of science has been in the direction

and
ever more

of disclosing a greater

bewildering complexityof relations, of already known

The those truth who
on

rather
terms

than

in

the

reduction

relations of this

to

of

few simple formulas.

no

ment stateuine gen-

needs

defence with the

before the work

have in

any

acquaintance
literature For of this which the

going
and

psychological

with or laboratories,

already vast
researches

ing constantly increas-

these

produce.
and
the

example,

phenomena
the

of attention conditions
sense

relations muscular

to psychical activity

of the

system and
to detailed

of the

end-organs

of

might well, previous supposed

show "laws which of
to be
a

examination, have

been

simple
sented repreall

affair.

So, too, the English by

the

Associational
a

School, as

Mills,
"

made the

brave

reducing
at

mental of seemed laws known

phenomena
ideas ;
to

under and the

so-called

of the association
one

only question
was as

time

them not
not

worth be
a

debating
summarized

to whether
one.

all these it is
now

could that

in
reacts

But

school-child

with

attention form

and

discriminating consciousness
without
so

to the
a

simplest

of stimulation

furnishing thereby
that
our

psycho-physical problem
resources

complex infinitely
out

present
are

for the

mere

disentangling of
,

its elements

speedilyexhausted.
seem

Start-

ing
and

from

the

physical side, we
and
sex

to

see

that

height
ditions con-

weight

and

age

and

parentage and
amount

climatic

the (thermic, electrical,

of moisture obscure telluric and kind other

in the
ences influ-

atmosphere, etc.), and

of
an

possiblymore
kind, and
the and

unaccountable

the amount

quality
of food ditions, preconstart-

of the last taken

night's sleep,and preceding meal,

so

quantity and
numberless*
a

for the

determine

seemingly simple

result.

But

PLACE

OF

MAN'S

MIND

IN

NATURE

409

ing
to

from

the is not

side,the complexity psychical

less

of the connected there is

factors be

great.
as

And

among and

them

always

reckoned

with,

unique
the is
to

that quite incalculable,

of peculiar self-activity essential

conscious
as

subject
of in

whose in

very
sciousness con-

characteristic
unrelated

that,
and

such,

it appears the

independent
them.

bodily
a

conditions, although it undoubtedly varies

intensityin
the ?

complicated dependence
And
between
"

upon

why, indeed, body

"

should mind

it be would

expected
be

that

case

as

and

otherwise

Even
in

the

nature
as

of the
vast

atoms

(each one)
other kinds
or

is determinable

thought
between

only
each this

and

indefinite

complex
; and

of relations

kind

and

all the
no one can

for the statement

of

complexity
Who,
is

word,
have

single formula,
would

quate. is at all ade-

then,

any

respect for the simplicity try to provide for the

its historical
an

(which

indeed) that simplicity,

between

relations
as

such human kinds but

no
"

being, with
such constitute

ment, developnumber
some

is the
so

soul, and
as

infinite

of

atoms
one

of

many

the

brain, with
or

high-sounding
for us,
we

largelymeaningless
more

absurd

phrase ?
fangled new"

As

have about

respect for much

of the

jargon
the old-fashioned

psycho-physicalparallelism
about

than

for of

talk
one

"tenement,"

or

"tabernacle
or

clay," etc.
than those

The

is

scarcelymore
we

scientific

instructive
sneers

the other.
men

Nor

have whose

any

more

fear for the themselves this

of

of science
as

wishes

express

in rash so-called would

conclusions

to

the

undoubted of

validity of
the views mind.

law, than

for the faith of

dogmatism
men

theologians who
as

pin

the

to

untenable

to the

so-called that and

transcendency
men

and

of spirituality
to express

All

the words of
naive

have

ever

employed

the relations understood

as

body

mind, when
of
1

properly limited
some

and

figures
serve

speech, assert
For of the

undoubted
"

truth ; l but

they

to

meaning

of such
see
"

terms

as

bod}-and mind,

Elements

tions applied to the relaorgan," etc., when of Physiological Psychology," pp. 634 f.

410

PLACE

OF

MAN'S

MIND

IN

NATURE

convey

it

as

real

truth

only

to those

who

can

think of
not

out

the

meaning
terms

of these

figuresof speech
But
no

into terms
"

actual, concrete
all of the and

experience. together
exist of
are
an
"

one

term

and truth. the

sets

forth

the

whole

For

body

mind

and

develop

in company of do of
nature
an

with

varying
relations.

sion expres-

indefinite
same;

number neither
course

changing
run

They
gins be-

not

the

they
at

wholly parallel in
The it

their

activities
to

and
a

development. large; and

body

be

as

part of
in the
we

develops in
ways,

constant

dependence,
also upon it

indefinite and

variety of
The

upon

nature, and
with
to
sense

being
say, the

development

of the mind mind

which in

is, as

connected.

begins
same

be

dependence
words,
as

upon
a

body, but
nature. upon

not, in the

of the
most

part of

It not the

only develops through

its it has tions condiends. of
an

in the
own

immediate upon

dependence
at

body, and

body

nature

large,but
sets

it also takes

in hand

development.
; and

It

for

itself

ends, which

chosen

it

determines, within
to the
"

limits,the bodily
of these
mere

and This is
"

movements not
mere an

realization
"

chosen
use

parallelism ;
is not
"

it is not

"organ
"

by

agent; it
mere

mere

inhabiting
"

of

ment "teneAll
us

it is not

being
do not

seated

as

on

throne. enable

such better

figuresof speech
to understand
;

simplify,do

not

the

they must
those
two

all themselves

be understood related which

to

by being interpretedinto performances

scientific of the

actual, concrete, but

"

beings
and,
as

body
far
as

and

mind

"

study
terms.

discovers

reduces possible,

general
The science
"

summing-up
and for the
so dualistic,

of the

whole

matter

for

psychological beings
to

metaphysics
There
to

of mind
are

edly is, then, undoubtfact two

far forth. It is vain

in
as

be in
not

reckoned any mind

with.

talk

though they
one.

were,

intelligible meaning
; nor

of the
or

word,

The

body is
for The

does

it

produce

by its behavior

account

the

or being, the activities,

the

development

of mind.

412

PLACE

OF

MAN'S

MIND

IN

NATURE

\be

found

the And hold that the

One it

Ground

of
firm

all

interrelated for in and also call this human One due the

existences the

and for

^activities.
which

is

our

conviction,

reasons

we

ourselves of

responsible
our

time relations

to

give

answer,

the

nature

minds

they
can

sustain understood Other

to

several if it

bodies

we

our

own

be

only
and
an

be

granted
Mind.

that The

Principle
mind and
cannot

is

an

Absolute the and be held

be

produced
the mind conscious

by

body;

out

of

the

unconscious

irrational Yet of its

rational

cannot

be for the

explained.
creation is also

our

cannot

responsible
at

own

body
a

or

of

nature

large.

This

body
that for in
must

too

much

temporary

loan

from

nature,
to

momently
to

be it with

acknowledged
"

as

debt

be the

paid,
two

us

so

unite

the

mind But

as

to

identify
nature,

third all

unknown

what. some-

of

mind,
the have
one

and

body,

alike,
both

it it

must

be

said "live this the

In and

Him

who and is and the

is

World-Ground At this of

and whether

we

move

our

being."
which domain

any treatise

rate,
hands

be

not

so

question

over

to

larger

all-inclusive

Philosophy.

INDEX

Absolute

See Self and Mind. the Mind, conception of, Ego. 394 f., 412 f. ; Energy, conception of, 213 f., 218, 225 f. 257, 284, 286 f.,317 f., relation of, to finite mind, 392, 397 f., Epistemology, the, of natural science, f. f. 9 f.; nature 81 403 of,
on

Archer, Wm.,
180

consciousness

of actors,

(note).
75

Flournot,

M.,

on

metaphysics

and

Associationalism, inadequacy of,

408

f., of,

psychology, 28

f.

f. the

Automatism,
169

psychical nature

f.

Hodgson,
28.

metaphysical standpoint of,

of
18
.

Balzac,
181

dramatic

consciousness

of, Hoffding, views

psychology
Monism view mistaken

and cised, critiof

f. element in

metaphysics, knowledge,
208
228

f ; his

Belief, as

f.

319

f. ; his f.

Body,

relation

of, to mind,

237 f., f.,

Lotze,

319

253 f.,271 f. ; nature of, 254 Biichner, his materialism, 284.

f.

tenets of, 1 1 f Huxley, philosophical double consciousness Hypnotism, in, 164 f.,186 f. ; general phenomena of,
.

"

"

Causation,
mind,
the
212

as

applied
f., 258
f.
to

to

f., 232

body and f.; origin of

f. ; law

277

f.

conception of, 218 f.,230

f.,229
as

Identity, hypothesis of,

347

20

f., 322

f.,

of, 223

f.,234

f. ; consciousness

of,

148

f. ; the,

Conation,
mind,
86

related f.

the

concept of

Conception, nature
Consciousness,
86
250
as

of, 93 f.

things,150 f. 397 Immortality,of mind, 205 f., Inspiration,psychical automatism

172

of

f.

in,
173

f. ;

respects its content, of the Self, 101 f.,127 f.,174 f.,

f. ; so-called f ; the
.

f. ; Philo

Judaeus'

view

of,

f.

f.; of identity, 148

164
.

"double," ethical, 183

399 38.0 f.,

f., 179

f., 183

James,

Wm.,
24

on

metaphysics
f. ;
on

and

chology, psy-

f ; threshold

of, mind,

191

f.,
103

self-knowledge,

f.
to

f. ; nature

of the

Ego,

163

f.

Creationism, theory of,as Dessoir, Dreams, in, 178

285
"

364

f.

Kant,

Max,
175

on

"double

ness," conscious-

of psychology, 1 on nature psychological fallacies of, 99 f. ; ethical

f. ;
on

(note).

consciousness,
206
"

183

f. ;

on

mortality, imof

dramatic f.

sundering
form,
6

of

Ego

"

; 396

on

paralogisms
1 1 5 f..229

pure

reason,"

f.

Dualism, its uncritical

;

f, 11 f
f. ; and

.,

Knowledge,
relation
229

nature

of, 98 f

f
,

.,

the critical, denned, 288

351

of, to principleof causation,

defended,

f.

f.

414

INDEX

Lotze,
the
294

on

self-feeling, 249;
255

nature

of

Real,

the

metaphysics psychology
the
;

of, 78
49

f.

body, f.; his

of

f.

on

materialism,
319

Realism,

of,

f.

dualism,
366.

f.

on

the

Reality,
97

correlate

of

knowledge,
119

origin

mind,

f., 115

conception

of,

f.

Science, Materialism,
290

metaphysics

of,

f.,

10

f.,

defined,
f
.

288

f. ;

cised, criti212

f.
nature

its
"

uuintelligibility,302
consciousness

f
.

Self,
95

of

the

knowledge
f., 248
;

of,

90

f.,

Maury,
in

M.,

on

double

"

f., 127 of,

f., 155
102

f.

izing individual-

dreams,

179.

f.
as

dramatic

sundering
from

Memory,

knowledge
need

from, of,
in

130

f.

of,

175

f.
245
33

distinguished
f.

Metaphysics,
1

psychology,
f. f.

things, Solipsism,

f.

f., 23

f., 28

f., 42 of,
83

f., 57 f.,106
197

f.,

211

Mind,
113

concept

reality of,

Soul, conception
89

of, in

psychology,
111

51,

f., 125
162

f., 147,
f.
;

f. ;
189

identity of,
f., 194
to

f.; in philosophy,
his

f., 287
of

f.

148,
202 208 356

unity

of,

f.,

Spencer,
of,
f.
;

conception
relations f.
288

philosophy,

f.,

369

f. ;

relation

body,

69

f.
on

f., 237 f., 358

f., 253
f.
;

f., 271

origin of,
of,
366

Spinoza,
20

of

mind

and

body,

permanence
397

f.;

f., 239

its

place
a

in nature, scholastic

f.

Spiritualism, defined,
doctrine,
f
.

f. ; criticised,

Monism,
its its
two

242
288

f. ; f. ; its

305

f., 384

f.

kinds,

284

defined,
314

Sufficient
227

reason,

principle

of,

224

f.,

attitude

characterized,
317

f. ;

f.

tenets

criticised,

f.

Things,
245

how f. D.

distinguished

from

mind,

Newton,
6f.

attitude

of,

to

metaphysics, Thompson,
163

G.,

on

nature

of

Ego,
mind,

f., 201.
as

Thought,
Phenomenism, of,
211

related

to

reality

of

M.
33

Flournoy's
outcome

cism criti-

140

f. the

f ;
.

legitimate
of,
24

of,

Traducianism,
360

theory

examined,

f. relation
18 64 to

f.

Philosophy,
1

psychology,
f., 65

f., 15 f., of,

f.,

f., 41

f., 73;
f.

Vogt,
Volkmann,

his

materialism,
his views
44

298

f. and

nature

f., 70

f. ; kinds

of, 288
182

of

psychology

Prophetism, Psychology,
1

consciousness relation

of,
to

f.

metaphysics,

f.

of,

philosophy,
physics," meta-

f., 41

f.,
6

52

f., 73; f.,

"without
60

Ward,
219

Dr.,
f. law

on

conception

of

causation,

f., 42

f. ; nature

of,

52

f.

Weber, Parallelism, f., 61

view

of, its significance, 262

See Absolute M. Mind.

f.

Psycho-physical
of,
Hciff
29

principle
f.,
319

World-Ground.

f., 36

f.,
319

240

f.

Wundt,
his

criticised views
49

by

Flonrnoy,
and

29

ding's

of,
331

f. ; the

ciple prin-

of f.

psychology

physics, meta-

criticised,

f.

THE

PHILOSOPHICAL
OF

WORKS

GEORGE
Professor of

TRUMBULL
Philosophy
in

LADD
Yale

University.

PSYCHOLOGY:
A

Descriptive
of

and
and

Explanatory.
Development
LADD,
Professor of
Human of losophy Phi-

Treatise
Life. in

the

Phenomena,
GEORGE

Laws, TRUMBULL

Mental

By

Yale

University.
to
cover

8vo, $4.50.
the entire

The

book

is

designed
a

ground

of

descriptive and
discussion
to

tory explanaand needs the

of

psychology in philosophy of mind pupils and teachers,

The
processes,

summary

way,

reserving speculative

for another while taken

not

volume. It is carefully adapted exclusively prepared for them. the

author
to
"

the

point
but

of view

leads the of

into
trace

an

analysis
the

of

all

the of

mental
mental of

especially into
and

endeavor so-called

development
the

life,the

formation and
two

growth

faculty," and
and The
3.

attainment

knowledge
After the Mental Mental

of character.

introductory chapters
main
2.

on

the follows Mental

Nature
:

the

Method General

of

ogy, PsycholForms
of of

three Life. Life.

divisions The Elements

are

as

1.

Most The

of

Life.

Development

Critical
"

Estimates
gives
so

of
a

the
survey

Work.
of P. the whole field
as

I know

of

no

other

work

that

good

critical
"

this."

Prof. This G.

B. book H.

Bowne,
will

Boston

University.
our

"

Any

writing

of

his is

matter

to

be

grateful

for.
"

largely increase
Harvard

debt."

Prof.

Palmer,
new

University.
to my

"I classes

shall
as a

take
most

pleasure thorough

in and

recommending
exhaustive

Professor
treatment
"

Ladd's

book

on

psychology

of the Prof.

subject." J.
H.

Hyslop,
in

Columbia

College.
volume the book

"

As

calm, scholarly, descriptive

in

and

thoroughly
German.""

scientific

treatise,covering
and written in
an

single

entire has
not
"

field of its

and
or

explanatory

psychology
Prof. G. M.
to

attractive

style, the

equal

English

Duncan,
have "Prof.

Yale

University.
it."

It is

distinct honor

to

American

scholarship

produced
H. N.

Gardner,
and will

Smith make

College.
admirable

"

It

will with

be

well-nigh
classes

indispensable

to

teachers
to

of

psychology,
and E.

an

text-book

sufficientlyadvanced

understand

profit by
H.

its discussion."

"President
"I shall
at
once

Capen,

Tufts

College.

recommend

its

use

by
"

my

classes."

Prof.

J.

W.

Stearns,

University

of

Wisconsin.

ELEMENTS
A

OF
of the

PHYSIOLOGICAL
Activities
Point and Nature of

PSYCHOLOGY
the
Mind

Treatise
and

from

the

ical Phys-

Experimental
Professor
of

of View.
in Yale

LADD,
This
a

Philosophy
that
has

By GEORGE University.
to to

TRUMBULL

8vo, $4.50.
English
recent

is the of

first treatise
the

attempted
down

present the
most

to

readers

discussion

whole

subject brought by
from
numerous scores

times.

It and

includes tables

the latest discoveries, and and

and
and

excellent
even

illustrations
of

by gathering
inaccessible form has
the
to

material
most

hundreds
the reader

separate compact

treatises and

persons

it brings

before

in

yet lucid The work

of

the entire three

structure

subject.
of which of the
the

principal divisions
and

first consists

of

scription de-

functions

Nervous reference various

System
to

considered

simply
which

under

the

conception
The second the

of mechanism part

without the

the

phenomena
and mental

of consciousness. exist
between

describes of what the

classes mechanism

of correlations

phenomena
to state

nervous

phenomena,
themselves
of these

with
over

an

attempt various

is known The third

of the laws part

which
at

maintain
the

these
the

classes.

introduces,
as

close

researches,
or more

presentation

of such

conclusions

may

be of

legitimately
the
human

gathered
mind.
"

speculatively inferred

concerning

the .nature

Professor

Ladd

deserves

warm

thanks

for

undertaking gaining
in in The the

the

preparation of such
and the clearest sublime

work."
"

Mind. the

"

He

writes of

at

once

as as

scientist
a

bent

on

fullest

insight into

phenomena
nature
"

mind, and

metaphysician
"

deeply concerned

with

question of the

of the Well and

spiritualsubstance."
in excellent
tone

James
and

Sully

Academy. style, free from

mere

written,
with due
"

temper,

clear, even
between

needless
or

ties, technicaliand

regard
New work

to

the

necessary

difference

speculation

surmises

established
"

facts."

York

Times. Ladd

This

admirable
of

by Professor
extent

deserves
matter

hearty welcome 1874 in both

"

from

the
to

English public
the

as

the

first book and

'

sufficient

of

subject
been

and since
"

depth of thought
Westminster with each other
on

take and

place in by

American Wundt's
"

English

literature

that

has

held

Germany
Review.
; and

France

Griindszuge der
erudition
and years

Physiologischen

Psychologic'
are
on

His

his broad-mindedness
to come,

par

his volume

will,

probably, for many

be the

standard

work
"

of reference Prof. William

the

subject."
in The Nation.

James

OUTLINES
A

OF
of

PHYSIOLOGICAL
Mental Science for

PSYCHOLOGY.
Academies
of

Text-book

GEORGE

TRUMBULL
Crown is
not
an

LADD, 8vo, $2.00.

or

Professor

.Colleges. in Philosophy

and

By
Yale

University.
The
volume

of

abridgment Physiological Psychology, which is

the entire
embarrass the
nature

revision
to

of* the

larger book,
for
mature

Elements

still

be

preferred
less details of the

students,
that

but, like it,surveys

field,though
Briefer
as

with

and

references

might
and of

beginners.
of the

discussions related
to

nervous

mechanism,
be

the

mind

"Outlines mental

"; while

treatment

of relations
new

body, existing between

especially

the

will

found
organs

in

the

excited
"

and

phenomena
and

offers "Will."

much

material,

on

Consciousness,"
differences mind and

"Memory,"
Later
of age,
sex,

chapters, considering mind

race,

and

body
as

as

dependent
the
nature

upon of the

etc.,

and

giving conclusions

to

INTRODUCTION
An

TO
a

PHILOSOPHY.
System By
Yale of

Inquiry after
to of of

Rational

Scientific

Principles
TRUMBULL

in

their

Relation
Professor The
the

Ultimate

Reality.
in
as

GEORGE

LADD,

Philosophy
the

University.
in

8vo,
and

$3.00.
incorporated
its readers
to

hope

author,
book may

expressed
serve

the

Preface
some

in

title, is that
of

this

to

"

introduce"

of

the

study

philosophy.
those years
book
a

Among
the later

for whom of
our

it is intended educational such which in

who
to

may

be

first

mentioned It of end
a

the

young
not

in
a

higher

institutions.
in the

is, however,
the in

technical

for

instruction,

being,
invite

opinion
and

author,

coming unbe-

study of problems
others
who

reflection

opinion.
of of

But

there

are

share None
and

the
are

general

pursuit after
escape the

knowledge

sophical philowhich

questions.
life itself The
such

thoughtful

the

mysteries
appeals
the

is made
has that
new

up, been

all

earnest to

inquirers
the utmost,

book

especially.
are

language
nature

simplified
and
be
not

though

questions
occur

of

terms

unfamiliar
and

language

sometimes
stated.

of

sity, neces-

yet
said
the
extent

all the

is found author He
as

to

intelligible
left himself
makes the

clearly

Finally
in

it may

be of

that

has

entirely concealed
confession in
the that pages,

the

treatment

subject.
the
book
:

modestly
well
as

his
and

own

views,
the

to

an

positive

critical,appear
value
and

to

public this

makes
CONTENTS

of double
Source
"

interest.
and its Problems"
"

The

of

Philosophy
and and
"

Relation the

of

Philosophy
of
"

to

the

ticular Par"

Sciences

Psychology

Philosophy
"

The

Spirit and
of and Schools and

Method

Philosophy Theory
"

Dogmatism, Knowledge
./Esthetics
"
" "

Skepticism, Metaphysics Philosophy

of this book that
"

Criticism

The of

Divisions

Philosophy
of

The Mind

of
"

Philosophy
"

Nature and

Philosophy
in

Ethics

of will

Religion
be
a

Tendencies

Philosophy. reasoning, and

We open
up

The

study
of ideas

discipline in shrewd enjoyment

to

portrayed
mind.

world

will The
we

add

scope

and

the

student's

give it

our

fied unquali-

endorsement."
"

Quarterly
are sure

Review. Professor Ladd's work will be welcomed."

"

In all its aspects

Herald

"

The

entire
to

discussion

is
"

fresh, candid, and

Post-Graduate

able.

It is not

only

an

and Presbyter. introduction, it is also

contribution

philosophy."

Wooster

Quarterly.

Descriptive
a

Text-book

Catalogue
in all

for

the

current

year,

taining con-

large

list of

books

departments
free and
on

of

college,seminary,
; also
a

and

universitywork,
Price-list

will be
for

mailed

request

complete

Text-book Publications.

teachers

Catalogue

of

Miscellaneous

Correspondence

invited.

CHARLES
153-157 Fifth

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SONS,
New York.

Avenue,