7

LOSSES and OPTIMIZATION

Solar cell operating principles

1. Absorption of photons generation of electron-hole pairs 2. Separation of carriers in the internal electric field created by p-n junction and collection at the electrodes
potential difference and current in the external circuit 3. Potential difference at the electrodes of a p-n junction injection and recombination of carriers losses The resulting current in the external circuit: I = IL - ID (V) photocurrent IL dark (diode) current ID

Solar cell performance

Single-junction solar cell:

sunlight

Typical commercial c-Si solar cell

solar cell

waste heat - 56% spectral mismatch - 9% reflection & transmission - 13% fundamental recombination

electricity

- 7% excess recombination, resistance, etc 15%

Solar cell performance

Optical and collection losses: Non-absorption Thermalization Reflection Transmission Area loss Recombination - bulk - surface
0 ( )

(1 R )
Af At

QE el
g QE opt

Solar cell performance

Optical losses: Non-absorption
Non-absorption Eph<EG

EC
g
Non-absorption g < ph

Eph EV
g

EG

PI = 0 ( )

( )
0

hc d

hc 0 ( ) d 0

Photon flux density: number of photons per unit area per unit time and unit wavelength

hc 0 ( ) d 0

Solar cell performance

Optical losses: Thermalization
Thermalization Eph>EG
Thermalization

g > ph

EC Eph EV
g

EG

Eg

hc PI = ( ) d 0 flux density: number of photons per 0 ( ) Photon unit area per unit time and unit wavelength
0

0 g

0 ( ) d

hc 0 ( ) d 0

Solar cell performance limits

EC Eph EV
Non-absorption Eph<EG
g

EC EG EV
Thermalization Eph>EG
g

Eph

EG

hc ( ) d 0
0 0

Eg
g

0 ( ) d

hc ( ) d 0

hc 0 ( ) d 0

About 55% of solar energy is not usable by PV cells

Solar cell performance

Optical losses: Reflection and transmission
0 ( )

(1 R )
Af At

Reflection: Different refractive indices Transmission: finite thickness of a cell absorption coefficient Area loss: metal electrode coverage

QE el
g QE opt

Solar cell performance

Collection losses: Recombination
0 ( )

(1 R )
Af At

Recombination: bulk recombination (minority carrier lifetime) surface recombination (surface recombination velocity)

QE el
g QE opt

J max = q 0 ( ) d
0

J sc = J max (1 R ) QE opt g QE el

Af At

Solar cell performance

Efficiency:
= J sc Voc ff PI
A J sc = (1 R ) QE opt g QE el f q 0 ( ) d At 0
g

q 0 ( ) d
0

hc d ( ) 0
0

A (1-R ) g QEopt QEel f Voc ff At

g

PI = ( )
0 0

hc d

E G 0 ( ) d
0 0 () 0

hc d

0 g

0 ()

hc d hc d

0 () 0

Af q Voc ff (1-R ) g QEopt QEel A t EG

Overstraeten, Mertens: Physics, technology and Use of Photovoltaics, Adam Hilger 1986

Solar cell performance

g

hc 0 ( ) d 0
0

E g 0 ( ) d
0 g 0 ( ) 0

hc ( ) d 0

hc d

q Voc Af ff (1 R ) g QE opt QE el At Eg

1. Loss by long wavelengths 2. Loss by excess energy of photons 3. Loss by metal electrode coverage 4. Loss by reflection 5. Loss by incomplete absorption due to the finite thickness 6. Loss due to recombination 7. Voltage factor 8. Fill factor
Overstraeten, Mertens: Physics, technology and Use of Photovoltaics, Adam Hilger 1986

Solar cell performance

Optical losses: Non-absorption Thermalization Reflection Transmission Area loss

Properties: Optical gap Optical gap Refractive indices Absorption coefficient Metal grid design

Solar cell performance

Collection losses: Recombination - surface - bulk

Properties: Surface recombination velocity Minority carriers lifetime Diffusion coefficient

Solar cell performance

Optimal design: Total current: I T = I 0 (e qV kT 1) I L
Short circuit current (V=0): High Isc :
Minimize front surface reflection - antireflection coatings Minimize transmission losses - thick absorber Minimize surface recombination - passivation layers Minimize bulk recombination - large diffusion lengths - high electronic quality material

ISC = I L

Solar cell performance

Optimal design: Total current: I T = I 0 (e qV kT 1) I L
Open circuit voltage (I=0): Low I0:
High doping densities Low surface recombination velocities Large diffusion lengths

VOC

kT I L = ln + 1 q I0

q Dn ni2 q D p ni2 I0 = A + L N Lp N D n A

Solar cell performance

Optimal thickness of absorber layer:
Absorption versus collection:
Thickness of the absorber layer Minority carrier diffusion length
Al SiO2 Al n+

p-type c-Si p++ Al p++

Solar cell performance

Optimal thickness of absorber layer:
Absorption versus collection:
Thickness of the absorber layer Minority carrier diffusion length
Al SiO2 Al n+

Le p-type c-Si p++ Al p++

Solar cell performance

Optimal thickness of absorber layer:
Absorption versus collection:
Thickness of the absorber layer Minority carrier diffusion length
Al SiO2 Al n+ Le

Le p-type c-Si p++ Al p++

Solar cell performance

Optimal thickness of absorber layer:
Absorption versus collection:
Thickness of the absorber layer Minority carrier diffusion length
Al SiO2 Al n+ Le

p++ p-type c-Si p++ Al Al

p++

p++

Solar cell performance

Optimal thickness of absorber layer:
Absorption versus collection:
Thickness of the absorber layer Minority carrier diffusion length
Al SiO2 p-type c-Si p++ Al p++ Al n+

Solar cell performance

Optimal thickness of absorber layer:
Increase absorption:
- Surface texture - Antireflection coating
Al Al

SiO

n+

Avoid surface recombination:

- Surface passivation
p++ Al p++

Solar cell performance

Equivalent circuit:
I I-V characteristics
Current

+
IL
1 2

ID
Voltage

VOC IT

current source IL 1 diode diffusion current 2 diode recombination current

ISC

IL

Solar cell performance

Equivalent circuit:
I RS IL
1 2

+
V

Rsh

series resistor RS parallel resistor Rsh

q (Va J Rs A) Va J Rs A J = J 0 exp J ph 1 + n k T Rp
Jph = 400 A/m2 Voc = 0.6904 V = 16 mm2

Solar cell performance

200 Rs Rs Rs Rs Rs = = = = = 0 Ohm 2.5 Ohm 5 Ohm 7.5 Ohm 10 Ohm 100

Current Density [A/m ]

0 Rp = 1e4 Ohm -100

-200

-300 Voc 0.7 0.8

-400

Rs 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

Voltage [V]

Series resistance (RS)

Bulk resistance of semiconductor Bulk resistance of metal electrodes Contact resistance between semiconductor and metal

Solar cell performance

200 Rp = Rp = Rp = Rp = Rp = 0.001 Ohm 0.005 Ohm 0.01 Ohm 0.03 Ohm 1e4 Ohm 100

Current Density [A/m ]

0 Rs = 0 Ohm -100 Rp

-200

-300 Voc 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

-400

Voltage [V]

Shunt (parallel) resistance (RP)

Leakage across the p-n junction around the edge Crystal defects, pinholes, impurity precipitates

Crystalline Si solar cells

First c-Si solar cell:

p-type Si

Fabricated in 1954
n-type Si

(-) (+) (+)

wrap-around structure p-n junction formed by B dopant diffusion high resistive losses in the player efficiency 6%

Crystalline Si solar cells

Efficiency improvement:

University of New South Wales (Australia)

Crystalline Si solar cells

Record c-Si solar cell: PERL structure (UNSW)

External parameters:
Jsc =42.7 mA/cm2 Voc =0.705 V ff = 0.828 = 25.0 %

Passivated Emitter and Rear Locally diffused

Crystalline Si solar cells

Key attributes for high efficiency solar cells:
Surface texture (inverted pyramids for light trapping) Selective emitter (n+-layer for contact, n-layer for active part of
surface)

Passivation of surface (SiO2 on both sides of solar cell) Thin metal fingers on the front side Back side metalization with small contact area to the base material Locally diffused regions under contact points at the back
(BSF field)

Minority diffusion lengths well in excess of device thickness