I know there are readers in the world, as well as many other good people in it, who are no readers

at all,who find themselves ill at ease, unless they are let into the whole secret from first to last, of every thing which concerns you. It is in pure compliance with this humour of theirs, and from a backwardness in my nature to disappoint any one soul living, that I have been so very particular already. As my life and opinions are likely to make some noise in the world, and, if I conjecture right, will take in all ranks, professions, and denominations of men whatever,be no less read than the Pilgrims Progress itself - - - and, in the end, prove the very thing which Montaigne dreaded his essays should turn out, that is, a book for a parlour-window;I find it necessary to consult every one a little in his turn; and therefore must beg pardon for going on a little further in the same way: Forwhich cause, right glad I am, that I have begun the history of myself in the way I have done; and that I am able to go on tracing every thing in it, as Horace says, ab Ovo.

I had also arrived to some little diversions and amusements, which made the time pass a great deal more pleasantly with me than it did before - first, I had taught my Poll, as I noted before, to speak; and he did it so familiarly, and talked so articulately and plain, that it was very pleasant to me; and he lived with me no less than six-and-twenty years. How long he might have lived afterwards I know not, though I know they have a notion in the Brazils that they live a hundred years. My dog was a pleasant and loving companion to me for no less than sixteen years of my time, and then died of mere old age. As for my cats, they multiplied, as I have observed, to that degree that I was obliged to shoot several of them at first Spacetime Spacetime is usually interpreted with space as being three-dimensional and time playing the role of a fourth dimension that is of a different sort from the spatial dimensions. Until the beginning of the 20th century, time was believed to be independent of motion, progressing at a fixed rate in all reference frames; however, later experiments revealed that time slowed down at higher speeds of the reference frame relative to another reference frame. Spacetime in literature Incas regarded space and time as a single concept, named pacha (Quechua: pacha, Aymara: pacha).[1][2] The peoples of the Andes have kept this understanding until now.[3] Arthur Schopenhauer wrote in 18 of On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason (1813): "...the representation of coexistence is impossible in Time alone; it depends, for its completion, upon the representation of Space; because, in mere Time, all things follow one another, and in mere Space all things are side by side; it is accordingly only by the combination of Time and Space that the representation of coexistence arises."

The idea of a unified spacetime is stated by Edgar Allan Poe in his essay on cosmology titled Eureka (1848) that "Space and duration are one." In 1895, in his novel The Time Machine, H.G. Wells wrote, "There is no difference between time and any of the three dimensions of space except that our consciousness moves along it", and that "any real body must have extension in four directions: it must have Length, Breadth, Thickness, and Duration." Spacetimes are the arenas in which all physical events take placean event is a point in spacetime specified by its time and place. For example, the motion of planets around the sun may be described in a particular type of spacetime, or the motion of light around a rotating star may be described in another type of spacetime. The basic elements of spacetime are events. In any given spacetime, an event is a unique position at a unique time.

Ernest Hemingway (1899-1961) occupies a prominent place in the annals of American Literary history by virtue of his revolutionary role in the arena of twentieth century American fiction. By rendering a realistic portrayal of the inter-war period with its disillusionment and disintegration of old values, Hemingway has presented the predicament of the modern man in 'a world which increasingly seeks to reduce him to a mechanism, a mere thing'. [1] Written in a simple but unconventional style, with the problems of war, violence and death as their themes, his novels present a symbolic interpretation of life. Ernest Miller Hemingway was born in 1899 in Oak Park, Illinois, in an orthodox higher middle class family as the second of six children. His mother, Mrs. Grace Hale Hemingway, an ex-opera singer, was an authoritarian woman who had reduced his father, Mr. Clarence Edmunds Hemingway, a physician, to the level of a hen-pecked husband. Hemingway had a rather unhappy childhood on account of his 'mother's, bullying relations with his father'. [2] He grew up under the influence of his father who encouraged him to develop outdoor interests such as swimming, fishing and hunting. His early boyhood was spent in the northern woods of Michigan among the native Indians, where he learned the primitive aspects of life such as fear, pain, danger and death. At school, he had a brilliant academic career and graduated at the age of 17 from the Oak Park High School. In 1917 he joined the Kansas City Star as a war correspondent. The following year he participated in the World War by volunteering to work as an ambulance driver on the Italian front, where he was badly wounded but twice decorated for his services. He returned to America in 1919 and married Hadley Richardson in 1921. This was the first of a series of unhappy marriages and divorces. The next year, he reported on the Greco-Turkish War and two years later, gave up journalism to devote himself to fiction. He settled in Paris, where he came into contact with fellow American expatriates such as Gertrude Stein and Ezra Pound. 'From her (Gertrude Stein) as well as

from Ezra Pound and others, he learned the discipline of his craft - the taut monosyllabic vocabulary, stark dialogue, and understated emotion that are the hallmarks of the Hemingway style'. [3] Hemingway's first two published works were In Our Time and Three Stories and Ten Poems. These early stories foreshadow his mature technique and his concern for values in a corrupt and indifferent world. But it was The Torrents of Spring, which appeared in 1926, that established him as a writer of repute. His international reputation was firmly secured by his next three books, The Sun Also Rises, Men Without Women and A Farewell to Arms. This was only the beginning of an illustrious career, with an impressive output of several novels and short stories, a collection of poems and The Fifth Column, a play. Hemingway was passionately involved with bullfighting, big game hunting and deep sea fishing, and his writing reflects this. He visited Spain during the Civil War and his experiences on the war front form the theme of the best seller For Whom the Bell Tolls. When the Second World War broke out, he took an active part and offered to lead a suicide squadron against the Nazi U Boats. But in the course of the war, he fell ill and was nursed by Mary Walsh, who eventually became his fourth wife and continued to be with him until his death. In 1954, he survived two plane crashes in the African jungle. His adventures and tryst with destiny made him a celebrity all over the English speaking world. Hemingway began the final phase of his career as a resident of Cuba. There he continued his life of well advertised hunting and adventure, being often in the forefront of literary publicity and controversy. This phase is marked by a decline in his creative genius which, however, attained its original stature with the publication of The Old Man and The Sea in 1952. It was an immense success and won him the Nobel Prize for literature in 1954. His fortunes took a turn for the worse, when Fidel Castro came to power and ordered the Americans out of Cuba. It proved a great shock to Hemingway and added to his agony over the decline of his creative talents. He fell victim to acute fits of depression and attempted suicide twice. He was hospitalized and treated for his psychological problems. But after a few months of doubts, anxieties and depression, he shot himself on the 2nd of July 1961, bringing to an end one of the most eventful and colorful lives of our times. Hemingway's literary genius was molded by cultural and literary influences. 'Mark Twain, the War and The Bible were the major influences that shaped Hemingway's thought and art'. [4] During his sojourn in Paris, Hemingway also came into contact with eminent literary figures such as Fitzgerald, Sherwood Anderson, D.H. Lawrence and even T.S. Eliot. 'All or some of them might have left their imprint on him'. [5] Hemingway also acknowledged that he had learnt a great deal from the writings of Joseph Conrad. Besides these, his early experiences in Michigan colored his writing to some extent. The most important influence that left a deep impact on his genius was the nightmarish experiences which he himself had undergone in the two World Wars.

As a novelist, Hemingway is often assigned a place among the writers of `the lost generation', along with Faulkner, Fitzgerald, John Dos Passos and Sinclair Lewis. 'These writers, including Ernest Hemingway, tried to show the loss the First World War had caused in the social, moral and psychological spheres of human life'. [6] They also reveal the horror, the fear and the futility of human existence. True, Hemingway has echoed the longings and frustrations that are typical of these writers, but his work is distinctly different from theirs in its philosophy of life. In his novels 'a metaphysical interest in man and his relation to nature' [7] can be discerned. Hemingway has been immortalized by the individuality of his style. Short and solid sentences, delightful dialogues, and a painstaking hunt for an apt word or phrase to express the exact truth, are the distinguishing features of his style. He 'evokes an emotional awareness in the reader by a highly selective use of suggestive pictorial detail, and has done for prose what Eliot has done for poetry'. [8] In his accurate rendering of sensuous experience, Hemingway is a realist. As he himself has stated in Death in the Afternoon, his main concern was 'to put down what really happened in action; what the actual things were that produced the emotion you experienced'. [9] This surface realism of his works often tends to obscure the ultimate aim of his fiction. This has often resulted in the charge that there is a lack of moral vision in his novels. Leon Edel has attacked Hemingway for his `Lack of substance' as he called it. According to him, Hemingway's fiction is deficient in serious subject matter. 'It is a world of superficial action and almost wholly without reflection - such reflection as there is tends to be on a rather crude and simplified level'. [10] But such a casual dismissal as this, presenting Hemingway as a writer devoid of `high seriousness', is not justified. Though Hemingway is apparently a realist who has a predilection for physical action, he is essentially a philosophical writer. His works should be read and interpreted in the light of his famous `Iceberg theory': 'The dignity of the movement of an iceberg is due to only one eighth of it being above the water'. [11] This statement throws light on the symbolic implications of his art. He makes use of physical action to provide a symbolical interpretation of the nature of man's existence. It can be convincingly proved that, 'While representing human life through fictional forms, he has consistently set man against the background of his world and universe to examine the human situation from various points of view'. [12] In this aspect, he belongs to the tradition of Hawthorne, Poe and Melville, in whose fiction darkness has been used as a major theme to present the lot of man in this world. Hemingway's concern for the predicament of the individual resembles the outlook of these `nocturnal writers'. 'As with them, a moral awareness springs from his awareness of the larger life of the universe. Compared with the larger life of the universe, the individual is a puny thing, a tragic thing. But in this larger life of the universe, the individual has his place of glory'. [13] This awareness of the futility of human existence led Hemingway to deal with the themes of violence, darkness and death in his novels. By presenting the darker side of life, he tries to explore the nature of the individual's predicament in this world.

What attitude should a man take toward a world in which, for reasons of the world's own making and not of his own, he is fundamentally out of place? What personal happiness can he expect to find in a world seething with violence ... what values could one respect when ethical values as a whole seemed university disrespected? [14] This metaphysical concern about the nature of the individual's existence in relation to the world made Hemingway conceive his protagonists as alienated individuals fighting a losing battle against the odds of life with courage, endurance and will as their only weapons. The Hemingway hero is a lonely individual, wounded either physically or emotionally. He exemplifies a code of courageous behavior in a world of irrational destruction. 'He offers up and exemplifies certain principles of honor, courage and endurance in a life of tension and pain which make a man a man'. [15] Violence, struggle, suffering and hardships do not make him in any way pessimistic. Though the `vague unknown' continues to lure him and frustrate his hopes and purposes, he does not admit defeat. Death rather than humiliation, stoical endurance rather than servile submission are the cardinal virtues of the Hemingway hero. A close examination of Hemingway's fiction reveals that in his major novels he enacts `the general drama of human pain', and that he has 'used the novel form in order to pose symbolic questions about life'. [16] The trials and tribulations undergone by his protagonists are symbolic of man's predicament in this world. He views life as a perpetual struggle in which the individual has to assert the supremacy of his free will over forces other than himself. In order to assert the dignity of his existence, the individual has to wage a relentless battle against a world which refuses him any identity or fulfillment. To sum up, Hemingway, in his novels and short stories, presents human life as a perpetual struggle which ends only in death. It is of no avail to fight this battle, where man is reduced to a pathetic figure by forces both within and without. However, what matters is the way man faces the crisis and endures the pain inflicted upon him by the hostile powers that be, be it his own physical limitation or the hostility of society or the indifference of unfeeling nature. The ultimate victory depends on the way one faces the struggle. In a world of pain and failure, the individual also has his own weapon to assert the dignity of his existence. He has the freedom of will to create his own values and ideals. In order to achieve this end, he has to carry on an incessant battle against three oppressive forces, namely, the biological, the social and the environmental barriers of this world. According to Hemingway, the struggle between the individual and the hostile deterministic forces takes places at these three different levels. Commenting on this aspect of the existential struggle found in Hemingway's fiction, Charles Child Walcutt has observed that, 'the conflict between the individual needs and social demands is matched by the contest between feeling man and unfeeling universe, and between the spirit of the individual and his biological limitations'. [17] This observation is probably the right key to understand Hemingway, the man and the novelist. Endnotes 1. Cleanth Brooks, 'Ernest Hemingway, Man On His Moral Uppers' The Hidden God (New Haven and London: Yale Press, 1969), p. 6.

2. Mark Spilka, 'Hemingway and Fauntleroy, An Androgynous Pursuit', American Novelists Revisited ed. Fritz Flishmann (Boston, Massachusetts G.K. Hall and Co., 1982), p. 346. 3. Abraham H. Lass, A student's Guide to 50 American Novelists (New York: Washington Square `Press, 1970), p. 175. 4. Mrs. Mary S. David and Dr. Varshney, A History of American Literature (Barilly: Student Store, 1983), p. 315. Hereinafter cited as Mary S. David. 5. Mary S. David. p.312 6. Mary S. David. p. 315. 7. P.G. Rama Rao, Ernest Hemingway, A Study in Narrative Technique (New Delhi: S. Chand and Co., 1980). p. 4. Hereafter cited as Rama Rao. 8. Rama Rao, p. 31. 9. Ernest Hemingway, Death in the Afternoon (London: Grafton Books, 1986), p. 8. Hereafter cited as Death in the Afternoon. 10. Leon Edel, 'The Art of Evasion' in Hemingway, A Collection of Critical Essays, ed. Robert P. Weeks (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1962), p. 170. 11. Death in the Afternoon, p. 171. 12. B.R. Mullik, Hemingway Studies in American Literature (New Delhi: S. Chand and Co., 1972), p. 8. 13. Chaman Nahal, The Narrative Pattern in Ernest Hemingway's Fiction (New Delhi: Vikas Publication, 1971). p. 26. 14. W.M. Frohock, The Novel of Violence in American Literature (Cambridge, Massachusetts; Cambridge University. 15. Philip Young, 'Ernest Hemingway' Seven Modern American Novelists, an Introduction ed. William Van O' Connor (Minneapolis - The University of Minnesota Press, 1966), p. 158. Hereafter cited as Philip Young. 16. W.R. Goodman, A Manual of American Literature (Delhi: Doabe House, n.d), p. 357. Hereafter cited as Goodman 17. Charles Child Walcutt, American Literary Naturalism, A Divided Stream (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1974), p. 275. Bibliography Brooks, Cleanth 'Ernest Hemingway, Man On His Moral Uppers' The Hidden God. New Haven and London: Yale Press, 1969. David, Mary S. and Dr. Varshney, A History of American Literature (Bareilly: Student Store, 1983. Edel, Leon 'The Art of Evasion', Hemingway, A Collection of Critical Essays, Ed. Robert P. Weeks Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1962. Frohock, W.M. The Novel of Violence in American Literature. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Cambridge University Press, 1957. Goodman, W.R. A Manual of American Literature. New Delhi: Doaba House 1968. Hemingway, Ernest. Death in the Afternoon. London: Grafton Books, 1986. Lass, Abraham H. A student's Guide to 50 American Novelists. New York: Washington Square Press, 1970. Mullik, B.R. Hemingway - Studies in American Literature New Delhi: S. Chand and Co., 1972.

Nahal, Chaman. The Narrative Pattern in Ernest Hemingway's Fiction. New Delhi: Vikas Publication, 1971. Rao, P.G. Rama. Ernest Hemingway, A Study in Narrative Technique. New Delhi: S. Chand and Co., 1980. Spilka, Mark. 'Hemingway and Fauntleroy, An Androgynous Pursuit', American Novelists Revisited Ed. Fritz Flishmann .Boston: G.K. Hall and Co., 1982. Walcutt, Charles Child. American Literary Naturalism - A Divided Stream. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1974. Young, Philip. 'Ernest Hemingway', Seven Modern American Novelists,- An Introduction. Ed. William Van O' Connor. Minneapolis: The University of Minnesota Press, 1966.http://www.nvcc.edu/home/ataormina/novels/history/default.htm Wednesday june 13 9.35 am How Did the Novel in English Come to Be?
There was a public demand for the novel. With the expansion of the middle class by the middle of the 18th century, more people could read and they had money to spend on literature. There was already a high interest in autobiography, biography, journals, diaries, memoirs. Alexander Pope's dictum that "The proper study of mankind is man" led to increased interest in the human character. The early English novel departs from the allegory and the romance with its vigorous attempt at verisimilitude and it was initially strongly associated with the middle class, their pragmatism, and their morality. Pamela, (I, 1740; II, 1741) by Samuel Richardson, is usually considered the first fully-realized English novel.

Major 18th Century Novelists in English

DANIEL DEFOE Sometimes called the founder of the modern English novel, Defoe established:

a dominant unifying theme with a serious thesis convincing realism (through an almost-journalistic first-person narrative) a middle class viewpoint

Major Works:

Robinson Crusoe (1719) Moll Flanders (1722)

SAMUEL RICHARDSON Richardson created the novel of character. Whereas Defoe's characters too often seem to be simply fighting their way out of circumstantial dilemmas, Richardson's characters are complete and complex human

beings. Major Works

Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded (I, 1740; II, 1741): story told through a series of letters Clarissa (1747-48)

HENRY FIELDING Defoe claimed his fiction to be fact; Richardson considered his works moral preachments. Fielding is the first to unashamedly and forthrightly write novels. Fielding's two major works, Joseph Andrews (1742) and Tom Jones (1749), both contain essays constituting the initial English attempt to define and explain the novel as a literary genre. JANE AUSTEN Though not an 18th century novelist, Austen has more in common with the novelists of the 18th century than she does with the novelists of the early 19th century. Austen is the greatest English novelist of manners. Restricting herself to the society of landed gentry, Austen is a miniaturist; the feminine Augustan. Major Works:

Pride and Prejudice (c. 1812) Emma (1816)

Keep in mind that eras in literary history are not fixed and that novelists writing in one era may have more in common with the novelists of another era. Also note that my emphasis here is on the novel in English.

The Romantic Novel

Romanticism is a movement in art and literature that began in Europe in the late 18th century and was most influential in the first half of the 19th century. Romanticism fosters a return to nature and also values the imagination over reason and emotion over intellect. One strain of the Romantic is the Gothic with its emphasis on tales of horror and the supernatural.

Major Romantic Novelists

CHARLOTTE BRONTE (1816-55) Bronte's major novel Jane Eyre (1847) is the model for countless novels featuring governesses and mysterious strangers. EMILY BRONTE (1818-48) Bronte's major work Wuthering Heights (1847) is full of Gothic elements. JAMES FENIMORE COOPER (1789-1851) Cooper's most popular novels of the frontier feature Natty Bumpo, a man at one with nature. Major Works:

The Last of the Mohicans (1826) The Deerslayer (1841) Hawthorne's novels are marked by his obsession with his Puritan ancestors and with the issue of guilt. His most famous novels feature elements of the Romantic and the Gothic. Major Works:

NATHANIEL HAWTHORNE (1804-64)

The Scarlet Letter (1850) The House of the Seven Gables (1851)

HERMAN MELVILLE (1819-91) Melville's novels are about the sea and seamen. His masterwork Moby Dick (1851) is a study in obsession and its consequences as well as an exploration of the nature of evil.

The Victorian Novel

The Victorian Age is marked roughly by the reign of Queen Victoria of England from 1837-1901. The Victorian reading public firmly established the novel as the dominant literary form of the era. The novel is the most distinctive and lasting literary achievement of Victorian literature. Earlier in the century Sir Walter Scott had created a large novel-reading public and had made the novel respectable. He had also strengthened the tradition of the 3volume novel. The publication of novels in monthly installments enabled even the poor to purchase

them

The novelists of the Victorian era:

accepted middle class values treated the problem of the individual's adjustment to his society emphasized well-rounded middle-class characters portrayed the hero as a rational man of virtue believed that human nature is fundamentally good and lapses are errors of judgment corrected by maturation

The Victorian novel appealed to readers because of its:

realism impulse to describe the everyday world the reader could recognize introduction of characters who were blends of virtue and vice attempts to display the natural growth of personality expressions of emotion: love, humor, suspense, melodrama, pathos (deathbed scenes) moral earnestness and wholesomeness, including crusades against social evils and self-censorship to acknowledge the standard morality of the times.

The Victorian novel featured several developments in narrative technique:

full description and exposition authorial essays multiplotting featuring several central characters

Furthermore, the practice of issuing novels in serial installments led novelists to become adept at subclimaxes.

Major Victorian Novelists

CHARLES DICKENS (1812-1870) Dickens was the most successful of the English Victorian novelists, a master of sentiment and a militant reformer. We admire Dickens for his:

fertility of character creation depiction of childhood and youth comic creations

Major Works:

WILLIAM MAKEPEACE THACKERAY (1811-63) Thackeray's chief subject is the contrast between human pretensions and human weakness. He excelled at portraying his own upper middle class social stratum. His major work is Vanity Fair (1847). GEORGE ELIOT (MARY ANN EVANS) (1819-88) Eliot is considered to be the first modern novelist, a creator of psychological fiction. She is known for her penetrating character analyses and convincingly realistic scenes. In Eliot's novels plot did not need to depend upon external complications; it could rise from a character's internal groping toward knowledge and choice. Major Works:

Adam Bede (1859), a love triangle set in pre-industrial agricultural England Silas Marner (1861), the nearest thing to a perfect George Eliot novel with a plot about a miser who adopts a foundling and the theme of the regenerative power of humanity and love Middlemarch (1871-72), the first English novel concerned with the intellectual life, the story of a city during the agitated era of 1832 reforms, the Industrial Revolution, the Evangelical movement, and the new scientific outlook

THOMAS HARDY (1840-1920) The characteristic Victorian novelist such as Dickens or Thackeray was concerned with the behavior and problems of people in a given social milieu which he described in detail. Thomas Hardy preferred to go directly for the elemental in human behavior with a minimum of contemporary social detail. He felt that man was an alien in an impersonal universe and at the mercy of sheer chance. Though readers assume he is a pessimist he called himself a meliorist, yearning hopefully for a better world. Major Works:

Tess of the d'Urbervilles (1891) Jude the Obscure (1895)

The revolt in Jude the Obscure against indissoluble Victorian marriage (of Jude to Arabella and Sue Bridehead to Phillotson) aroused such a storm of protest over its religious pessimism and sex themes that Hardy turned thereafter exclusively to poetry.

Other Victorian Novelists of Note

WILKIE COLLINS(1824-89) Collins is considered the father of the modern detective novel. Major Works:

The Woman in White (1860) The Moonstone (1868), the novel which G.K Chesterton termed "probably the best detective story in the world"

LEWIS CARROLL (CHARLES LUTWIDGE DODGSON) (1832-98) A mathematician, Carroll sublimated his anti-Victorianism in his writing. Major Works:

Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (1865), which remains one of the bestloved children's books in the English speaking world Through the Looking-Glass (1871)

Realism, Local Color, and Naturalism

In the United States the latter half of the 19th century was marked by recovery from the Civil War, the movement from rural areas to the cities, and the rise of industrialism and business. Protest movements--led by unions or blacks or feminists--challenged the status quo. As the major Romantic writers such as Hawthorne and Melville died or stopped writing for publication, a new breed of novelists, trained initially as journalists, rejected romanticism and insisted that the ordinary and the local were suitable subjects for artistic portrayal. Realists had what Henry James called "a powerful impulse to mirror the unmitigated realities of life." As the realists rejected romantic idealism and dependence on established moral truths they began to present subtleties of human personality and characters who were neither wholly good nor wholly bad. This philosophical realism gradually became increasingly pessimistic and deterministic as seen by the later works of Mark Twain, Stephen Crane, and Theodore Dreiser One group of writers championed local color writing, an amalgam of romanticism and realism with romantic plots coupled with a realistic portrayal of the dialects, custom, and sights of regional America. The local color movement was a bridge between romanticism and realism and can be viewed as a subdivision of realism. It resulted from the desire both to preserve distinctive ways of life before industrialization dispersed or homogenized them and to come to terms with the harsh realities that seemed to replace these early times. Naturalism, which gained popularity near the end of the 19th century, is generally described as a new and harsher realism. In an attempt to achieve extreme objectivity and frankness, naturalistic novelists portrayed characters of low social and economic class shaped by environment and

heredity and moved by animal passions. In the view of the naturalists, environmental forces, whether of nature or the city, outweigh or overwhelm human agency; the individual can exert little or no control over events.

Major 19th Century American Novelists

HARRIET BEECHER STOWE (1811-96), whose novel Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852) was one of the many influences on the start of the American Civil War HENRY JAMES (1843-1916) James was not only a novelist but an influential critic of the novel whose prefaces to his own work were later collected in The Art of the Novel (1934). His exploration of point of view and his development of stream of consciousness technique have greatly influenced subsequent writers of fiction. Major Works:

The Portrait of a Lady (1881) The Wings of the Dove (1902) The Ambassadors (1903) The Golden Bowl (1904) Twain's best work breaks out of the local color genre. Major Works:

MARK TWAIN (SAMUEL LANGHORE CLEMENS) (1835-1910)

Tom Sawyer (1876) Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1885), generally considered to be the Great American Novel A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court (1889) Pudd'nhead Wilson (1894)

KATE CHOPIN (1851-1904) was a local color writer whose works are set in the Creole society of Louisiana. The Awakening (1899) is an early feminist novel about a woman unhappy in her marriage. JACK LONDON (1876-1916) London's adventures in the Pacific Northwest and during the Alaska gold rush were the basis of his very popular short stories and novels such as The Call of the Wild (1903) and The Sea Wolf (1904).

EDITH WHARTON Major Works:

Ethan Frome (1911) The Age of Innocence (1920)

STEPHEN CRANE (1871-1900) The Red Badge of Courage (1895), Crane's novel of the Civil War, is generally considered one of the greatest war novels of all time. Crane had never seen combat when he wrote this novel. THEODORE DREISER (1871-1945) Major Works:

Sister Carrie (1900) An American Tragedy (1925)

The term postmodernism implies a movement away from and perhaps a reaction against modernism. Both terms are often used to describe a broad spectrum of attitudes and broad approaches to the novel.

Some Definitions of Terms

In general premodernism assumes that man is ruled by authority (e.g., the Catholic Church) and tradition. With modernism, influenced by humanism and the Enlightenment, man rejects tradition and authority in favor of a reliance on reason and on scientific discovery. Postmodernism stretches and breaks away from the idea that man can achieve understanding through a reliance on reason and science. Discoveries such as Einstein's Theory of Relativity, Heisenburg's Uncertainty Principle, and the weird behavior of particles in quantum physics convey the belief that the universe cannot be explained by reason alone. Modernism, with its belief in the primacy of human reason, values realism in fiction and logical narrative structures. Mary Klage says: Modernity is fundamentally about order: about rationality and rationalization, creating order out of chaos. The assumption is that creating more rationality is conducive to creating more order, and that the more ordered a society is, the better [i.e., the more rationally]. . .it will function. In Modernist Fiction Randall Stevenson says: Postmodernism extends modernist uncertainty, often by assuming that reality, if it exists at all, is unknowable or inaccessible through a language grown detached from it.

Characteristics of Postmodernism in Fiction

Postmodernist fiction is generally marked by one or more of the following

characteristics:

playfulness with language experimentation in the form of the novel o less reliance on traditional narrative form o less reliance on traditional character development o experimentation with point of view experimentation with the way time is conveyed in the novel mixture of "high art" and popular culture interest in metafiction, that is, fiction about the nature of fiction

Sources and Further Reading

Keep, Christopher, Tim McLaughlin and Robin Parmar. "Defining Postmodernism." The Electronic Labyrinth Keep, Christopher, Tim McLaughlin and Robin Parmar. "Postmodernism and the Postmodern Novel." The Electronic Labyrinth Klages, Mary. Postmodernism Smethurst, Paul. Overview: Characteristic Postmodernist Stances Smethurst, Paul. Overview: The Shift from Modernism to Postmodernism

Magical Realism
The term magic realism was coined by the German art critic Franz Roh in 1925 as a description of a magic insight into reality. Roh saw magical realism as synonymous with post-expressionistic painting (1920-25) because it revealed the mysterious elements hidden in everyday reality and expressed mans astonishment before the wonders of the real world The term is often applied to any writing that portrays both the real and the fantastic The term is generally defined as a blend or fusion of reality and fantasy. One Hundred Years of Solitude (1967) by Gabriel Garcia Marquez is considered one of the best examples of the genre. Magical realism:

Embellishes works with surreal events and fantastic imagery to obscure the distinctions between illusion and reality Presents even the most incredible events as if they are commonplace Features dreamlike surrealistic imagery that evokes a pungent sense of place

Metafiction The prefix meta means beyond or transcending; thus the term metafiction literally means "beyond fiction." Thus metafiction can be described as fiction about the nature and purpose of fiction. In Metafiction: The Theory and Practice of Self-conscious Fiction, Patricia Waugh

defines metafiction as: fictional writing which self-consciously and systematically draws attention to its status as an artifact in order to pose questions about the relationship between fiction and reality. . . Metafiction explore[s] a theory of writing fiction through the practice of writing fiction" (2). Metafiction attempts to blur the line between fiction and reality. In metafiction authors often break out of the narrative to address the nature of what they are doing in the novel. Some of the characteristics of metafiction identified by Victoria Orlowski include:

the violation of narrative levels, specifically o intrusions in the narrative to comment on the writing o involvement of the author with the fictional characters o "directly addressing the reader" o "openly questioning how narrative assumptions and conventions transform and filter reality. . . ." the reliance on "unconventional and experimental techniques" such as: o a rejection of conventional plot

a display of "reflexivity (the dimension present in all literary texts and also central to all literary analysis, a function which enables the reader to understand the processes by which he or she reads the world as a test)"

Sources and Further Reading Orlowski, Victoria. Metafiction

Overview
It is very hard to get perspective on and characterize, let alone evaluate, the literature of our own time because:

We are too close to it. It is still writing itself. Literary historians' labels and generalizations about works are most often attached after the period in question is long over.

Literary historians describe two general phases of 20th century literature, divided by World War II:

Modern literature--roughly 1900 or 1914--1945 Contemporary literature--1945 to the present

The great overshadowing events of the 20th century include:

World War I The Great Depression

World War II, including the Holocaust and the dropping of the atomic bomb on Hiroshima The Cold War The launch of Sputnik and advent of space flight The end of colonialism and the rise of Third World countries The reshaping of the face of world Communism

A number of key thinkers have influenced the novels of the 20th century. They include:

Charles Darwin,whose Origin of Species (1859) and The Descent of Man (1871) described man as simply the occupant of the highest rung on the evolutionary ladder and who promoted the idea of survival of the fittest Karl Marx, who in the Communist Manifesto (1848) and Das Capital (1867) saw history as the struggle between capitalist owners and the non propertied proletariat with the revolution ultimately won by the workers Friedrich Nietzsche, whose work valued instinct over intellect and insisted on the complete freedom of the individual in a world that lacks transcendent law ("God is Dead") Sir James Frazier, whose recounting of myths in The Golden Bough (1890) showed the continuity and similarity between primitive and civilized culture Sigmund Freud, who in Interpretation of Dreams (1899) put forth a new model of personality governed in large part by irrational and unconscious survivals of infantile fantasy Carl G. Jung, who described the concepts of the collective unconscious, a buried level of universal experience tapped by myth, religion, and art, and the concept of archetypes, the master patterns revealing the common experiences of the human species Max Planck whose quantum theory (1900) described the unpredictability of atomic and subatomic particles Albert Einstein whose theory of relativity (1905) abandoned concepts of absolute motion and absolute difference of time and space and proposed that reality consisted of a fourdimensional space-time continuum Werner Heisenburg whose Uncertainty Principle (1927) proclaimed that scientific measurement (specifically the measurement of electrons) was a matter of approximation emphasizing the approximate nature of reality Martin Heidegger (1889-1976) who saw the human condition as absurd because man exists in the world without any understanding of his fate Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980), developer of existentialism, the belief that man is totally responsible for his own actions and that he ought to reject external laws

Albert Einstein

In the 20th century man confronted emptiness and doubts about:

the the the the the

existence of God primacy of the human race in creation supremacy of reason in human affairs perception that life is self-evidently worth living nature of reality

The 20th century, like the Victorian era, is a period characterized by the dizzying rapidity of change. With the advent of air and space travel and the development of telecommunications, and with such sociological developments as the rise of multinational corporations and the growing equality of the sexes, the planet has truly become a Global Village. The change that characterized the Victorian era was most prominently the concept of progress caused by the new industrialization. By the modern era the erosion of the fundamental principles of science and religion begun in the 19th century had taken full effect. The fundamental modern change was massive disillusionment. Most modern writers looked within themselves for a principle of order. The literature of the 20th century has an overwhelming preoccupation with the self, the nature of consciousness, and the processes of perception. Literature is often subjective, and personal and internal. Authors are concerned with the fragmentation of both experience and thought. Many employ stream-of-consciousness: the fluid, associational, often illogical, sequence of the ideas, feelings and impressions of a single mind as seen in the works of Virginia Woolf and James Joyce. Genres overlap and disappear; we see the rise of metafiction, i.e., self-reflexive literature about literature.

Key Modern Novelists in World Literature

FRANZ KAKFA (1883-1924, born in Prague, Czechoslovakia Noted for his surrealistic fiction such as the novella "The Metamorphosis" (1915, tr. 1948) and The Trial (1925, tr. 1937) ERICH MARIE REMARQUE (1898-1970) German journalist and novelist Wrote All Quiet on the Western Front (1929), the best known and best example of World War I anti-war literature THOMAS MANN (1875-1955) German novelist and essayist, known for his narrative psychological studies of the artistic temperament and for his exploration of mythology.

Mann won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1927; he became an American citizen in 1944 after fleeing the Nazis. Major Works:

"Death in Venice" (1912), a novella The Magic Mountain (1924) a Bildungsroman set in a sanatorium

MARCEL PROUST (1871-1922) French novelist whose works attempt to find the true meaning of past experience in involuntary memories stimulated by some object or circumstance His masterwork is Recherche du Temps Perdu (literally, in search of lost time); English title Remembrance of Things Past) (16 volumes, 1913-27); includes Swann's Way ANDRE MALREAUX (1901-76) French novelist and critic who wrote novels of political and social involvement filled with pessimism about the destiny of Western man. Man's Fate (1933), based on the Shanghai insurrection of 1927 in which Communists take over the city and are then rebuffed by former ally Chaing-Kai Shek JAMES JOYCE (1882-1941) Irish novelist, short story writer, and poet and practitioner of experimental narrative techniques. Major Works:

The Dubliners (1914), a short story collection A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (1916),largely autobiographical Ulysses (1921) Finnegan's Wake (1939)

VIRGINIA WOOLF (1882-1935) English novelist and essayist, whose fiction featured stream-of-consciousness technique Major Works:

Mrs. Dalloway (1925) To the Lighthouse (1927) A Room of One's Own (1929) a book-length essay about a woman's need to find a space to do her own creative work

D.H. LAWRENCE (1885-1930) whose novels often glorified nature and featured frank sexuality.

Major Works:

Sons and Lovers (1913), largely autobiographical Women in Love (1921) Lady Chatterly's Lover (1928) famously banned for its sex scenes.

WILLIAM FAULKNER (1897-1962) American novelist and short story writer whose stories set in the mythical Yoknapatawpha County of his home state of Mississippi chronicled the decline of the South after the Civil War. Faulkner won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1949 Major Works:

The Sound and the Fury (1929) Light in August (1932)

Contemporary Literature (c. 1945--present)

Literature of the contemporary period is also often referred to as post-modern or neo-modern literature. Even more than the Moderns, contemporary authors reflect pluralism. They are preoccupied with perception, fragmentation, the loss of belief in anything outside the self, pervasive irony. Many experiment with metafiction, the preoccupation with the text itself. The era immediately following the end of World War II (1945-1963) was dominated by an awareness of the Holocaust and the threat of nuclear annihilation. Other key events of the era include the McCarthy hearings and Brown v. Board of Education, the Supreme Court ruling on school desegregation (1954) as well as the rise of the influence of television. The recent past (1963--present) is marked by social unrest and political upheaval. Domestic upheaval included

race riots assassinations, assassination attempts protests against the Vietnam War the Stonewall Rebellion (1969) and the rise of the gay rights movement the feminist movement marked by the publication of Kate Millet's Sexual Politics (1970) and by the appearance of Ms. magazine (1972) as well as the widespread use of the birth control pill the Watergate Scandal culminating in the resignation of President Richard Nixon in 1974

the omnipresence of drugs and both soft and hard core pornography the decline of the family and rising divorce rates the AIDS epidemic 9/11/01 and the war on terrorism

Television is touted as a reason for the decline in national literacy Novelist Bernard Malamud declared that no one knows how to tell a story anymore. More and more fiction features the anti-hero, alternately a victim, a rebel, or a bumbling failure. Surrealism and black comedy become more popular.

Key Contemporary Movements and Novelists in World Literature

There is a strong resurgence of realistic writing, often in support of social change:

Nadine Gordimer and playwright Athol Fugard in South Africa James Baldwin and Ralph Ellison on racism Alice Walker and Toni Morrison on racism and sexism Alexander Solzhenitzen on Stalinism Elie Wiesel on the Holocaust Salman Rushdie on Islam Yukio Mishima on Japanese imperialism

Other American realists of note include:

John Updike (b. 1932). author of Rabbit, Run (1960) and several sequels John Cheever (1912-82 whose The Wapshot Chronicles (1957) portrayed life in the suburbs Joyce Carol Oates (b. 1938) Bobbie Ann Mason (b. 1940), a K-Mart realist whose works such as In Country (1985) relate the drab experiences of the lower middle class

American regionalists include:

Larry McMurtry ( Texas) o Lonesome Dove o Terms of Endearment Anne Tyler ( Baltimore) o The Accidental Tourist o Dinner at the Homesick Restaurant (1982) Gail Godwin ( North Carolina) o A Mother and Two Daughters Pat Conroy (South Carolina) o The Lords of Discipline

The Prince of Tides

Jewish literature in the United States portrayed the dilemmas of misfit heroes yearning for meaningful lives and moral regeneration

Saul Bellow (1915-2005), winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature 1976 o The Adventures of Augie March (1953), winner of the National Book Award o Seize the Day (1956) o Henderson the Rain King (1959) o Herzog (1964) o Mr. Sammler's Planet (1970) o Humboldt's Gift (1975), winner of Pulitzer Prize Philip Roth (b 1933) o Goodbye, Columbus (1959), short stories that won the Pulitzer Prize o Portnoy's Complaint Bernard Malamud (1914-1986) o The Assistant o The Natural

The Fixer

Writers in English whose work illuminates the Third World:

Amy Tan (Chinese) o The Joy Luck Club (1989) Sandra Cisneros (Hispanic) winner of a "genius grant" from the MacArthur Foundation Louise Erdrich (b. 1954) (Native American) o Love Medicine (1984), winner of the National Book Critics Circle Award o The Beet Queen Bharati Mukherjee (Indian)

Jasmine (1989)

Experimentalists in the United States include:

William Burroughs o Naked Lunch (1959) Thomas Pynchon (b. 1937) o V. (1963) o The Crying of Lot 49 (1966) o Gravity's Rainbow (1972) John Barth (b. 1930)

Lost in the Funhouse (1968)

American feminists include:

Erica Jong o Fear of Flying

Other major modern literary writers in the United States include:

Jane Smiley o A Thousand Acres Toni Morrison, winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature o The Bluest Eye (1970) o Song of Solomon (1977) o Beloved (1987) Alice Walker (b. 1944) o The Color Purple (1982)

In Search of Our Mother's Garden (1982), "womanist" prose

The latter half of the 20th century in the United States also saw the rise of the nonfiction novel and the New Journalism John Hersey o Hiroshima (1946) Truman Capote o In Cold Blood (1966) William Styron o The Confessions of Nat Turner E. L. Doctorow o Daniel's Song (1971), about Julius and Ethel Rosenberg Norman Mailer (b. 1923) o The Executioner's Song (1979), about Gary Gilmore who refused to challenge his execution Alex Haley o Roots Tom Wolfe

The Right Stuff, about the Mercury 7 astronauts

Another trend in contemporary fiction is the rise of serious fantasy, especially as it is embodied in magical realism--the concept that encompasses both the events of everyday life and the dimensions of the imagination. The leading magical realist is Gabriel Garca Mrquez, author of One Hundred Years of Solitude.

The 100 Best English-Language Novels of the 20th Century

The Board of the Modern Library, a division of Random House, published its selections in July 1998.
1. 2. 3. 4. Ulysses, James Joyce (1922) The Great Gatsby, F. Scott Fitzgerald (1925) A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, James Joyce (1916) Lolita, Vladimir Nabokov (1958)

5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55.

Brave New World, Aldous Huxley (1932) The Sound and the Fury, William Faulkner (1929) Catch-22, Joseph Heller (1961) Darkness at Noon, Arthur Koestler (1941) Sons and Lovers, D. H. Lawrence (1913) The Grapes of Wrath, John Steinbeck (1939) Under the Volcano, Malcolm Lowry (1947) The Way of All Flesh, Samuel Butler (1903) 1984, George Orwell (1949) I, Claudius, Robert Graves (1934) To the Lighthouse, Virginia Woolf (1927) An American Tragedy, Theodore Dreiser (1925) The Heart Is a Lonely Hunter, Carson McCullers (1940) Slaughterhouse-Five, Kurt Vonnegut (1969) Invisible Man, Ralph Ellison (1952) Native Son, Richard Wright (1940) Henderson the Rain King, Saul Bellow (1959) Appointment in Samarra, John O'Hara (1934) U.S.A. (trilogy), John Dos Passos (1937trilogy completed) Winesburg, Ohio, Sherwood Anderson (1919) A Passage to India, E. M. Forster (1924) The Wings of the Dove, Henry James (1902) The Ambassadors, Henry James (1903) Tender Is the Night, F. Scott Fitzgerald (1934) The Studs Lonigan Trilogy, James T. Farrell (1935) The Good Soldier, Ford Madox Ford (1915) Animal Farm, George Orwell (1946) The Golden Bowl, Henry James (1904) Sister Carrie, Theodore Dreiser (1900) A Handful of Dust, Evelyn Waugh (1934) As I Lay Dying, William Faulkner (1930) All the King's Men, Robert Penn Warren (1946) The Bridge of San Luis Rey, Thornton Wilder (1927) Howards End, E. M. Forster (1910) Go Tell It on the Mountain, James Baldwin (1953) The Heart of the Matter, Graham Greene (1948) Lord of the Flies, William Golding (1954) Deliverance, James Dickey (1969) A Dance to the Music of Time (series), Anthony Powell (1975series completed) Point Counter Point, Aldous Huxley (1928) The Sun Also Rises, Ernest Hemingway (1926) The Secret Agent, Joseph Conrad (1907) Nostromo, Joseph Conrad(1904) The Rainbow, D. H. Lawrence (1915) Women in Love, D. H. Lawrence (1921) Tropic of Cancer, Henry Miller (1934) The Naked and the Dead, Norman Mailer (1948) Portnoy's Complaint, Philip Roth (1969) Pale Fire, Vladimir Nabokov (1962) Light in August, William Faulkner (1932) On the Road, Jack Kerouac (1957)

56. The Maltese Falcon, Dashiell Hammett (1930) 57. Parade's End, Ford Madox Ford (1950) 58. The Age of Innocence, Edith Wharton (1920) 59. Zuleika Dobson, Max Beerbohm (1911) 60. The Moviegoer, Walker Percy (1961) 61. Death Comes for the Archbishop, Willa Cather (1927) 62. From Here to Eternity, James Jones (1951) 63. The Wapshot Chronicles, John Cheever (1957) 64. The Catcher in the Rye, J. D. Salinger (1951) 65. A Clockwork Orange, Anthony Burgess (1962) 66. Of Human Bondage, W. Somerset Maugham (1915) 67. Heart of Darkness, Joseph Conrad (1902) 68. Main Street, Sinclair Lewis (1920) 69. The House of Mirth, Edith Wharton (1905) 70. The Alexandria Quartet, Lawrence Durrell (1960series completed) 71. A High Wind in Jamaica, Richard Hughes (1929) 72. A House for Mr. Biswas, V. S. Naipaul (1961) 73. The Day of the Locust, Nathanael West (1939) 74. A Farewell to Arms, Ernest Hemingway (1929) 75. Scoop, Evelyn Waugh (1938) 76. The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie, Muriel Spark (1961) 77. Finnegans Wake, James Joyce (1939) 78. Kim, Rudyard Kipling (1901) 79. A Room with a View, E. M. Forster (1908) 80. Brideshead Revisited, Evelyn Waugh (1945) 81. The Adventures of Augie March, Saul Bellow (1953) 82. Angle of Repose, Wallace Stegner (1971) 83. A Bend in the River, V. S. Naipaul (1979) 84. The Death of the Heart, Elizabeth Bowen (1938) 85. Lord Jim, Joseph Conrad (1900) 86. Ragtime, E. L. Doctorow (1975) 87. The Old Wives' Tale, Arnold Bennett (1908) 88. The Call of the Wild, Jack London (1903) 89. Loving, Henry Green (1945) 90. Midnight's Children, Salman Rushdie (1981) 91. Tobacco Road, Erskine Caldwell (1933) 92. Ironweed, William Kennedy (1983) 93. The Magus, John Fowles (1966) 94. Wide Sargasso Sea, Jean Rhys (1966) 95. Under the Net, Iris Murdoch (1954) 96. Sophie's Choice, William Styron (1979) 97. The Sheltering Sky, Paul Bowles (1949) 98. The Postman Always Rings Twice, James M. Cain (1934) 99. The Ginger Man, J. P. Donleavy (1955) 100. The Magnificent Ambersons, Booth Tarkington (1918)

1. 2. 3.

ULYSSES by James Joyce THE GREAT GATSBY by F. Scott Fitzgerald A PORTRAIT OF THE ARTIST AS A YOUNG MAN by James Joyce

4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46.

LOLITA by Vladimir Nabokov BRAVE NEW WORLD by Aldous Huxley THE SOUND AND THE FURY by William Faulkner CATCH-22 by Joseph Heller DARKNESS AT NOON by Arthur Koestler SONS AND LOVERS by D.H. Lawrence THE GRAPES OF WRATH by John Steinbeck UNDER THE VOLCANO by Malcolm Lowry THE WAY OF ALL FLESH by Samuel Butler 1984 by George Orwell I, CLAUDIUS by Robert Graves TO THE LIGHTHOUSE by Virginia Woolf AN AMERICAN TRAGEDY by Theodore Dreiser THE HEART IS A LONELY HUNTER by Carson McCullers SLAUGHTERHOUSE-FIVE by Kurt Vonnegut INVISIBLE MAN by Ralph Ellison NATIVE SON by Richard Wright HENDERSON THE RAIN KING by Saul Bellow APPOINTMENT IN SAMARRA by John OHara U.S.A.(trilogy) by John Dos Passos WINESBURG, OHIO by Sherwood Anderson A PASSAGE TO INDIA by E.M. Forster THE WINGS OF THE DOVE by Henry James THE AMBASSADORS by Henry James TENDER IS THE NIGHT by F. Scott Fitzgerald THE STUDS LONIGAN TRILOGY by James T. Farrell THE GOOD SOLDIER by Ford Madox Ford ANIMAL FARM by George Orwell THE GOLDEN BOWL by Henry James SISTER CARRIE by Theodore Dreiser A HANDFUL OF DUST by Evelyn Waugh AS I LAY DYING by William Faulkner ALL THE KINGS MEN by Robert Penn Warren THE BRIDGE OF SAN LUIS REY by Thornton Wilder HOWARDS END by E.M. Forster GO TELL IT ON THE MOUNTAIN by James Baldwin THE HEART OF THE MATTER by Graham Greene LORD OF THE FLIES by William Golding DELIVERANCE by James Dickey A DANCE TO THE MUSIC OF TIME (series) by Anthony Powell POINT COUNTER POINT by Aldous Huxley THE SUN ALSO RISES by Ernest Hemingway THE SECRET AGENT by Joseph Conrad

47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89.

NOSTROMO by Joseph Conrad THE RAINBOW by D.H. Lawrence WOMEN IN LOVE by D.H. Lawrence TROPIC OF CANCER by Henry Miller THE NAKED AND THE DEAD by Norman Mailer PORTNOYS COMPLAINT by Philip Roth PALE FIRE by Vladimir Nabokov LIGHT IN AUGUST by William Faulkner ON THE ROAD by Jack Kerouac THE MALTESE FALCON by Dashiell Hammett PARADES END by Ford Madox Ford THE AGE OF INNOCENCE by Edith Wharton ZULEIKA DOBSON by Max Beerbohm THE MOVIEGOER by Walker Percy DEATH COMES FOR THE ARCHBISHOP by Willa Cather FROM HERE TO ETERNITY by James Jones THE WAPSHOT CHRONICLES by John Cheever THE CATCHER IN THE RYE by J.D. Salinger A CLOCKWORK ORANGE by Anthony Burgess OF HUMAN BONDAGE by W. Somerset Maugham HEART OF DARKNESS by Joseph Conrad MAIN STREET by Sinclair Lewis THE HOUSE OF MIRTH by Edith Wharton THE ALEXANDRIA QUARTET by Lawrence Durell A HIGH WIND IN JAMAICA by Richard Hughes A HOUSE FOR MR BISWAS by V.S. Naipaul THE DAY OF THE LOCUST by Nathanael West A FAREWELL TO ARMS by Ernest Hemingway SCOOP by Evelyn Waugh THE PRIME OF MISS JEAN BRODIE by Muriel Spark FINNEGANS WAKE by James Joyce KIM by Rudyard Kipling A ROOM WITH A VIEW by E.M. Forster BRIDESHEAD REVISITED by Evelyn Waugh THE ADVENTURES OF AUGIE MARCH by Saul Bellow ANGLE OF REPOSE by Wallace Stegner A BEND IN THE RIVER by V.S. Naipaul THE DEATH OF THE HEART by Elizabeth Bowen LORD JIM by Joseph Conrad RAGTIME by E.L. Doctorow THE OLD WIVES TALE by Arnold Bennett THE CALL OF THE WILD by Jack London LOVING by Henry Green

90. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. 99. 100.

MIDNIGHTS CHILDREN by Salman Rushdie TOBACCO ROAD by Erskine Caldwell IRONWEED by William Kennedy THE MAGUS by John Fowles WIDE SARGASSO SEA by Jean Rhys UNDER THE NET by Iris Murdoch SOPHIES CHOICE by William Styron THE SHELTERING SKY by Paul Bowles THE POSTMAN ALWAYS RINGS TWICE by James M. Cain THE GINGER MAN by J.P. Donleavy THE MAGNIFICENT AMBERSONS by Booth Tarkington

THE

READERS

LIST

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21.

ATLAS SHRUGGED by Ayn Rand THE FOUNTAINHEAD by Ayn Rand BATTLEFIELD EARTH by L. Ron Hubbard THE LORD OF THE RINGS by J.R.R. Tolkien TO KILL A MOCKINGBIRD by Harper Lee 1984 by George Orwell ANTHEM by Ayn Rand WE THE LIVING by Ayn Rand MISSION EARTH by L. Ron Hubbard FEAR by L. Ron Hubbard ULYSSES by James Joyce CATCH-22 by Joseph Heller THE GREAT GATSBY by F. Scott Fitzgerald DUNE by Frank Herbert THE MOON IS A HARSH MISTRESS by Robert Heinlein STRANGER IN A STRANGE LAND by Robert Heinlein A TOWN LIKE ALICE by Nevil Shute BRAVE NEW WORLD by Aldous Huxley THE CATCHER IN THE RYE by J.D. Salinger ANIMAL FARM by George Orwell GRAVITYS RAINBOW by Thomas Pynchon

22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64.

THE GRAPES OF WRATH by John Steinbeck SLAUGHTERHOUSE FIVE by Kurt Vonnegut GONE WITH THE WIND by Margaret Mitchell LORD OF THE FLIES by William Golding SHANE by Jack Schaefer TRUSTEE FROM THE TOOLROOM by Nevil Shute A PRAYER FOR OWEN MEANY by John Irving THE STAND by Stephen King THE FRENCH LIEUTENANTS WOMAN by John Fowles BELOVED by Toni Morrison THE WORM OUROBOROS by E.R. Eddison THE SOUND AND THE FURY by William Faulkner LOLITA by Vladimir Nabokov MOONHEART by Charles de Lint ABSALOM, ABSALOM! by William Faulkner OF HUMAN BONDAGE by W. Somerset Maugham WISE BLOOD by Flannery OConnor UNDER THE VOLCANO by Malcolm Lowry FIFTH BUSINESS by Robertson Davies SOMEPLACE TO BE FLYING by Charles de Lint ON THE ROAD by Jack Kerouac HEART OF DARKNESS by Joseph Conrad YARROW by Charles de Lint AT THE MOUNTAINS OF MADNESS by H.P. Lovecraft ONE LONELY NIGHT by Mickey Spillane MEMORY AND DREAM by Charles de Lint TO THE LIGHTHOUSE by Virginia Woolf THE MOVIEGOER by Walker Percy TRADER by Charles de Lint THE HITCHHIKERS GUIDE TO THE GALAXY by Douglas Adams THE HEART IS A LONELY HUNTER by Carson McCullers THE HANDMAIDS TALE by Margaret Atwood BLOOD MERIDIAN by Cormac McCarthy A CLOCKWORK ORANGE by Anthony Burgess ON THE BEACH by Nevil Shute A PORTRAIT OF THE ARTIST AS A YOUNG MAN by James Joyce GREENMANTLE by Charles de Lint ENDERS GAME by Orson Scott Card THE LITTLE COUNTRY by Charles de Lint THE RECOGNITIONS by William Gaddis STARSHIP TROOPERS by Robert Heinlein THE SUN ALSO RISES by Ernest Hemingway THE WORLD ACCORDING TO GARP by John Irving

65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. 99. 100.

SOMETHING WICKED THIS WAY COMES by Ray Bradbury THE HAUNTING OF HILL HOUSE by Shirley Jackson AS I LAY DYING by William Faulkner TROPIC OF CANCER by Henry Miller INVISIBLE MAN by Ralph Ellison THE WOOD WIFE by Terri Windling THE MAGUS by John Fowles THE DOOR INTO SUMMER by Robert Heinlein ZEN AND THE ART OF MOTORCYCLE MAINTENANCE by Robert Pirsig I, CLAUDIUS by Robert Graves THE CALL OF THE WILD by Jack London AT SWIM-TWO-BIRDS by Flann OBrien FARENHEIT 451 by Ray Bradbury ARROWSMITH by Sinclair Lewis WATERSHIP DOWN by Richard Adams NAKED LUNCH by William S. Burroughs THE HUNT FOR RED OCTOBER by Tom Clancy GUILTY PLEASURES by Laurell K. Hamilton THE PUPPET MASTERS by Robert Heinlein IT by Stephen King V. by Thomas Pynchon DOUBLE STAR by Robert Heinlein CITIZEN OF THE GALAXY by Robert Heinlein BRIDESHEAD REVISITED by Evelyn Waugh LIGHT IN AUGUST by William Faulkner ONE FLEW OVER THE CUCKOOS NEST by Ken Kesey A FAREWELL TO ARMS by Ernest Hemingway THE SHELTERING SKY by Paul Bowles SOMETIMES A GREAT NOTION by Ken Kesey MY ANTONIA by Willa Cather MULENGRO by Charles de Lint SUTTREE by Cormac McCarthy MYTHAGO WOOD by Robert Holdstock ILLUSIONS by Richard Bach THE CUNNING MAN by Robertson Davies THE SATANIC VERSES by Salman Rushdie

Alcott, Louisa May. Little Women Austen, Jane. Emma Austen, Jane. Mansfield Park Austen, Jane. Persuasion Austen, Jane. Pride and Prejudice Besant, Walter. All Manners and Conditions of Men Blackmore, Richard Doddridge. Lorna Doone Borrow, George H. Lavengro

Borrow, George H. Romany Rye Braddon, Mary Elizabeth. Lady Audleys Secret Bronte, Charlotte. Jane Eyre Bronte, Charlotte. Villette Bronte, Emily. Wuthering Heights Burnett, Frances Hodgson. The Secret Garden Butler, Samuel. Erewhon Carlyle, Thomas. Sartor Resartus Carroll, Lewis. Alice in Wonderland Carroll, Lewis. Through the Looking Glass Clarke, Marcus Andrew Hislop. For the Term of His Natural Life Collins, Wilkie. Armadale Collins, Wilkie. No Name Collins, Wilkie. The Moonstone Collins, Wilkie. The Woman in White Conan Doyle, Sir Arthur. Rodney Stone Conan Doyle, Sir Arthur. A Study in Scarlet Conrad, Joseph. Heart of Darkness (Written in 1899) Conrad, Joseph. Lord Jim Cooper, James F. The Prairie Craik, Dinah Maria Mulock. John Halifax, Gentleman Crane, Stephen. Red Badge of Courage Dickens, Charles. Bleak House Dickens, Charles. David Copperfield Dickens, Charles. Dombey & Son Dickens, Charles. Great Expectations Dickens, Charles. Hard Times Dickens, Charles. Little Dorritt Dickens, Charles. Mystery Of Edwin Drood Dickens, Charles. Nicholas Nickleby Dickens, Charles. The Old Curiosity Shop Dickens, Charles. Oliver Twist Dickens, Charles. Pickwick Papers Dickens, Charles. Tale of Two Cities Disraeli, Benjamin. Sybil, or The Two Nations Dostoevski, Fedor. Brothers Karamazov Dostoevski, Fedor. Crime and Punishment Dostoevski, Fedor. The Idiot Dreiser, Theodore. Sister Carrie (Published in 1900) Dumas, Alexandre. The Count of Monte Cristo Dumas, Alexandre. Three Musketeers Edgeworth, Maria. The Absentee Edgeworth, Maria. Castle Rackrent Eliot, George. Adam Bede Eliot, George. Daniel Deronda Eliot, George. Middlemarch Eliot, George. Mill on the Floss Eliot, George. Silas Marner Falkner, John Meade. Moonfleet Falkner, John Meade. Nebuly Coat Ferrier, Susan. Marriage Flaubert, Gustave. Madame Bovary Flaubert, Gustave. A Sentimental Education Franlink, Miles. My Brilliant Career (published after 1900) Gaskell, Elizabeth. Cranford Gaskell, Elizabeth. Wives and Daughters Gissing, George. New Grub Street

Goethe, Johann Wolfgang Von. Elective Affinities Gogol, Nikolai. Dead Souls Haggard, H. Rider. King Solomons Mines Haggard, H. Rider. She Hardy, Thomas. Far from the Madding Crowd Hardy, Thomas. Jude the Obscure Hardy, Thomas. The Mayor of Casterbridge Hardy, Thomas. The Return of the Native Hardy, Thomas. Tess of the dUrbervilles Hardy, Thomas. The Woodlanders Hardy, Thomas. Under the Greenwood Tree Hawthorne, Nathaniel. Blithedale Romance Hawthorne, Nathaniel. Scarlet Letter Malot, Hector. Sans Famille Hogg, James. The Private Memoirs and Confessions of a Justified Sinner Hugo, Victor. Les Miserables Hugo, Victor. Notre-Dame de Paris (The Hunchback of) Ingelow, Jean. Mopsa the Fairy James, Henry. The American James, Henry. The Bostonians James, Henry. Daisy Miller James, Henry. The Europeans James, Henry. Portrait of a Lady James, Henry. Washington Square Le Fanu, Sheridan. Uncle Silas MacDonald, George. Lilith MacDonald, George. Phantastes Manzoni, Alessandro. I Promessi Sposi Melville, Herman. Moby Dick Melville, Herman. Redburn Melville, Herman. Typee Meredith, George. Diana of the Crossways Meredith, George. The Egoist Morrison, Arthur. Child of the Jago Morris, William. News from Nowhere Norris, Frank. McTeague Oliphant, Margaret. The Perpetual Curate Oliphant, Margaret. Salem Chapel (Best Sensation Novel!) Oscar Wilde. Picture of Dorian Gray Reade, Charles. The Cloister and the Hearth Schreiner, Olive. Story of an African Farm Scott, Sir Walter. The Antiquary Scott, Sir Walter. The Heart of Mid-Lothian Scott, Sir Walter. Ivanhoe Sewall, Anna. Black Beauty Shelley, Mary Wollstonecraft. Frankenstein Somerville, Edith, and Martin Ross. The Irish R.M. Stendhal (Henri Beyle). Charterhouse of Parma Stevenson, Robert L. Catriona (aka David Balfour) Stevenson, Robert L. Kidnapped Stevenson, Robert L. The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde Stevenson, Robert L. Treasure Island Stevenson, Robert L. Weir of Hermiston (unfinished work) Stoker, Bram. Dracula Stowe, Harriet Beecher. Uncle Toms Cabin Thackeray, William M. Barry Lyndon Thackeray, William M. The History of Henry Esmond

Thackeray, William M. The Newcomes Thackeray, William M. Vanity Fair Tolstoy, Leo. Anna Karenina Tolstoy, Leo. Resurrection Tolstoy, Leo. The Forged Coupon Tolstoy, Leo. War and Peace Trollope, Anthony. Ayala's Angel Trollope, Anthony. Framley Parsonage Trollope, Anthony. Barchester Towers Trollope, Anthony. John Caldigate Trollope. Anthony. The Last Chronicle of Barset Trollope, Anthony. Marion Fay Trollope, Anthony. Phineas Finn Trollope, Anthony. The Prime Minister Trollope, Anthony. The Warden Trollope. Anthony. The Way We Live Now Turgenev, Ivan. Fathers and Children Twain, Mark. The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn Twain, Mark. Adventures of Tom Sawyer Twain, Mark. Personal Recollections of Joan of Arc Verne, Jules. Around the World in 80 Days Verne, Jules. Journey to the Center of the Earth Verne, Jules. 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea Wells, H.G. Invisible Man Wells, H.G. Island of Dr. Moreau Wells, H.G. The Time Machine Wells, H.G. War of the Worlds Weyman, Stanley J. A Gentleman of France Yonge, Charlotte Mary. The Heir of Redclyffe Zola, Emile. LAssommoir Zola, Emile. Therese Raquin

The Novel in the 18th Century

http://mural.uv.es/franrey/novel.html#minor_novelists

The major novelists: Daniel Defoe Samuel Richardson Henry Fielding Tobias Smollett

Laurence Sterne Minor novelists The major novelists Daniel Defoe

Such ambitious debates on society and human nature ran parallel with the explorations of a literary form finding new popularity with a large audience, the novel. Defoe, for example, fascinated by any intellectual wrangling, was always willing (amid a career of unwearying activity) to publish his own views on the matter currently in question, be it economic, metaphysical, educational, or legal. His lasting distinction, though earned in other fields of writing than the disputative, is constantly underpinned by the generous range of his curiosity. Only someone of his catholic interests could have sustained, for instance, the superb Tour Thro' the Whole Island of Great Britain (1724-27), a vivid, county-by-county review and celebration of the state of the nation. He brought the same diversity of enthusiasms into play in writing his novels. The first of these, Robinson Crusoe (1719), an immediate success at home and on the Continent, is a unique fictional blending of the traditions of Puritan spiritual autobiography with an insistent scrutiny of the nature of man as social creature and an extraordinary ability to invent a sustaining modern myth. A Journal of the Plague Year (1722) displays enticing powers of selfprojection into a situation of which Defoe can only have had experience through the narrations of others, and both Moll Flanders (1722) and Roxana (1724) lure the reader into puzzling relationships with narrators the degree of whose own self-awareness is repeatedly and provocatively placed in doubt.

Samuel Richardson
The enthusiasm prompted by Defoe's best novels demonstrated the growing readership for innovative prose narrative. Samuel Richardson, a prosperous London printer, was the next major author to respond to the challenge. His Pamela: or, Virtue Rewarded (1740, with a less happy sequel in 1741), using (like all Richardson's novels) the epistolary form, tells a story of an employer's attempted seduction of a young servant woman, her subsequent victimization, and her eventual reward in virtuous marriage with the penitent exploiter. Its moral tone is self-consciously rigorous and proved highly controversial. Its main strength lies in the resourceful, sometimes comically vivid imagining of the moment-by-moment fluctuations of the heroine's consciousness as she faces her ordeal. Pamela herself is the sole letter writer, and the technical limitations are strongly felt, though Richardson's ingenuity works hard to mitigate them. But Pamela's frank speaking about the abuses of masculine and gentry power sounds the skeptical note more radically developed in Richardson's masterpiece, Clarissa: or, the History of a Young Lady (174748), which has a just claim to being considered the most reverberant and moving tragic fiction in the English novel tradition. Clarissa uses multiple narrators and develops a

profoundly suggestive interplay of opposed voices. At its centre is the taxing soul debate and eventually mortal combat between the aggressive, brilliantly improvisatorial libertine Lovelace and the beleaguered Clarissa, maltreated and abandoned by her family but abiding sternly loyal to her own inner sense of probity. The tragic consummation that grows from this involves an astonishingly ruthless testing of the psychological natures of the two leading characters. After such intensities, Richardson's final novel, The History of Sir Charles Grandison (1753-54), is perhaps inevitably a less ambitious, cooler work, but its blending of serious moral discussion and a comic ending ensured it an influence on his successors, especially Jane Austen.

Henry Fielding
Henry Fielding turned to novel writing after a successful period as a dramatist, during which his most popular work had been in burlesque forms. His entry into prose fiction was also in that mode. An Apology for the Life of Mrs. Shamela Andrews (1741), a travesty of Richardson's Pamela, transforms the latter's heroine into a predatory fortune hunter who cold-bloodedly lures her booby master into matrimony. Fielding continued his quarrel with Richardson in The History of the Adventures of Joseph Andrews (1742), which also uses Pamela as a starting point but which, developing a momentum of its own, soon outgrows any narrow parodic intent. His hostility to Richardson's sexual ethic notwithstanding, Fielding was happy to build, with a calm and smiling sophistication, on the growing respect for the novel to which his antagonist had so substantially contributed. In Joseph Andrews and The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling (1749) Fielding openly brought to bear upon his chosen form a battery of devices from more traditionally reputable modes (including epic poetry, painting, and the drama). This is accompanied by a flamboyant development of authorial presence. Fielding the narrator buttonholes the reader repeatedly, airs critical and ethical questions for the reader's delectation, and urbanely discusses the artifice upon which his fiction depends. In the deeply original Tom Jones especially, this assists in developing a distinctive atmosphere of self-confident magnanimity and candid optimism. His fiction, however, can also cope with a darker range of experience. The Life of Mr. Jonathan Wild the Great (1743), for instance, uses a mock-heroic idiom to explore a derisive parallel between the criminal underworld and England's political elite, and Amelia (1751) probes with sombre precision images of captivity and situations of taxing moral paradox.

Tobias Smollett
Tobias Smollett had no desire to rival Fielding as a formal innovator, and his novels consequently tend to be rather ragged assemblings of disparate incidents. But, although uneven in performance, all of them include extended passages of real force and idiosyncracy. His freest writing is expended on grotesque portraiture in which the human is reduced to fiercely energetic automatism. Smollett can also be a stunning reporter of the contemporary scene, whether the subject be a naval battle or the gathering of the decrepit at a spa. His touch is least happy when, complying too facilely with the gathering cult of sensibility, he indulges in rote-learned displays of emotionalism and good-heartedness. His most sustainedly invigorating work can perhaps be found in The

Adventures of Roderick Random (1748), The Adventures of Peregrine Pickle (1751), and (an altogether more interesting encounter with the dialects of sensibility) The Expedition of Humphry Clinker (1771).

Laurence Sterne
An experiment of a radical and seminal kind is Laurence Sterne's Tristram Shandy (175967), which, drawing on a tradition of learned wit from Erasmus and Rabelais to Burton and Swift, provides a brilliant comic critique of the progress of the English novel to date. The focus of attention is shifted from the fortunes of the hero himself to the nature of his family, environment, and heredity, and dealings within that family offer repeated images of human unrelatedness and disconnection. Tristram, the narrator, is isolated in his own privacy and doubts how much, if anything, he can know certainly even about himself. Sterne is explicit about the influence of Lockean psychology on his writing, and the book, fascinated with the fictive energies of the imagination, is filled with characters reinventing or mythologizing the conditions of their own lives. It also draws zestful stimulus from a concern with the limitations of language, both verbal and visual, and teases an intricate drama out of Tristram's imagining of, and playing to, the reader's likely responses. Sterne's Sentimental Journey Through France and Italy (1768) similarly defies conventional expectations of what a travel book might be. An apparently random collection of scattered experiences, it mingles affecting vignettes with episodes in a heartier, comic mode, but coherence of imagination is secured by the delicate insistence with which Sterne ponders how the impulses of sentimental and erotic feeling are psychologically interdependent.

Minor novelists
The work of these five giants was accompanied by interesting experiments from a number of lesser novelists. Sarah Fielding, for instance, Henry's sister, wrote penetratingly and gravely about friendship in The Adventures of David Simple (1744, with a sequel in 1753). Charlotte Lennox in The Female Quixote (1752) and Richard Graves in The Spiritual Quixote (1773) responded inventively to the influence of Cervantes, also discernible in the writing of Fielding, Smollett, and Sterne. John Cleland's Memoirs of a Woman of Pleasure (known as Fanny Hill; 1748-49) chose a more contentious path; in his charting of a young girl's sexual initiation, he experiments with minutely detailed ways of describing the physiology of intercourse. In emphatic contrast, Henry Mackenzie's Man of Feeling (1771) offers an extremist, and rarefied, version of the sentimental hero, while Horace Walpole's Castle of Otranto (1765) somewhat laboriously initiated the vogue for Gothic fiction. William Beckford's Vathek (1786), Ann Radcliffe's Mysteries of Udolpho (1794), and Matthew Lewis' Monk (1796) are among the more distinctive of its successors. But the most engaging and thoughtful minor novelist of the period is Fanny Burney, who was also an evocative and selfrevelatory diarist and letter writer. Her Evelina (1778) and Camilla (1796) in particular handle with independence of invention and emotional insight the theme of a young woman negotiating her first encounters with a dangerous social world.

Daniel Defoe, Robinson Crusoe, (British, 1719) - considered the first novel in English Eliza Haywood, Love in Excess, (British, 1719) Samuel Richardson, Pamela, (British, 1740) Henry Fielding, Tom Jones, (British, 1749) Laurence Sterne, Tristram Shandy, (British, 17591767) Tobias Smollett, The Expedition of Humphry Clinker, (Scottish, 1771) Ignacy Krasicki, The Adventures of Nicholas Experience (Polish, 1776) - the first Polish novel Frances Burney, Evelina, (British, 1778) Ann Radcliffe, The Mysteries of Udolpho, (British, 1794) Mary Hays, Memoirs of Emma Courtney, (British, 1796) Matthew Lewis, The Monk, (British, 1796)

Thomas Malory's Le Morte d'Arthur compilation of the early 1470s. Alain-Ren Lesage's Gil Blas (17151735), Henry Fielding's Joseph Andrews (1742) and Tom Jones (1749), and Denis Diderot's Jacques the Fatalist (1773, printed posthumously in 1796). Oliver Goldsmith's Vicar of Wakefield (1766) and Henry Mackenzie's Man of Feeling (1771) produced the far more serious role models. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's The Sorrows of Young Werther (1774). Philosophical fiction was not exactly new. Plato's dialogues were embedded in fictional narratives. Utopias had added to this production with works from Thomas More's Utopia (1516) to Tommaso Campanella's City of the Sun (1602). Works such as these had not been read as novels or romances but as philosophical texts. The 1740s saw new editions of More's work under the title that created the tradition: Utopia: or the happy republic; a philosophical romance (1743). Voltaire utilised the romance to write philosophy with his Micromegas: a comic romance. Being a severe satire upon the philosophy, ignorance, and self-conceit of mankind (1752, English 1753). His Zadig (1747) and Candide (1759) became central texts of the French Enlightenment and of the modern novel. Jean-Jacques Rousseau bridged the genres with his less fictional Emile: or, On Education (1762) and his far more romantic Julie, or the New Heloise (1761). It made sense to publish these works as romances or novels, works of fiction, only because prose fiction had become an object of public discussion. The public reception provided by the new market of journals was both freer and wider than the discussion in journals of philosophy would have been. It had become attractive to step into the realm of fiction in order to provide matter for the ongoing debates.

Important figures in romanticism include: Victor Hugo, with his novels The Hunchback of Notre-Dame (1831) and Les Misrables (1862), and Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov, whose novel A Hero of Our Time (1840) is notable for introducing Superfluous man in the world of literature. Walter Scott's historical novel Waverley (1814) broke with these traditions. mile Zola's novels depicted the world of which Marx and Engels wrote in a nonfictional mode. Slavery in the United States, abolitionism and racism became topics of far broader public debate thanks to Harriet Beecher Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852), as whose characters provided personifications for topics that had previously been discussed mainly in the abstract. Charles Dickens led the audience into contemporary British workhouses: his novels imitated firsthand accounts of child labour. War changed with Leo Tolstoy's War and Peace (1868/69) from historical fact to a world of personal fate. Crime became a personal reality with Fyodor Dostoyevsky's Crime and Punishment (1866). Women authors had dominated the production of fiction from the 1640s into the early 18th century, but few before George Eliot so openly questioned the position of women, the precepts of their education, and their social position. The step into a different future began with Mary Shelley's The Last Man (1826): a work whose plot culminated in the catastrophic last days of a mankind extinguished by the plague, even if it remained an autobiographical allegory of the authoress deploring her personal losses. Edward Bellamy's Looking Backward (1887) and H. G. Wells's The Time Machine (1895) were, by contrast, marked by the idea of long term technological and biological developments. Industrialization, Darwin's theory of evolution and Marx's theory of class divisions shaped these works and turned historical processes into a subject matter of wide debate: Bellamy's Looking Backward became the second best selling book of the 19th century after Harriet Beecher-Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin.[109] Such works of scientific reflection inspired a whole genre of popular science fiction as the 20th century approached. Novels from Goethe's Wilhelm Meister (1795) to Marcel Proust's In Search of Lost Time (19131927) and James Joyce's A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (1916) created an entire genre of the Knstlerroman. Jane Austen's Emma (1815), Gustave Flaubert's Madame Bovary (1856), Leo Tolstoy's Anna Karenina (187377), and George Eliot's Middlemarch (187172) brought female protagonists into the role of the outstanding observer. Charles Dickens's Oliver Twist (1839) and Gottfried Keller's Green Henry (1855) focused on the perspectives of children, Fyodor Dostoyevsky's Crime and Punishment (1866) added a drop-out student who became a murderer to the spectrum of special observers whose views would promise reinterpretations of modern life. Hermann Hesse's Steppenwolf and Carlos Castaneda's Journey to Ixtlan (1972) had become cult classics of inner resistance. While it was difficult to learn anything about Siberia's concentration camps in the strictly censored Soviet media, it was a novel, Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn's One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich (1962) and its protohistoric expansion The Gulag Archipelago (1973) that eventually gave the world an inside view.

The novel remains both public and private. It is a public product of modern print culture even where it circulates in illegal samizdat copies. It remains difficult to target. Totalitarian regimes can close down Internet service providers, and control theatres, cinemas, radio and television stations, while individual paper copies of a novel can be smuggled into countries, defying strict censorship, and read there in cafs and parks almost as safely as at home. Its covers can be as inconspicuous as those of Iranian editions of Salman Rushdie's The Satanic Verses (1988). An Orwellian regime would have to search households and to burn every retrievable copy: an engagement of distopian dimensions that only a novel, Ray Bradbury's Fahrenheit 451 (1953), would envisage. James Joyce's Ulysses (1922) became the central text that explored the potential of the new theoretical options. The 19th-century narrator left the stage; what remained was a text one could read as a reflex of thoughts. The "stream of consciousness"[129] replaced the authorial voice. The characters endowed with these new voices had no firm ground from which to narrate. Their audiences had to re-create what was purposefully broken. One of the aims was to represent the reality of thoughts, sensations and conflicting perspectives. William Faulkner was particularly concerned with recreating real life, an undertaking which he said was unattainable. Once the classical authorial voice was gone, the classical composition of the text could be questioned: Ulysses did that. The argumentative structure with which a narration used to make its points lost its importance. Each sentence connected to sentences readers recalled. Words reverberated in a worldwide circulation of texts and language. Critics would understand more of the possible allusions and supply them in footnotes. Virginia Woolf's Mrs. Dalloway (1925), Samuel Beckett's trilogy Molloy (1951), Malone Dies (1951) and The Unnamable (1953), Julio Cortzar's Rayuela (1963) and Thomas Pynchon's Gravity's Rainbow (1973) all explore this new narrative technique. Alfred Dblin went in a slightly different direction with his Berlin Alexanderplatz (1929), where interspersed non-fictional text fragments enter the fictional sphere to create a new form of realism. Authors of the 1960sRobert Coover is an examplefragmented their stories and challenged time and sequentiality as fundamental structuring concepts. Postmodern authors[130] subverted the serious debate with playfulness. The new theorists' claim that art could never be original, that it always played with existing materials, that language basically recalled itself had been an accepted truth in the world of trivial literature. A postmodernist could reread trivial literature as the essential cultural production. The creative avant-garde of the 1960s and 1970s "closed the gap"[131] and recycled popular knowledge, conspiracy theories, comics and films to recombine these materials in what was to become art of entirely new qualities. Roland Barthes' 1950s analysis of popular culture,[132] his late 1960s claim that the author was dead while the text continued to live,[133] became standards of postmodern theory. Novels from Thomas Pynchon's The Crying of Lot 49 (1966), to Umberto Eco's The Name of the Rose (1980)

and Foucault's Pendulum (1989) opened themselves to a universe of intertextual references[134] while they thematized their own constructedness in a new postmodern metafictional awareness.[135] Each generation of the 20th century saw its unique aspects expressed in novels. Germany's lost generation of World War I veterans identified with the hero of Erich Maria Remarque's All Quiet on the Western Front (1928) (and with the tougher, more existentialist rival Thor Goote created as a national socialist alternative). The Jazz Age found a voice in F. Scott Fitzgerald, the Great Depression and the incipient Cold War in George Orwell. France's existentialism was prominently voiced in Jean Paul Sartre's Nausea (1938) and Albert Camus' The Stranger (1942). The counterculture of the 1960s gave Hermann Hesse's Steppenwolf (1927) a new reception, while producing such iconic works of its own as Ken Kesey's One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest and Thomas Pynchon's Gravity's Rainbow. Chuck Palahniuk's Fight Club (1996) became (with the help of the film adaptation) an icon of late 20th-century manhood and a reaction to the 20th-century production of female voices. Virginia Woolf, Simone de Beauvoir, Doris Lessing, Elfriede Jelinek became prominent female and feminist voices. Questions of racial and gender identities, the option to reclaim female heroines of a predominantly male cultural industry[139] have fascinated novelists over the last two decades with their potential to destabilize the preceding confrontations. The major 20th-century social processes can be traced through the modern novel: the history of the sexual revolution[140] can be traced through the reception of sexually frank novels: D. H. Lawrence's Lady Chatterley's Lover had to be published in Italy in 1928; British censorship lifted its ban as late as 1960. Henry Miller's Tropic of Cancer (1934) created the comparable US scandal. Transgressive fiction from Vladimir Nabokov's Lolita (1955) to Michel Houellebecq's Les Particules lmentaires (1998) entered a literary field that eventually opened itself to the production of frankly pornographic works such as Anne Desclos' Story of O (1954) to Anas Nin's Delta of Venus (1978). Crime became a major subject of 20th- and 21st-century novelists. The extreme confrontations of crime fiction reach into the very realities that modern industrialized, organized societies try and fail to eradicate. Crime is also an intriguing personal and public subject: criminals each have their personal motivations and actions. Detectives, too, see their moral codes challenged. Patricia Highsmith's thrillers became a medium of new psychological explorations. Paul Auster's New York Trilogy (19851986) crossed the borders into the field of experimental postmodernist literature. The major political and military confrontations of the 20th and 21st centuries have inspired novelists. The events of World War II found their reflections in novels from Gnter Grass' The Tin Drum (1959) to Joseph Heller's Catch-22 (1961). The ensuing cold war lives on in a bulk of spy novels that reach out into the realm of popular fiction. Latin American self awareness in the wake of the (failing) left revolutions of the 1960s and 1970s resulted in a "Latin American Boom", connected today with the names of Julio Cortzar, Mario Vargas Llosa and Gabriel Garca Mrquez and the invention of a special brand of postmodern magic realism. The unstable status of Israel and the Middle East

have become the subject of Israeli and Arab perceptions. Contemporary fiction has explored the realities of the post-Soviet nations and those of post-Tiananmen China. Arguably, though, international perceptions of these events have been shaped more by images than words. The wave of modern media images has, in turn, merged with the novel in the form of graphic novels that both exploit and question the status of circulating visual materials. Art Spiegelman's two-volume Maus and, perhaps more important in its new theoretical approach, his In the Shadow of No Towers (2004) a graphic novel questioning the reality of the images the 9/11 attacks have produced are interesting artefacts here. The extreme options of writing alternative histories have created genres of their own. Fantasy has become a field of commercial fiction branching into the worlds of computeranimated role play and esoteric myth. Its center today is J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings (1954/55), a work that mutated from a book written for young readers in search of openly fictionalised role models into a cultural artefact of epic dimensions. Tolkien successfully revived northern European epic literature from Beowulf and the North Germanic Edda to the Arthurian Cycles and turned their incompatible worlds into an epic of global confrontations that magically preceded all known confrontations. Science fiction has developed a broad variety of genres from the technological adventure Jules Verne had made fashionable in the 1860s to new political and personal compositions. Aldous Huxley's Brave New World (1932) has become a touchpoint for debate of Western consumerist societies and their use of modern technologies. George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949) focuses on the options of resistance under the eyes of public surveillance. Stanisaw Lem, Isaac Asimov and Arthur C. Clarke became modern classical authors of experimental thought with a focus on the interaction between men and machines. A new wave of authors has added post-apocalyptic fantasies and explorations of virtual realities in crossovers into the commercial production of quickly mutating sci-fi genres. William Gibson's Neuromancer (1984) became a cult classic here and founded a new brand of cyberpunk science fiction. The 20th-century love romance is a successor of the novels Madeleine de Scudry, Marie de La Fayette, Aphra Behn, and Eliza Haywood wrote from the 1640s into the 1740s. The modern adventure novel goes back to Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe (1719) and its immediate successors. Modern pornography has no precedent in the chapbook market; it goes back, again, to the libertine and hedonistic belles lettres, to John Cleland's Fanny Hill (1749) and its companions of the elegant 18th-century market. Ian Fleming's James Bond is a descendant of the anonymous yet extremely sophisticated and stylish narrator who mixed his love affairs with his political missions in La Guerre d'Espagne (1707). Marion Zimmer Bradley's The Mists of Avalon exploits Tolkien, as well as Arthurian literature and its romantic 19th-century reflections. Modern horror fiction also has no precedent on the market of chapbooks it goes back into the high market of early 19thcentury romantic literature. Modern popular science fiction has an even shorter history, hardly dating past the 1860s.