SOAP & DETERGENT I) Definition of Soap or salts of long-chain carboxylic o Soap are acids o The general formula of a soap

: RCOO Na / RCOO K R is an group which contain to carbon atoms.

II)
Babylonians made soap around 2800 B.C.

The history of soap manufacturing.

Purifying oils is recorded on Hebrew Tables around 4000 B.C. Ash + Lime Caustic potash Caustic Potash + fats soap

Process of making soap ashes or sodium carbonate from common salt is patented by Nicholas Leblane (French).

Michel Chevreul (French) discovered animal fats are cmposed of fatty acids and glycerol ( Causes rapid development of soap & candle.)

Sodium carbonate Na CO is produced cheaply & used for glass making , soaps and detergent.

After 20 years, Ernest Solvay ( Belgian Chemist) developed Solvay process.

Later on, vegetables oil is used to replace animal fats.

Solvay Process ( obtained from heating CaCo ) is passed into concentrated NaCl solution which is saturated with ammonia . NaCl +NH +H O + CO Na HCO +NH Cl - NaHCO is then heated to obtain soda. 2NaHCO Na CO +H O +CO .

III) Preparation of Soap by Saponification Saponification is a process whereby It is also the alkaline of using alkaline solutions.

(Fats- tallow from cow) ( Vegetable oils palm oil or olive oil) For example, - Glyceryl tristearates is a naturally occuring esters found in fats or oils.

Example of soap, 1) sodium palmitate, C H COONa 2) Sodium oleate, C H COONa 3) Sodium stearate, C H COONa To enhance the soaps marketability,additives are used such as perfume, colouring matter and antiseptic. Production of soap can be precipitated by adding common salt to the reaction mixture in order to reduce the solubility of soap in water. Properties of soap depends on a) type of used for saponification b) type of or vegetable oils used
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Potassium soap are softer, milder than sodium soap which can be used for bathing. IV) Structure of soap molecule. When soap is dissolved in water, it will dissociate and produce sodium ions and ions. The active substances in soap is carboxylate ions which consists two parts: a) the Head 1. charged 2. contains the C O ion 3. is ( like to dissolves water) b) the Tail
1.

charged chain ( do not like to dissolves water)

2. is a long 3. is

I ) Definition of Detergent Detergent is a . It is a kind of . There are 3 types of detergent which depends on the charge on detergent ion. a) Detergent. Head of the detergent particle contains a negatively charged ions. Example : R O SO Na Divide into two types: ( detergent molecule with a benzene ring)

R-

- S O Na

SO

Sodium alkyl sulphate ( without a ring) R OSO b) Detergent Head of the detergent particle contains a positively charged ion. Example : R N(CH ) Br c) detergent Example : R O CH CH OH II) Preparation of Detergent Sodium alkyl sulphate
- can be prepared from alcohols with chain

Sodium alkylbenzene sulphonates

Starting materials - long chain alkene, RCH = CH , obtained from lengths of 12 to 18 carbon atoms. the cracking of petroleum. - Step 1: Reaction with Concentrated Step 1 : ( introduction of the alkyl group to Step 2 : Neutralisation with sodium hydroxide solution an organic molecule) Step 2 : ( introduction of the sulphonic acid group to an organic molecule to form sulphonic acid)

III) The Structure of Detergent Molecule When a detergent is dissolved in water, it dissociates to form and ions. It consists of two parts: a) the Head ( group, - OSO / group - SO) 1. charged 2. ( like water) b) the Tail ( long hydrocarbon chain) 1. neutral 2. hydrophobic ( hates water)

ions

Thecleansingactionofsoapanddetergent The cleansing action of soaps and detergent results from the ability to the surface tension of water, to oil/ grease and to hold them in in water This can be occurred due to their and the . Oil cannot be washed away from clothing with water only as it is a covalent molecule which is insoluble in water. 1. 2. 3. 4. sodium soap dissolves in water to form soap (-ions) and sodium (+ions). Anion consists of a long hydrocarbon chain with a carboxylate group on one end. the hydrocarbon (hydrophobic)soluble in oil/ grease. carboxylate group (hydrophilic) soluble in water.

Process of the cleaning action of soap and detergent. - A piece of cloth is stained with grease and then dipped into soap/ detergent water. - Through this, the ability of water increases. Thus, the surface of cloth is wetted thouroughly. - The part of the soap/ detergent anion dissolve in grease while the hydrophilic part is attracted to molecule. - Because of the forces of attraction between molecules and -charged heads, the grease begins to be lifted off the surface when the water is agitated slightly. agitation during scrubbing helps the process of emulsfication occurs whereby the grease is broken into small droplets. - The droplets do not and on the surface of the cloth due to the repulsion between the charges on the surface. These droplets are suspended in water to form . The droplets is rinsed and washed away and leave the surface clean.
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Additives Builders

Function

Example

Drying agents

Fragrances Foam control agents Optical whitener Suspension agents Biological enzymes

Whitening agents

Sodium tripolyphosphate To enhance the efficiency of detergent by the water. To increase the value of water. Sodium sulphate To ensure that the detergent in powdered form Sodium silicate is always in condition. To add to the bulk of the detergent and enable to pour it at ease. To add to both detergent and fabrics. To control in detergent. Fluorescent dyes To add and whiteness to white fabrics. Carboxymethylcellulose To prevent dirt particles removed from (CMC) onto cleaned fabrics. To remove stains such as blood. Amylases ,proteases, To break down and protein molecules cellulases and lipases in food stains. To convert stains into substances. Sodium perborate To make the fabrics whiter and more beautiful. Sodium hypochlorite (NaClO)

V) The effectiveness of soaps and detergents as cleansing agents

Cleansing agents Soap Advantages 1. very effective in soft water to wash clothes.( water does not contain Mg & Ca ions) 2. Do not cause pollution as soaps are made from fats and oils and can be decomposed by the action of bacteria. Disadvantages 1. Ineffective in hard water. 2. A grey scum (Magnesium stearate & calcium stearate) will be produced in hard water 3. Not effective in acid water.( exist as molecules & do not have hydrophilic ends) - H ion from rainwater (acid) will react with soap ions to produce carboxylic acid molecules of large molecular size that are insoluble in water. Example

Detergent

1. effective in soft water and hard water. ( magnesium salt and calcium salts are formed aand soluble in water) ( scum is not formed) 2. Synthetic cleansing agents - structure of hydrocarbon chain can be modified to produce detergent. 3. effective in acidic water as H ions is not combine with detergent ions.

1. non-biodegradable 2. water pollution occurs. 3. Decrease in oxygen content in water and the aquatic lives are given the harm.( phosphates in detergents) 4. a lot of foam will be produced in water that prevent oxygen from dissolving in water.As a result, fish and other aquatic lives face the death. 5. Additives (sodium hypochlorite ) releases chlorine gas that is highly toxic and kills aquatic life.

B) FOOD ADDITIVES - Definition of Food Additives are natural or synthetic substance which are added to food to: i) ii) iii) iv) v) . - Type of Food Additives and Their Functions 1. substance added to food to slow down and prevent the growth of microorganisms in order to kepp the lasts longer. - salts, vinegar and sugar have been used for centuries to preserve food. Preservatives Salt sugar Vinegar Sodium nitrite NaNO Sodium nitrate NaNO Molecular Formula Uses water out of the cells of microorganisms the growth of microorganisms. Provides condition that the growth of microorganisms. To the meat, sausage, cheese and dried fish. To prevent food in canned food. To maintain the colour of meat. To make the meat look fresh. To preserve sauces, fruit juice, jams and margarine.

C H COOH C H COONa Sulphur dioxide Sodium sulphate SO Na SO

Used as to prevent browning in fuits. Maintain the colour and freshness of vegetables. To prevent thr growth of .

2. Antioxidants- added to food to i) pevent oxidation that causes fats and foods ii) to slow down the process. - food containing fats or oils are oxidised and become rancid when exposed to air. This makes the food unpalatable. Th rancid products are volatile organic compounds with 4 odours.
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( exp : butanoic acid, C H COOH) Antioxidants Butylated Hydroxyanisole (BHA) Butylated Hydroxytoluene (BHT) Sodium citrate Vitamin C Uses

Stimulates the immune systems. Preserve the colour of friut juice. Reduce the risk of heart diseases and cancer.

Vitamin E

3. Flavourings - Flavourings are the largest group of food additives. - Function : to improve the taste of food restore taste loss due to processing. - There are 2 types of flavourings : i) - Flavor enchancers are chemicals that are added to food to bring out the flavours/ to enhance the tastes of food. - Exp : monosodium glutamate (MSG) MSG is a sodium salt of . It exists as solid fine white crystal. It is added to savoury prepared and processed - frozen foods - spice mixes - canned and dry soups - salad dressings - meat and fish based products In order to protect the public health, MSG is not allowed in baby foods and less used for the adults. ii) Aspartame - Aspartame is a , odourless powder, approximately 200 times sweeter than sugar. - It is used in a variety of foodstuffs.

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- It is when dry or frozen but breaks down and loses its sweetness over a time when stored in liquids at temperature above 30.Exp : diet drinks and soft drinks - Synthetic Essences o contain which are made to resemble natural flavour. o Exp :pentyl ethanoate, CH COOC H give banana flavour and is cheaper to use. - Many of compounds are used to produce artificial flavours belong to the homologous series of esters. 4. Stabilizers - a substance which helps to prevent on ( oil /water droplets suspended in water/oil droplets) from separating out. - It is used in margarine, butter, ice cream and salad cream. - exp : lecithin, mono- and di-glycerides of fatty acids. 5. Thickeners - are chemicals that are added to food to the liquid and to prevent the food from . - They absorb water and thicken the liquid in food to produce a jelly-like structure. - They are natural . - Exp: Thickeners Explanation Used in instant soups and puddings. Used in jams and jellies. Forms a firm jel when there is sufficient sugar in a mixture. Is not digested. Can be considered as a beneficial and dietary fibre. To thicken chewing gum, jelly and wine. To thicken yogurt. 6. Dyes - chemicals that are added to food to give the colour so as to improve the appearance of food. - is used to add or restore the colour in food in order to - enhance its visual appeal - match consumer expectations

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- give colour to food that have no colour. - artificial food dyes are oftenly used - they are more uniform, less - many food dyes are i) compounds ( red , orange,yellow) - orang drinks, custard powders, sweets and apricot jam. iii) compounds( blue-brilliant blue FCF, green) - main trend in colour of food towards the use of natural colours is * found in red grapes, red cabbage sweet potatoes * have antioxidants properties. Effect of Food Additives on Health. Effects Explanation Allergy Caused by Sodium sulphite, BHA and BHT , MSG and food dyes( yellow No.5). Cause an diseases named (giddiness, chest pain and difficulty in breathing) Cause diseases occuring on babies which iits synptoms is lacking of oxygen and the presence of sodium nitrate /nitrite. Cancer Caused by (sodium nitrite) Nitrite reacts with amines to produce cause cancer) Caused by excessive intake of . Caused by tartrazine (additives) Difficul to sleep or relax and felt restles.

Brain damage Hyperactivity

The Rationale for Using Food Additives

To prevent food spoilage.

Advantages

To improve nutritional value

Medical reasons 12

Life without food additives

Food spoilage always occur Diseases will occur oftenly

Malnutrition will occur particularly.

C) MEDICINE - medicine is a substance used to prevent or cure or to reduce pain and suffering due to . - it is classified as i) traditional medicine is a medicine derived from natural resources without being processed chemically. Can be obtained from and animals. Any medicinal plant containing is potentially toxic to liver. Some of it interacts with medications resulting in serious side reactions. Exp : garlic capsules combined with diabetes medication can cause a sudden decrease in blood sugar

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ii) Modern Medicine they usually contain a mixture of active ingredients prepared in different forms such as capsules, pills, solution and suspensions. Exp: (used as antacid) contains sodium bicarbonate (NaHCo ), citric acid and aspirin to neutralises the excess stomach acid. can be classified as follows based on their sffect on the human body : a) (painkillers) medicines that relieve pain without causing numbness or affecting consciousness. Analgesics Uses Side effect Aspirin o Reduce fever Cause brain and liver damage of illed o Relieve headaches, children. muscle aches and joint aches. Cause bleeding in the o Treat arthritis stomach. o Acts as an Cause allergy anticoagulant reactions, skin rashes, prevent clotting blood. asthmatic attacks. o Reduce the risk of heart attack and strokes.

Paracetamol neutral

o To relieve mild to moderate pain (headache,muscle and joint pain, backache , period pains) o Does not irritate the stomach to bleed.

Causes skin rashes, blood disorders and acute inflammation of the pancreas. Cause liver damage.

Codeine

Cause addiction, depression, nausea, drownsiness

 Is a nacortic drugs. Is a strong analgesics.

b) antibiotics Cemicals that destroy / prevent the growth of infected microorganisms. Will not cure the infection caused by viruses such as cold and flu. Obtained from bacteria/fungi. Broken down by acid in the stomach. Antibiotics Uses Side effects o Treat diseases Penicillin Cause allergic caused by bacteria Derived from the reactions such as oneumonia, mould penicillium Cause daeth for gonorrhoea, syphilis notatum people who and tuberculosis. allergiuc at it. o Treat tuberculosis, Cause Streptomycin whooping cough nausea,vomitng, Produced by soil and and some forms dizziness, rashes bacteris at the genus of pneumonia. and fever. streptomyces Loss of hearing following long term use. c) psychotherapeutic medicines. A group of dugs for treating mental / emotional ilness.
Psychotherapeutic medicines Stimulants A medicine which activates the level of arousal and alertness of the central nervous system to reduce fatigue and elevate moon in most people. Uses i) Adrenaline A need in demanding energetic activities. ii) caffeine weak, naturally occuring stimulant found in coffee, tea and cola drinks. iii) Amphetamines Strong synthetic stimulants Increase alertness & physical ability. Increase the heart *repiration rates & blood pressure. Side effects Cause addiction

Antidepressants Medicine used primarily in the treatment of depression.

i) tranquilizers to clam down a person reduce tension & anxiety

cause drowsiness, poor coordination and light headedness, respiratory difficulties, sleeplessness, coma and death if overdose.

Antipsychotic i) chlorpromazine ii) haloperidol iii) clozapine

Cause sleep (high dose) Cause addiction and habit forming Cause death. To treat psychiatrie illness such as Cause mild, dry mouth, schizophrenia (loses touch with reality) blurred vision, urimary retention, constipation, tremor and less rrest as well as sedation(more clmer/sleepy)

i) Barbituarates To sedate, calm and relax individual in low doses.

! Drug Abuse taking drugs excessively and without a doctor s prescription.the examples of drugs are ectasy and ice. D) THE EXISTENCE OF CHEMICALS The chemicals for consumers such as soap, detergents , food additives and medicine play an important role in our life . However, they can contribute negative effects to our health and the environment if these chemicals are not used wisely . Some proper management of these chemicals :Detergents Wear gloves when working with strong detergents to protect your hands . Use biodegradable detergents . Use appropriate amounts of detergents. Food additives Be wise when we consume the food with food additives. Avoid consuming too much salt and sugar . Avoid foods with additives which you are sensitive to . Avoid rewarding children with junk food . Medicines No self medication . Do not take medicine prescribed for someone else .

 Check for expiry date . Follow your doctor s instruction for taking medicine . Keep away from children . Do not overdose . Intensive scientific research must be carried out to produce new substances and this takes more time . Scientists must patient and persevere for their research and development to produce new chemicals in future .