SCHOOL INFRASTRUCTURE IN URBAN AREAS (A Study of school education in Hyderabad City)

Dr. K. ANJI REDDY * Prof. B.SHIVA REDDY*

I. Introduction: Education can contribute to social and economic development. The transformation of the globe from a growth-based economy to knowledge based economy and increasing emphasis on human development has brought education into the forefront of development debate. The contribution of education to economic and social development depends on the proper development of education itself. For proper development of education, establishment of educational institutions, provision of infrastructure facilities like sufficient classrooms, toilets for boys and girls separately, drinking water, play ground and recruitment of teachers are necessary. Generally there is a high increase in establishment of educational institutions in urban areas due to demand from the migrating people to urban areas for various reasons. One of the important reasons for migration of people from rural areas to urban areas is for better education facilities available in town and Cities. Obviously the demand for schools increases resulting in establishment more and more schools and colleges by the various education suppliers. The enrolment of children depends, among other things, on the availability of physical and academic facilities. Provision of physical and academic facilities is the precondition for effective functioning of schools and academic excellence. The serious efforts of different agencies to supply education reflect the extent of provision of physical facilities and creating appropriate teaching learning conditions.

Availability of facilities in a school can be divided into physical and ancillary facilities. Further, physical facilities are subdivided as infrastructure and academic facilities. As far as physical or physical infrastructure is concerned one can include availability of permanent buildings, adequate class rooms. A school building provides not only an identity to school separating from others but also essential for effective learning teaching-learning activity by sheltering teachers, students, records, materials from the vagaries of weather. Ancillary infrastructure refers to presence of well-marked school compound, playground, drinking water, urinals and separate toilets for girls, etc. That there are rural-urban differences in educational development is well established. The general conclusion is that urban areas are well developed educationally when compared to rural areas. On the whole overall education in urban areas may be good but there are differences within urban areas in terms of alternatives and availability of school facilities. For example, there are more alternatives in big towns and cities than other and within a city between different types of institutions. In Hyderabad city there are quite a large number of schools providing education to millions of children and employing thousands of teachers (see section III). But all the schools are not having the same infrastructure and providing the quality education. Some are well established in terms of physical and other infrastructure while others lack of basic facilities. It is not known what are the factors determining the school infrastructure and how the infrastructure is affecting the enrolment of children in schools. Therefore, an attempt is made to analyze these issues in the context of urban areas by taking Hyderabad as a case study. The main objective of this paper is to examine the school infrastructure and enrolment of children in urban schools in the urban context more specifically the objective are Examine of the Urbanization and availability of school facilities in urban areas. Analyse the availability of school infrastructure facilities in Hyderabad.

Examinie Enrolment.

the

relation

between

school

facilities

available

and

Methodology: The study is based only on secondary data. The first objective is examined on the basis of secondary data collected from 7 th survey and DISE information for AP and all India. The second objective is examined on the both secondary and primary data. The third objective is based on the primary data only. Primary data are collected from 20 sample schools. For the selection of the sample, the Hyderabad is classified into four zones- North, South, West and East- and five schools from each zone are selected randomly. Only Government and Aided schools are included in the sample. II. Urbanization and school facilities: Now days people are migrating from rural areas to urban areas in search of employment, better education and health facilities etc. In the process urban population is increasing along with increased urbanization. The percentage of urban population in India has increased from 19.91 percent in 1971 to 27.78 percentages by 2001 similarly in Andhra Pradesh it has increased from 19.31 percentage in 1971 to 27.08 percentage by 2001 (See Table), but the annual compound growth rate is in reverse direction i.e. decline both in India and Andhra Pradesh. It has declined from 3.79 in 197181 to 2.73 in 1991-2001 and in Andhra Pradesh the decline is from 3.94 to 1.37 in the same period. Though the urban percentage of population has increase over the years but the growth rate declined significantly in spite of continuous migration to urban areas due to increased cost of living, health facilities etc. Table-1 Percentage and Growth of Urban Population in AP & India Percentage of urban population Years 1971 1981 1991 India 19.91 23.33 25.72 Andhra Pradesh 19.31 28.85 26.84 Annual Exponential growth rate Years 19711981India Andhra Pradesh 1981 3.79 3.94 1991 3.09 3.55 2001 27.78 27.08 1991-2001 2.73 1.37

Source: Patterns of urbanization in India (Chandrashekarayya).

The increased growth of schools in Andhra Pradesh between 1993 and 2002 is presented in table below. Table-2 Growth of Urban schools in Andhra Pradesh 1993 2002 Growth (%) Total schools 63773 91322 43.20 Urban schools 9352 15885 69.86 Rural schools 54421 75437 38.62 Source: 7th School education survey, C&SE, AP, Hyderabad. It can be observed form the table that the growth rate in urban schools is much higher than the rural school i.e. almost double in Andhra Pradesh between 1993 and 2002. The urban schools have increased from 9352 in 1993 to 15885 by 2002 registering 69.86 percent of growth, whereas rural schools have increased from 54421 to 75437 with a growth rate of 38.62 percent in the same period. As the demand for education is high in towns and cities and school are established in urban areas, the enrolment should also increase in commensurate with increase in growth of schools. The growth of enrolment in rural and urban schools is presented here under. Table-3 Growth of enrolment in Urban schools in Andhra Pradesh 1993 Total schools 10493724 Urban schools 3337745 Rural schools 7155979 Source: 7th School education survey, 2002 Growth (%) 14480480 37.99 4462513 33.70 10017967 58.50 C&SE, AP, Hyderabad

Contrary to the expectations and growth rate of urban schools the growth rate of enrolment in urban school is almost half of the growth rate of rural schools enrolment between 1993 and 2002 in Andhra Pradesh. Mere establishment of school does not sufficient for enrolment of children in schools there are some more things to be provided in schools like sufficient

and better infrastructure facilities, qualified teachers with quality of teaching etc. School requires sufficient infrastructure facilities like number of class rooms, blackboards, toilets, drinking water, playground, etc according to the enrolment of children and number of classes that a school has.

Table-4 School Infrastructure facilities in Urban AP & India Andhra Pradesh Primary Upper High schools 6.2 Primary 8.6 schools 10.9 Primary schools 4.3 India Upper Primary 7.3 High schools 11.0

Facility Average classrooms %schools with Single classroom % schools Enrolment <100 % schools Enrolment 100-300 % schools Enrolment >300 Student classroom ratio % schools Enrolment >60 per classroom % schools functioning in shift % schools not having girls toilets

10.7

0.64

0.28

8.16

0.86

0.37

33.47

14.11

27.52

37.02

13.01

15.80

49.09

65.88

53.18

45.85

46.19

39.49

17.44

20.02

19.31

17.16

40.79

44.70

30.52

25.62

18.87

40.43

4076

28.13

13.43

8.61

1.83

17.71

14.39

9.66

2.25

1.74

3.53

10.28

18.09

15.54

44.06

23.68

14.18

56.26

30.75

20.05

Source: Elementary Education in Urban India, Where do we stand? NIEPA, 2005.

The infrastructure facilities like number of classrooms, blackboards, toilets, drinking water, playground, etc available in urban schools of Andhra Pradesh are relatively better than that all India averages in all categories of schools. The average classrooms available per primary, upper primary, high schools are 6.2, 8.6, 10.9 and the same for all India is 4.3, 7.3, and 11.0 respectively. Still schools running with single classrooms are more in Andhra Pradesh than all India. The percentage of schools with single classrooms is 10.7, 0.64, and 0.28 in primary, upper primary, high schools respectively, the same for all India is 8.16, 0.86, 0.37. The average rooms available may be sufficient for the enrolment of students less 300 per school. There are good number of school enrolled more 300 students for which the average number rooms available are grossly inadequate. Therefore, these schools are either forced not to enroll the children in school or run in shift system. Either of the methods deprives the students neither to enroll in school nor to learn quality of education. There is good percentage of schools running with more than 300 students enrolled in Andhra Pradesh an India as well. These schools are 17.44, 20.02, 19.31 of primary, upper primary, high schools respectively and the same for all India is 17.16, 40.79, and 44.70. Schools are supposed to run full time i.e. from morning to evening as per timings given by the school authorities. It is happening in rural areas but when it comes to urban areas schools running little differently from that of the rural schools. Some of the urban schools are running in shift system because of non availability of sufficient number classrooms for the students enrolled in schools. In rural area the classes may be conducted under a tree or a tent if number of classrooms is not sufficient but in urban area it is not possible so to conduct classes under a tree or tent because of the non availability of space. The percentage of schools running in shift system is 2.25, 1.74, and 3.53 of primary, upper primary, high schools respectively in Andhra Pradesh the same for all India is 10.28, 18.09, and 15.54. III. Education in Hyderabad City:

Hyderabad has become the capital of Andhra Pradesh after formation of the state in 1956. Before formation of the state Hyderabad it-self was the state and all the Telangana districts and some parts of Maharastra and Karnataka were under its administrative control. In 1978 Hyderabad district was bifurcated in to two districts i.e Ranga Reddy and Hyderabad. All rural places are brought under administrative control of Ranga Reddy and urban areas are under control of Hyderabad district. Out of 23 districts in the state Hyderabad is the only district consists of only urban areas. Table-5 Demographic features of Hyderabad District Year Population Growth rate 2001 1991 1981 3829753 3145939 2260702 21.74 39.16 34.36 19149 14499 Density Sex ratio 933 933 920 Literacy rate 78.80 71.52 32.16

Source: selected educational statistics of various years

Hyderabad district is spread over 217 sq kilo meters and consists of 16 revenue mandals, two revenue divisions and 1104 (814 notified and 290 nonnotified) slums. It is the fastest growing district in Andhra Pradesh largely due to migration from all most all the district and also from neighboring states. With the formation of greater Hyderabad the area of the district increased to 625 sq kilometers covering neighboring areas (both towns and villages) and population of the greater Hyderabad estimated to be around 60 lakhs. Due to increase in population without increase in the area the density of population has increased significantly, leading to urban congestion and increase in the slums. About one-third of the population lives in slums. The Hyderabad continues to be not only the capital of AP but also educational capital of the state. Besides 8 universities, there are several academic and research institutions of national and international fame located

in and around Hyderabad city. About half of the colleges-both general and professional-of Telangana region are located in and around Hyderabad city. It is also place of concentration of corporate colleges and schools which are increasing very fast. Though the district is urban, it has not attained the status of total literacy state, mainly due to immigration of uneducated rural poor in search of better opportunities. However, the literacy rate increased quite significantly in recent years and continues to be the highest literacy district in the state. One of the important factors of determining literacy rate is availability of educational institution i.e. availability of school to people with in their living place and its functioning includes number of teachers working, availability of building with sufficient classrooms, drinking water, toilets, electricity, laboratory, library etc. Here an attempt is made to analyze the growth of the institutions during last 30 years in Hyderabad district. Further, the growth of these institutions management wise also presented in the below table.

Table-6 Management wise schools in Hyderabad District % Type of school Primary school Year 2006-07 1977-78 2006-07 1977-78 2006-07 All 100.0(1504) 100.0 (394) 100.0 (621) 100.0 (190) 100.0 (1053) Private 53.6 22.0 75.4 41.0 69.9 Aided 10.6 7.0 9.5 12.0 13.7 Govt. 35.8 71.0 15.1 48.0 16.4

Upper primary High

school Total schools

1977-78 2006-07 1977-78

100.0 (215) 100.0 (3178) 100.0 (799)

18.0 64.0 25.0

38.0 11.0 16.0

44.0 25.0 59.0

Source: DISE 2006-07 & Educational statistics 1988. (Figures in parentheses are absolute numbers)

There were 799 schools functioning in Hyderabad district during 197778 but by the year 2006-07 the total schools have increased to 3178 by recording 300 percent growth during the 50 years period of time. The growth among different types of schools is not uniform it is highest 390% in high schools followed by primary schools 281% and upper primary schools 227%. All these schools are managed by three kinds of managements i.e. Governments, private and private but financed by the government called aided schools. Out of 799 schools in the district during the year 1977-78 the Government was managing 59% of schools and was financing to 16% of schools, the private management was managing just 25% of the schools. But by the year 2006-07 the situation has become quite reverse to the 1977-78 that is the Govt is managing just 25% of the schools, financing to 11% of schools and private managements are managing 64% of the schools. The important feature of management wise number of schools is no district has more than 50% private unaided schools in the state.

Table-7 Management wise enrolment Enrolment(I-X classes) in Hyderabad District-2006-07

Sex

All

Private

Aided

Govt.

Boys

100.00 (394171) 100.00 (407965) 100.00 (802136)

76.00

9.62

14.38

Girls

65.10

15.75

19.15

Total

70.46

12.74

16.80

Enrolment(I-X classes) in Hyderabad District-1977-78 Boys Girls Total 189029 158333 347362 -

Source: DISE 2006-07 & Educational statistics 1988. (Figures in parentheses are absolute numbers) Enrolment in school education (classes I to X) has increases significantly in Hyderabad district. The enrolment in 2006-07 is 2.3 times to the enrolment in 1977-78. The most important feature of this increase is out numbering of girls enrolment. No district except Hyderabad and Godavari districts have more enrolment of girls than boys. The proportion of enrolment in private unaided schools (70.46%) is more than their proportion in total number of schools (64.0%) in the district.

School Infrastructure: Physical infrastructure is the main concern for many schools in urban areas in the state including Hyderabad city. Availability of land, the cost of land and cost of construction are important factors in determining the

10

availability of physical infrastructure exclusively for schools in urban areas. Therefore, many schools including Government are functioning in rented buildings in Hyderabad city. Of the 3178 schools in the city 51.66 percentage of schools are running in rented accommodation, 37.91 percentage of schools are in own accommodation and remaining 10.43 percentage of school are running in community halls and other buildings (see table-6). There are differences among the managements in providing type of accommodation to schools in the city. In fact it is the private un-aided managements are going for highest (65.53%) rented accommodation followed by private-aided management 45.60 % and Government 34.29%. It indicates that providing own accommodation to the school is one of the biggest problem in urban areas. Obviously when accommodation is rented, it will be insufficiently available to the children and it will have the impact on physical and mental growth of the children attend the school. Table-8 Ownership wise accommodation to school in Hyderabad city Private Un-aided Type of schools Primary schools Upper Primary schools High schools Total OWN RENT Private-Aided Government C.hall OWN RENT OWN RENT sOthe r 35.54 64.46 52.08 47.92 25.65 26.21 48.14 100(1504) Total

30.33

69.67

52.73

47.27

43.62

23.40

32.98

100(621) 100(105 3) 100(317

35.40 34.47

64.60 65.53

59.87 54.40

40.13 45.60

56.07 34.29

20.23 24.60

23.70 41.11

8) Source: DISE 2006-07 (Figure in parentheses is absolute numbers)

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Private Un-aided Type of schools Primary schools Upper Primary schools High schools Total OWN RENT

Private-Aided OW N

Government C.hall RENT sOthe r 9.37 17.22 100(1504) Total

OWN

RENT

17.15

31.12

8.31

7.65

9.18

17.87

40.42

14.01

12.56

6.60

3.54

4.99

100(621) 100(105 3) 100(317

24.41 19.70

44.73 37.44

8.64 9.53

5.79 7.99

9.21 8.68

3.32 6.23

3.89 10.42

8) Source: DISE 2006-07 (Figure in parentheses is absolute numbers)

After

the

accommodation provided is

is

available important

then

what in

kind

of

accommodation

another

issue

providing

accommodation to the children attends the schools? Unlike in rural areas the accommodation available in urban areas is 88.04 percentage is pucca buildings, 9.87 percentage partially pucca and just 1.82 percentage kuchcha. No school is running under tents or open space in urban areas. It is just because of non availability of open space to put tent or run the school under tree. Table-9 Type of buildings schools functioning in Hyderabad city pucca Primary schools Upper Pimary schools High schools Total 84.31 89.44 92.96 88.04 partly puca 12.65 8.84 6.21 9.87 kuchcha 2.65 1.29 0.84 1.82 Tent 0 0 0 0 open space 0.39 0.43 0.00 0.27 Total 100.0(1281 ) 100.0(464) 100.0(838) 100.0(2583 )

(Figures in parentheses are absolute numbers) Source: VII All India educational survey.

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Once the pucca building is provided to a school then the managements should also provide other infrastructure facilities like toilets, drinking water, furniture and electricity. The facilities available in schools managements are presented in table-8. Table-10 Ownership wise facilities in schools in Hyderabad city Private Un-aided Not Availa availa ble ble 87.28 94.68 78.00 94.50 12.72 5.32 22.00 4.50 Private-Aided Availa ble 83.17 86.20 76.25 86.20 Not available 16.83 13.80 23.75 13.80 Government Not available 44.72 14.00 51.35 40.57

Facilities

Available

Toilet Drinking water Electricit y Furniture

55.28 86.00 48.65 59.43

Source: DISE 2006-07

The facilities like toilets, drinking water, electricity and furniture available and not available are calculated for all the schools management wise. If the building is own of the school the management of that school is supposed to provide and maintain the facilities. The building is rented one then the owner of the building has to provide the facilities but managed by the school management. The Govt schools running in community halls do not have facility of toilet, drinking water and electricity. The community halls are given to Government schools for running the school temporarily till the permanent accommodation is provided. Even if the Government wanted to provide the toilet facility there is no space to construct the toilet in the premises of community hall on the other community is trying to evict the

13

schools from the premises. Only 14 percent of the schools having own building require the drinking water facility and 50 percent of the schools require electricity facility.

Table-11 Status of infrastructure facilities in Govt. schools in Hyderabad District 2006-07 C. S. no Type of school Primary schools Upper primary schools High schools Total Own Ren ted hall & other s 1 138 141 259 Furniture required (Dual Desks) 2500 Facilities required for own building schools Addl Electr Water class icity rooms 30 98 291

41

22

31

1500

20

32

97 276

35 198

41 331

5900 9900

6 39

20 138

86 409

(34) (25) (41) (14) (50) Source: DISE 2006-07 (Figure in parentheses is %)

IV.Results of primary survey of Government schools in Hyderabad city: Hyderabad is divided into four zones namely East zone, West zone, North zone and South zone. Of the 805 Government school in the district 20 schools have been selected for collection of primary data to analyze issues of schools in Hyderabad city. The 20 schools have been distributed equally among the four zones at the rate of 5 schools per zone. Table-12 Features of Selected schools in Hyderabad district S. no School Zone Total schools Telug u Urd u Parallel Mediu m Own Rente d C. hall & others

14

1 2 3 4

East Zone West Zone North Zone South zone Total

5 5 5 5 20

1 3 3 0 7

0 2 0 5 7

4 0 2 0 6

0 4 4 3 11

3 0 1 1 5

2 1 0 1 4 (20)

(35) (35) (30) (55) (25) Source: Primary Data (Figure in parentheses is %)

Out of 20 schools 7 schools are of Telugu medium of instruction, 7 schools Urdu medium of instruction and 6 schools are having parallel medium of instruction i.e. Telugu & Urdu and Telugu and English. Further 11 schools are running in own buildings 5 in rented buildings and 4 schools running in community halls or other buildings (see table-12). In case of physical infrastructure it is common among all the zones that about 50% of schools have all the facilities and other 50% of schools do not have the facilities except the electricity facility in East zone schools. The highest enrolment is in North zone followed by East zone, West zone and South zone. Further the highest enrolment in North zone dominated by SC & ST and South zone by Muslim minority. Majority of the schools of North zone are functioning in Government buildings with better infrastructure facilities where as the schools in East zone are functioning in rented building without any proper infrastructure facilities. Table-13 Indicators of Selected schools in Hyderabad district Schoo l Zone East Total schoo ls 5 21 TPR Teach er per schoo l 13.8 Stude nts per schoo l 285 No of schools Water require d 4 No of schools Electricit y required 0 No of schools Toilets required 2

S. no

15

2 3 4

Zone West Zone North Zone South zone Total

5 5 5 20

29 30 25 26

7.6 13.4 7.8 10.7

221 408 193 277

2 2 3 11

2 1 2 5

2 1 2 7 (35)

(55) (25) Source: Primary Data (Figure in parentheses is %)

While government taking private buildings on rent for running government schools the building owners has to ensure to made available all the facilities like drinking water, toilets, electricity etc, but the monthly charges for supply of water and electricity must be paid by the user of the facility i.e. the school. The schools do not have any money for making payments of the bills. The schools have to get budget from the government. Generally government releases the budget for these purposes every quarter based on the availability of funds meantime water and electricity suppliers disconnect the supply for want of payment though these providers also works under the government control. Thereby the school children suffer from non availability of the water and toilet facilities. Some of the schools are running in rented buildings from decades and rents for these buildings were fixed at the time of agreement, there after it was supposed to revise the rent from time to time, but this is not happening. The building owners have to bribe the office people for making payment of rents and revision of rent. Some of the rented school buildings have reached to dilapidated conditions, meantime time the demand for these buildings has increased for commercial uses. Therefore, the owners of the buildings are not taking any interest to take up any maintenance repairs to the buildings on the other hand they trying to vacate schools from their buildings. Generally it is believed that the private schools provide better infrastructure facilities to the students, but they are not exception in lacking basic facilities. There are about 5 to 20 percent of schools do not have drinking water, toilets or electricity and about 30 to 40 percent of schools are functioning in rented buildings and these buildings not suitable for running schools but the

16

managements are continuously running in such buildings by paying less rent for making profits on schools.

Conclusion: Development of Education leads to migration of people in search better employment and other facilities for comfortable living. The better facilities are available in cities and towns. In the first instance rich and economically well off families do migrate for better education and health facilities and to provide support services such families poor families do migrate to towns and cities. Apart from these families educated middle class and economically viable people do migrate. When all these families are migrating they need new schools to enroll their children. So, more and more new schools are established to meet the demands of the migrant people. Rapid urbanization required to provide more and more educational institutions with required facilities. But the rapid urbanization escalates the land values and creates scarcity of land for many uses. Educational institutions are one such use find it difficult to provide sufficient land and thereby lacks all the facilities needs in the institutions particularly drinking water, toilet and playground. Ultimately leads low enrolment and quality education in institutions in urban areas. References Agarwal, Yash (2000): An Assessment of Trends in Access and Retention, NIEPA, New Delhi. Chandrashekarayya & others (2008): Patterns of Urbanization in India, Southern Economist, vol. 47, no.7. Government of Andhra Pradesh: Selected Educational Statistics-Various Issues, C&DSE, Hyderabad. Government of Andhra Pradesh: Provisional statistics, Seventh All India school education survey, C&DSE, Hyderabad, conducted in 2002-03. Government of Andhra Pradesh, Statistical Abstract of Andhra Pradesh Various Issues, Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Hyderabad.

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Government of Andhra Pradesh (1961) Report of the Public Instructions in Andhra Pradesh for the Year 1956-57. DPI, Hyderabad. Jain, Sharada (2000): Children, Work and Education: Rethinking on Out-ofSchool Chidlren, Education for All: Year 2000 Assessment, MHRD and NIEPA, New Delhi. Juneja, Nalini (2005) : Is a Blocked chimney impeding access to secondary education on some cities an inducing dropout in Municipal Primary schools?, NIEPA Occasional paper 33. Krishnaji (1996): Poverty, Gender and Schooling: A Study of

Mahabubnagar and Adilabad Districts. Center for Development Studies.

UNDP Research Project on

strategies and Financing of Human Development, Thriruvananthapuram,

Reddy, Shiva B (1996): Child Labour and Compulsory Education in Andhra Pradesh, Journal of Educational Planning and Administration, Vol. 11, No. 4. Reddy, Shiva B (2001): Economic Issues in the Enforcement of Free and Compulsory Education in India , paper presented in the Faculty Seminar, Department of Economics, Osmania University (mimeo.). Reddy, Shiva B (2000): Evaluation of Operation Blackboard Scheme in Andhra Pradesh, Department of Economics, Osmania University and NIEPA, New Delhi. Shiva Reddy,B (2004): Relative Efficiency of Secondary Education Under Public Funded Managements in Andhra Pradesh, Working Paper series, Department of Economics, Osmania University, Hyderabad. Shiva Reddy, B (2004): Secondary Education in Andhra Pradesh: An

Analysis of Delivery Mechanism and Functioning of Secondary Schools, Department of Economics, Osmania University and NIEPA, New Delhi ( Draft Report)

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Shiva Reddy, B and Anji Reddy K (2001): Report on Financing of Secondary Education: A study with Special Reference to Grants-inDepartment of Aid Policy of Government of Andhra Pradesh , Economics, Osmania University and NIEPA, New Delhi) Shiva Reddy, B and Anji Reddy K (2002): Report on Andhra Pradesh Social Welfare Residential Educational Institutions Society, (sponsored by Society for Elimination of Rural Poverty Shiva Reddy, B and Anji Reddy K (2003): Relative Efficiency of Public Funded Secondary Schools in Andhra Pradesh, paper presented in Development Convention, organized by ISEC, Bangalore. Shiva Reddy,B (2004): Relative Efficiency of Secondary Education Under Public Funded Managements in Andhra Pradesh, Working Paper series, Department of Economics, Osmania University, Hyderabad. Tilak, Jandhyala B.G. (1987): Economics of Inequality in Education, Sage Publishers, New Delhi. World Bank (1995), Priorities and Strategies for Education: A World Bank View , Washington, D.C: World Bank.

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