EFFECT OF RESISTANCE TRAINING ON CARDIOVASCULAR FITNESS ON COLLEGE MEN

BY JINCE KAPPAN

A thesis submitted to the Pondicherry University partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORTS PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY PONDICHERRY- 605 014.

APRIL, 2006
Dr.N.GOVINDARAJULU M.P.E.; M.Phil.; M.S. (GERMANY); Ph. D. ,

Reader and Head i/c, Department of Physical Education and Sports, Pondicherry University, Pondicherry-605 014.

CERTIFICATE This is to certify that the thesis entitled EFFECT OF RESISTANCE TRAINING ON CARDIOVASCULAR FITNESS ON COLLEGE MEN is based on the original work done by Shri. JINCE KAPPAN, Master of Physical Education during the academic year 2005-2006 under my supervision and that this thesis has not previously formed on the basis for the award of any Degree / Diploma / Associateship / Fellowship or any other similar title and it represents entirely an independent work on the part of the candidate.

Place: Pondicherry Date: -04-2006.

( N.GOVINDARAJULU ) Guide

(i)

JINCE KAPPAN, Master of Physical Education II year, Department of Physical Education and Sports, Ponndicherry University, Ponndicherry 605 014.

DECLARATION I hereby declare that the thesis entitled EFFECT OF

RESISTANCE TRAINING ON CARDIOVASCULAR FITNESS ON COLLEGE MEN is submitted to the Pondicherry University in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Physical Education, is a record of original research work done by me under the supervision and guidance of Dr. N. GOVINDARAJULU, Reader and Head i/c, Department of Physical Education and Sports, Pondicherry University and it has not formed before on the basis for the award of any Degree/Diploma/Associateship/Fellowship or any other similar title.

Place: Pondichery, Date: -04-2006.

( JINCE KAPPAN )

( ii )

DEDICATED TO

My parents, Brothers and Coaches

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The heartfelt investigator thanks to expresses his most his profound and gratitude learned and guide

honoured

Dr. N. GOVINDARAJULU, Reader and Head i/c, Department of Physical Education and Sports, Pondicherry University for locating the scientific topic, guidance and scrupulous supervision. I thank my friends for their immense help to successful completion of this work. My love to my parents, brothers and my coaches, who were instrumental that inspires me to undertake this study. I express my sincere and whole thanks to Mr. Jayakumar Ph.D. scholer, who assisted me successfully in the completion of this work. I also express my sincere and whole thanks to Fr. Dominique, my friends, Members of Anugraha Students World, immates of Arul Ashram, and those who assisted me successfully in the completion of this work.

( J.K.)

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CURRICULUM VITAE
Name Date of Birth Fathers name Permanent Address

JINCE KAPPAN
23rd June, 1983. Sebastian Scaria Kappil House, Edanad ( P.O ) , Pala, Kottayam (Dist.), Kerala 686 574.

E Mail

haikappan@yahoo.co.in haikappan@rediffmail.com

Education: YEAR OF DEGREE B.P.E. P.D.C. S.S.L.C. UNIVERSITY KERALA UNIVERSITY. M.G UNIVERSITY, KOTTAYAM. ST.THOMAS H.S.S, PALA. PASSING 2004 2001 1999 PERCENTAGE 60.01% 56.6% 55%

Area of Interest Game Athletics, Handball, Cricket, Volleyball, and Basketball. Theory Exercise Physiology, Sports Training and Sports Psychology Languages known English, Malayalam, Hindi and Tamil. Specialization Football (During Post Graduation) Athletics (During Graduation) 6

(v) ACHIEVEMENTS Represented the Pondicherry University in the All India Inter-University Athletics Competition for the academic year 2004-2005. Represented the Pondicherry University in South Zone Inter-University Handballl tournament held at Bharkathullah University, Bhopal, for the academic year 20042005. Represented the Pondicherry University in South Zone Inter-University Handballl tournament held at Annamalai University, Chidambaram, for the academic year 2005-2006. Represented the Pondicherry for Senior National 7a side Football Tournament held at Gorekpur, U.P. State for the year 2005. Represented the Kerala University in the All India Inter-University Handball tournament 2003. Member of College Handball team in the Inter-Collegiate Tournement, Pondicherry University for the academic years 2004-2005 and 2005-2006 and won the tourenement. Was a champion in Polevault, Kerala University Inter-Collegiate Athletic Competition, continuously for three years (from 2001 to 2003) Decathlon Bronze medal winner in Kerala University Inter-Collegiate Athletic Competition in 2003. Silver medal winner in Bodybuilding Inter-Collegiate Competition conducted by the Kerala University 2004 Bronze medal winner in Bodybuilding Inter-Collegiate Competition conducted by the Kerala University, for the academic year 2001-2002 and 2002-2003 Bronze medal winner in Wrestling Inter-Collegiate Competition conducted by the Kerala University for the academic year 2003-2004. Bronze medal winner in Power Lifting Inter-Collegiate Competition conducted by the Kerala University for the academic year 2003-2004.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter I INTRODUCTION

Statement of the Problem Hypothesis Delimitations Limitations Operational Definitions Significance of the Study

Page No. 1-12

II III

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE METHODOLOGY

Selection of Subjects Selection of Variables Administration of Tests Statistical Technique

13-37 38-44

IV

ANALYSIS OF DATA AND RESULT OF THE STUDY

45-52

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS APPENDICES BIBLIOGRAPHY

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53-54

55-58 59-63

LIST OF TABLES Table No. I Difference in mean of experimental and control groups on aerobic capacity II III Difference in mean of experimental and control groups on VO 2 m max Difference in mean of experimental and control groups on anaerobic capacity IV Difference in mean of experimental and control groups on resting pulse rate 50 48 47 Page No. 45

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Fig. No. 1. Difference in mean of experimental and control groups on aerobic capacity 2. 3. Difference in mean of experimental and control groups on vo 2 m max Difference in mean of experimental and control groups on anaerobic capacity 4. Difference in mean of experimental and control groups on resting pulse rate 51 49 48 Page No. 46

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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

Each day, virtually all people participate in some type of physical activity. For some, this may mean making their bed or preparing meals. For others, this might entail high-intensity exertion. Such as running a 1500 meters race. Common to all activities is the involvement of the cardiovascular responds that take place can be brief and relatively minor, such as an increase in heart rate as one stands up from a chair and walks from one room to another. Alternatively, cardiovascular responses can be quiet complex; to the extent that blood flow during intense mountain biking is increased and preferentially directed toward the more metabolically active skeletal muscles. And while much is already known about how the cardiovascular system adapts or responds to an acute bout of exercise, many key questions still remain unanswered. A thorough knowledge of cardiovascular physiology, its many terms, and acute exercise responses will help serve persons entering career in medicine, and athletic training.1

Sports training consists of exercises performed systematically to improve physical abilities and to acquire skills connected with the technique of the performance of the sports event. Experience and, to a certain extent, the results of related studies suggest to the coach which exercises are necessary. The testing of physical abilities, visual evaluation leaves a gap between exercise and the effects of its systematic repetition. In the guiding of training, an essential problem arises due to the fact that a couple of months is necessary before the training effects are demonstrated in physical abilities and physical

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working capacity to a measurable extent. Therefore, only delayed feedback information on training effects may be obtained by the tests of physical abilities and competition results. Moreover, the main shortcoming of this feedback information is that the concerned changes reflect an integral action of various exercises, training methods, and regimens.2 Systematically performed physical exercises result in a great many changes in the organism. Our general understanding of training will significantly improve if we consider that all training effects are based on exercise-induced changes in the organism and each change is specifically dependent on the exercise nature, intensity and duration. Thus, each training exercise results in specific changes in the organism that are necessary to obtain a goal of the training. The top level performance depends on effective training as well as on genetic peculiarities. Therefore, the tasks of training and of sport selection have to be discriminated but it must be emphasized that there are no genetically induced factors that directly determine the level of sports results in any event. The positive significance of genetic factors becomes apparent in training.3 For many sports, the reliance on more than one energy system dictates the inclusion of various modes of exercise in the training regimen of the athlete. However, training multiple energy systems and performing various types of training simultaneously, referred to as concurrent training. Endurance training results in physiological adaptations (for example, increase in oxidative enzyme activity, capillary density, and mitochondrial content) that are conductive to improving and maintaining prolonged aerobic activities resistance training produces changes that are often in direct contrast to those seen during endurance training these adaptations often include increases

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in muscle mass that may parallel decreases in mitochondrial volume density.

Such

contrasting adaptations from performing either endurance or resistance training have created a hesitance on the port of both endurance and strength athletes to engage in the opposite form of training for fear that it may compromise desired training adaptations.4 In the last few decades sports have gained tremendous popularity all over the globe. The popularity of sports is still increasing at a fast pace and this happy trend is likely to continue in the future also. Sports have become an important social and cultural activity in the modern world which is being given the rightful place it deserves by the nations and societies of the world. The area of performance sports is not a merely a glamorous area of sports. It also fulfills his certain valuable social functions due to which it has been accorded high importance all over the world. It contributes towards the all round development of the personality and enhances the horizons of awareness among the competing sports men with regard to the fact that they are representing particular states or countries of their origin.5 Performance in any sports activity depends to a large extent of physical fitness. Sports trainers concentrate on improving the physical fitness and mental abilities of a player, that is speed, strength, endurance and flexibility. The extent of the contribution of these factors varies in different individuals, in different sports, at different stages of development and different level of competition. The importance of these factors must be identified, prioritized, assessed and modified to exhibit excellence in performance. Training is usually defined as a systematic process of repetitive, progressive, exercise or work involving also the learning process and acclimatization.

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Training refers to the acquisition of knowledge, skills, attitudes as a result of the teaching of vocational or practical skills and knowledge and relates to specific useful skills. It forms the core of apprenticeships and provides the backbone of content at technical colleges or polytechnics. Today it is often referred to as professional development.

Sports Training: Sports training is concerned with pre and post organized sports activities. Often, it is in conjunction with one or more coaching experts or professionals guiding a team or an individual in technique, leading to perfection; whether professional or amateur.6 Resistance Training: Resistance training increases muscle strength by pitting the muscles against a weight, such as a dumbbell or barbell. The muscle cells adapt to the extra workload by enlarging (hypertrophy) and recruiting greater numbers of nerve cells to aid contraction. Understanding the principles of muscle contraction can help you reach your fitness goals faster. It is important to pay attention to safety and good form to reduce the risk of injury. Consult with your doctor before starting any new exercise program, especially if one is overweight, over 40 years, have a pre-existing medical condition or haven't exercised in a long time.7 Sports training is a conscious human activity. It is also a goal oriented activity. Therefore, it is obligatory for sports training to include in its subject matter the study of sports performance capacity without an understanding of sports performance and performance capacity no effective and meaningful theories and methods of training are possible.

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Different training methods have been commonly used to improve physical fitness and its related standards of performance of athletes. The training methods include weight training, circuit training, plyometric training, fartlek training, altitude training, resistance training and interval training. In this study, concentration on heavy resistance training on cardio-vascular fitness is focused. Although exercise programs have traditionally emphasized dynamic lowerextremity exercise, research increasingly suggests that complementary resistance training, when appropriately prescribed and supervised, has favorable effects on muscular strength and endurance, cardiovascular function, metabolism, coronary risk factors, and psychosocial well-being. This advisory reviews the role of resistance training in specific reference to health and fitness benefits, rationale, the complementary role of stretching, relevant physiological considerations, and safety. Participation criteria and prescriptive guidelines are also provided.

Health and Fitness Benefits of Resistance Training Although resistance training has long been accepted as a means for developing and maintaining muscular strength, endurance, power, and muscle mass (hypertrophy), resistance training was not a part of the recommended guidelines for exercise training and rehabilitation for either the American Heart Association or the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM). In 1990, the ACSM first recognized resistance training as a significant component of a comprehensive fitness program for healthy adults of all ages. Both aerobic endurance exercise and resistance training can promote substantial benefits in physical fitness and health-related factors. Aerobic endurance training weighs higher in

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the development of maximum oxygen uptake (Vo2max) and associated cardiopulmonary variables, and it more effectively modifies cardiovascular risk factors associated with the development of coronary artery disease. Resistance training offers greater development of muscular strength, endurance, and mass. It also assists in the maintenance of basal metabolic rate (to complement aerobic training for weight control), promotes independence, and helps to prevent falls in the elderly. Resistance training is particularly beneficial for improving the function of most cardiac, frail, and elderly patients, who benefit substantially from both upper- and lower-body exercise.8

Moderate-to-high-intensity resistance training performed two to three days per week for three to six months improves muscular strength and endurance in men and women of all ages by 25% to 100%, depending on the training stimulus and initial level of strength. Furthermore, many leisure and occupational tasks require static or dynamic efforts, often involving the arms rather than the legs. Because the presure response to resistance exercise is largely proportionate to the percent of maximal voluntary contraction (% MVC), as well as the muscle mass involved, increased muscle strength results in an attenuated heart rate and blood pressure response to any given load, because the load now represents a lower percentage of the MVC. Strength training increases muscular endurance, with modest to no improvement in Vo2max. In subjects in that study, although Vo2max during treadmill and bicycle ergometer testing remained essentially unchanged after 10 weeks of heavy resistance training, sub maximal endurance time to exhaustion increased while cycling (47%) and running (12%).

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Complementary Role of Stretching In contrast to resistance training, stretching as an isolated activity increases either muscle strength or endurance, but it should be incorporated into an overall fitness regimen. Considerable evidence suggests that stretching exercises increase tendon flexibility, improve joint range of motion (ROM) and function, and enhance muscular performance.9 Moreover, observational studies support the role of flexibility exercise using ballistic (movement), static (little or no movement), or modified proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation techniques9 in the prevention and treatment of musculoskeletal injuries.21 These promote a transient increase in the musculotendon unit length that results from actins-myosin complex relaxation and a lasting increase through alteration in the surrounding extra cellular matrix. Thus, aerobic and/or resistance training should be complemented by a stretching program that exercises the major muscle or tendon groups at least two to three days per week.

Physiological Considerations The physiological response to dynamic aerobic exercise is an increase in oxygen consumption and heart rate that parallels the intensity of the imposed activity and a curvilinear increase in stroke volume. There is a progressive increase in systolic blood pressure, with maintenance of or a slight decrease in the diastolic blood pressure, and a concomitant widening of the pulse pressure. Blood is shunted from the viscera to active skeletal muscle, where increased oxygen extraction widens the systemic arteriovenous

17

oxygen difference. Thus, aerobic exercise imposes primarily a volume load on the myocardium. Isometric exertion involves sustained muscle contraction against an immovable load or resistance with no change in length of the involved muscle group or joint motion. The heart rate and blood pressure responses to isometric exertion are largely proportionate to the tension exerted relative to the greatest possible tension in the muscle group (% MVC) rather than the absolute tension developed. Stroke volume remains largely unchanged except at high levels of tension (>50% MVC), at which it may decrease. The result is a moderate increase in cardiac output, with little or no increase in metabolism. Despite the increased cardiac output, blood flow to the noncontracting muscles does not significantly increase, probably because of reflex vasoconstriction. The combination of

vasoconstriction and increased cardiac output causes a disproportionate rise in systolic, diastolic, and mean blood pressures. Thus, a significant pressure load is imposed on the heart, presumably to increase perfusion to the active (contracting) skeletal muscle.9

Statement of problem
The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of resistance training on cardiovascular fitness on college men.

Hypothesis
The study was hypothesized that the resistance training would show significant increase in cardiovascular fitness.

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Delimitations
The study was delimitated to the following aspects: 1. The subjects were selected from college going students. 2. Their age ranged from 18 years to 25 years as per their college records. 3. The experimental treatment was restricted for a period of eight weeks. 4. 50 college students were randomly selected from different colleges. 5. The resistance training exercises were restricted to following exercises a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) Rowing Bench press Leg press Full squat Good morning exercise Dumbbell flys Seated cable rows Power clean

Limitations
The following were the limitations of the present study: 1. Certain factors like rational habits, life style, daily routine, diet were not taken into

consideration. 2. 3. 4. The climatic condition was not taken in to consideration. The subjects belonged to different socio-economic status. Athletes past experience were not taken into consideration.

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Operational Definitions
Training Training refers to the acquisition of knowledge, skills, attitudes as a result of the teaching of vocational or practical skills and knowledge and relates to specific useful skills.10 Resistance Training Resistance training increases muscle strength by pitting the muscles against a weight, such as a dumbbell or barbell. Resistance training done as a training program for improving or maintaining overall fitness, strength, or endurance.11 Cardiovascular Cardiovascular means relating to, or involving the heart and the blood vessels.12

Significance of the study

1. The result of the study would be of great interest to exercise physiologist and

physical educators. 2. The findings of the study will be of great value in designing and administrating

physical fitness program and remedial programs for those who need such special attention. 3. The study would add to the body of knowledge in the area of exercise physiology.

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REFERENCES

M. L. Foss and S. J. Keteyian. Foxs Physiological Basis for Exercise and

Sport (Newyork: United States, Edward E.Barteell, 1998):214.

2

E. W. Garrett and T. Donald. Exercise and Sports Sciences (Philadelphia: East

Washington Lippingcott Williams and Wilkins, 2002): 67.

3

J. H. Willmore, Strength, Power and Muscular Endurance in Athletic

Training and Physical Fitness (Boston: Allgn and Batter Inc., 1997):88.
4

J. Hoffman. Physiological Aspects of Sports Training and Performance

(Newyork: Simon and Schuster, 1992):219.

5

Hardayal Singh. Sports Training General Theory and Methods (Patiala:

Nethaji Subash National Institute of Sports, 1984):12.

6

P. V. Komi, Strength and Power in Sport (Oxford: United Kingdom: Blackwell

Scientific Publications, 1991):76.

7

R. C. Hickson and M.A. Rosenkoetter, Strength Training Effects on Aerobic

Power and Short-Term Endurance Journal of Medical Science and Sports Exercises 12 (1980):336339.
8

http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bc2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Resistance_training http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/entry/Resistance_training http://www.answers.com/training&r=67 http://www.resistance-training.com/ http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/search?p=cardiovascular

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CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Kaikkonen et. al., (2000)1 done a research on The Effect of Heart Rate Controlled Low Resistance Circuit Weight Training and Endurance Training on Maximal Aerobic Power in Sedentary Adults. The effects of a 12-weeks low resistance circuit weight training (CWT) on cardiovascular and muscular fitness were studied in 90 healthy sedentary adults. The subjects were randomized into three equally fit groups: CWT, Endurance (END) and Control (CON) according to their maximal aerobic power (Vo2max). Both training groups exercised for 12 weeks, 3 days a week in sessions of 40 min, with a heart rate (HR) level of 70-80% HRmax. The CWT group trained with air resistance machines. Heart rate was controlled by setting the speed of movement. The END group walked, jogged, cross-country skied or cycled. The net differences (between pre- and posttraining changes) between the CWT and CON groups was statistically significant for VO2max (2.45 ml x min(-1) x kg(-1), 95% CI 1.1; 3.8), for abdominal muscles (3.7 reps, CI 0.3; 7.1), for push-ups (1.1 reps, CI 0.2; 2.1), and for kneeling (2.25 reps, CI 0.01; 4.5). The net difference (between pre- and posttraining changes) in the END and CON groups was statistically significant for VO2max (2.75 ml(-1) x min(-1) x kg(-1), 95% CI 0.9; 4.6), and kneeling (3.0 reps, CI 0.7; 5.3). Low resistance CWT with moderately hard HR level has effects comparable to an equal amount of endurance training on the cardiovascular fitness of sedentary adults. The CWT model was benefical also on muscular fitness. Based on the results, this type of exercise can be recommended for beginners because of its multilevel effects

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Howley et. al., (1993)2 done a research on The Effect of Moderate Resistance Weight Training on Peak Arm Aerobic Power . The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of moderate resistance weight training (MRWT) on peak arm aerobic power as measured by arm cranking ergometry. Fourteen sedentary college age males, divided equally into two groups, served as subjects. The seven subjects in the MRWT group completed 12, 1-hour bouts of weight lifting over a 4 week period, exercising on Monday, Wednesday and Friday of each week. Exercise sessions included 3 sets of 10 repetitions of the following lifts: bench press, overhead dumbbell press, dumbbell arm curl, and behind the neck pull down. The remaining seven subjects served as a nontraining control group, whose purpose was to account for possible learning effects on the arm ergometer test that could distort the statistical relevance of the aerobic power data. These subjects did not serve as a control for the weight training exercises, as the procedures used to determine muscular strength may produce a modest training effect. Peak arm aerobic power and muscular strength, as measured by the one-repetition maximum for each lift, were determined before and after the training program. The average increase in strength for all lifts combined for the trained group was 20.0%. They also experienced a 13.4% (p < .005) increase in peak arm aerobic power, whereas there was no significant change in this variable for the control group. It is concluded that peak arm aerobic power is enhanced by the changes in muscular strength produced by 4 wks of MRWT.

De Vos et. al., (2005)3 done a research on Optimal Load for Increasing Muscle Power During Explosive Resistance Training in Older Adults.Background: Muscle

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power (force x velocity) recedes at a faster rate than strength with age and may also be a stronger predictor of fall risk and functional decline. The optimal training paradigm for improving muscle power in older adults is not known, although some literature suggests high velocity, low load training is optimal in young adults. Methods: One hundred twelve healthy older adults (69 +/- 6 years) were randomly assigned to either explosive resistance training at 20% (G20), 50% (G50), or 80% (G80) one repetition maximum (1RM) for 8-12 weeks or to a nontraining control group (CON). Participants trained twice per week (five exercises; three sets of eight rapidly concentric and slow eccentric repetitions) using pneumatic resistance machines. Repeated-measures analysis of variance and covariance (ANOVA and ANCOVA) were used to determine the effects of training. Results: Average peak power increased significantly and similarly in G80 (14 +/- 8%), G50 (15 +/- 9%), and G20 (14 +/- 6%) compared to CON (3 +/- 6%) (p < . 0001). By contrast, a positive dose-response relationship with training intensity was observed for relative changes in average strength (r = .40, p = .0009) and endurance (r = . 43, p = .0005). Average strength increased in G80 (20 +/- 7%), G50 (16 +/- 7%), and G20 (13 +/- 7%) compared to CON (4 +/- 4%) (p < .0001). Average muscle endurance increased in G80 (185 +/- 126%, p < .0001), G50 (103 +/- 75%, p = .0004), and G20 (82 +/- 57%, p = .0078) compared to CON (28 +/- 29%). Conclusion: Peak muscle power may be improved similarly using light, moderate, or heavy resistances, whereas there is a dose-response relationship between training intensity and muscle strength and endurance changes. Therefore, using heavy loads during explosive resistance training may be the most effective strategy to achieve simultaneous improvements in muscle strength, power, and endurance in older adults

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Henwood and Taaffe, (2005)4 done a study on Improved Physical Performance in Older Adults Undertaking a Short-Term Programme of High-Velocity Resistance Training. Background: The age-related loss of muscle power in older adults is greater than that of muscle strength and is associated with a decline in physical performance. Objective: To investigate the effects of a short-term high-velocity varied resistance training programme on physical performance in healthy community-dwelling adults aged 60-80 years. Methods: Subjects undertook exercise (EX; n=15) or maintained customary activity (controls, CON; n=10) for 8 weeks. The EX group trained 2 days/week using machine weights for three sets of eight repetitions at 35, 55, and 75% of their onerepetition maximum (the maximal weight that an individual can lift once with acceptable form) for seven upper- and lower-body exercises using explosive concentric movements. Results: Fourteen EX and 10 CON subjects completed the study. Dynamic muscle strength significantly increased (p=0.001) in the EX group for all exercises (from 21.4 +/9.6 to 82.0 +/- 59.2%, mean +/- SD) following training, as did knee extension power (p <0.01). Significant improvement occurred for the EX group in the floor rise to standing (10.4 +/- 11.5%, p=0.004), usual 6-metre walk (6.6 +/- 8.2%, p=0.010), repeated chair rise (10.4 +/- 15.6%, p=0.013), and lift and reach (25.6 +/- 12.1%, p=0.002) performance tasks but not in the CON group. Conclusion: Progressive resistance training that incorporates rapid rate-of-force development movements may be safely undertaken in healthy older adults and results in significant gains in muscle strength, muscle power, and physical performance. Such improvements could prolong functional independence and improve the quality of life.

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Faigenbaum et. al. , (1999)5 done a stidy on The Effects of Different Resistance Training Protocols on Muscular sStrength and Endurance Development in

Children.Background: Previous research has shown that children can increase their muscular strength and muscular endurance as a result of regular participation in a progressive resistance training program. However, the most effective exercise prescription regarding the number of repetitions remains questionable. Objective: To compare the effects of a low repetition-heavy load resistance training program and a high repetition-moderate load resistance training program on the development of muscular strength and muscular endurance in children. Design. Prospective, controlled trial. Setting: Community-based youth fitness center. Subjects: Eleven girls and 32 boys between the ages of 5.2 and 11.8 years. Intervention: In twice-weekly sessions of resistance training for 8 weeks, children performed 1 set of 6 to 8 repetitions with a heavy load (n = 15) or 1 set of 13 to 15 repetitions with a moderate load (n = 16) on child-size exercise machines. Children in the control group (n = 12) did not resistance train. One repetition maximum (RM) strength and muscular endurance (repetitions performed posttraining with the pretraining 1-RM load) were determined on the leg extension and chest press exercises. Results: One RM leg extension strength significantly increased in both exercise groups compared with that in the control subjects. Increases of 31.0% and 40.9%, respectively, for the low repetition-heavy load and high repetition-moderate load groups were observed. Leg extension muscular endurance significantly increased in both exercise groups compared with that in the control subjects, although gains resulting from high repetition-moderate load training (13.1 +/- 6.2 repetitions) were significantly greater

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than those resulting from low repetition-heavy load training (8.7 +/- 2.9 repetitions). On the chest press exercise, only the high repetition-moderate load exercise group made gains in 1-RM strength (16.3%) and muscular endurance (5.2 +/- 3.6 repetitions) that were significantly greater than gains in the control subjects. Conclusion: These findings support the concept that muscular strength and muscular endurance can be improved during the childhood years and favor the prescription of higher repetition-moderate load resistance training programs during the initial adaptation period.

Seynns, (2004)6 done a study on Physiological and Functional Responses to Low-Moderate Versus High-Intensity Progressive Resistance Training in Frail Elders Background: The purpose of this efficacy study was to measure the dose-response effect of a free weight-based resistance training program by comparing the effects of two training intensities (low-moderate and high) of the knee extensor (KE) muscles on muscle function, functional limitations, and self-reported disability. Methods: The authors conducted a single-blinded, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Twenty-two

institutionalized elders (mean age, 81.5 years) were assigned to either high-intensity strength training (HI; n = 8), low-moderate intensity strength training (LI; n = 6), or weight-free placebo-control training (PC; n = 8). The HI group trained at 80% of their 1repetition maximum and the LI group trained at 40%. All groups performed 3 sets of 8 repetitions, 3 times per week for 10 weeks. Outcome measures included KE maximal strength, KE endurance, and functional performance as assessed by 6-minute walking, chair-rising, and stair-climbing tests, and by self-reported disability. Results: KE strength and endurance, stair-climbing power, and chair-rising time improved significantly in the

27

HI and LI groups compared with the PC group. Six-minute walking distance improved significantly in the HI group but not in the LI group compared with the PC group. Changes observed in HI were significantly different from those observed in the LI group for KE strength and endurance and the 6-minute walking test, with a trend in the same direction for chair-rising and stair-climbing. Changes in strength were significantly related to changes in functional outcomes, explaining 37% to 61% of the variance. Conclusions: These results show strong dose-response relationships between resistance training intensity and strength gains, and between strength gains and functional improvements after resistance training. Low-moderate intensity resistance training of the KE muscles may not be sufficiently robust from a physiologic perspective to achieve optimal improvement of functional performance. Supervised HI, free weight-based training for frail elders appears to be as safe as lower intensity training but is more effective physiologically and functionally.

Jozsih et. al., (1999)7 done a study on Changes in Power with Resistance Rraining in Older and Younger Men and Women Background: Muscle power diminishes with increasing age and inactivity. The capacity for older adults to increase muscle power with resistance exercise has not been examined; therefore, we examined the influence of progressive resistance training (PRT) on muscle power output in 17 men and women aged 56-66 years, and compared their responses to 15 men and women aged 21-30 years. Methods: All subjects performed 12 weeks of PRT at a workload equivalent to 80% of the one repetition maximum (1RM). All training and assessments of 1RM and power were made on Keiser pneumatic resistance machines. Subjects performed five

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exercises, three sets per exercise, twice weekly. Muscle power was measured (isotonically) at resistances equivalent to 40, 60, and 80% of the 1RM, on the knee extension and arm pull machines. Results: All subjects increased arm pull power similarly at 40 and 60% of 1RM, independent of age or sex. There was not a significant increase in arm pull power at 80% of 1RM. Older and younger subjects also had similar absolute increases in leg extensor power at 40 and 60% of 1RM, but men responded with greater absolute gains than women at these percentages (p < .05). The increase in leg extensor power at 80% of 1RM was similar in all groups. Older and younger subjects increased strength similarly in all exercises except the left knee extension. Independent of age, men increased strength more than women in all exercises except the double leg press. Conclusions: These data demonstrate that individuals in their sixth decade can still improve muscle power (and strength); however, men may realize greater absolute gains than women.

Shephard et. al., (2003)8 done a research on New Insights in the Prescription of Exercise for Coronary PatientsPrescribing exercise for cardiac patients is comparable in many ways to prescribing medications; that is, one recommends an optimal dosage according to individual needs and clinical status. Recent research has shown that it is more accurate to prescribe exercise as a percentage of the oxygen uptake reserve (VO2R), which is the difference between resting and maximal or peak oxygen consumption, rather than as a percentage of the VO2 max. Moreover, it appears that a minimum of 1600 kcal/week of leisure-time physical activity may halt the progression of coronary artery disease, whereas regression may be achieved with a gross energy

29

expenditure of 2200 kcal/week. Upper body and resistance training have also been shown to be safe and effective for clinically stable patients. Aerobic capacity serves as an independent predictor of all cause and cardiovascular mortality in patients referred to an outpatient cardiac rehabilitation program, with each 1 metabolic equivalent increase in aerobic fitness conferring an approximate 10% reduction in mortality. The goal of preventing recurrent cardiac events is, to a large extent, based on sustained compliance to multifactorial interventions, which can be influenced by numerous socioeconomic and clinical variables, and enhanced by home-based or group cardiac rehabilitation programs that are designed to circumvent or attenuate barriers to participation and adherence, so that many more individuals may realize the benefits that secondary prevention can provide.

Verrill and.Ribisl (1996)9 done a research on "Resistive Exercise Training in CardiacRrehabilitation". An update"Resistive exercise training has become very popular for patients of cardiopulmonary rehabilitation programmes (CRPs). For decades, CRPs focused almost exclusively on improving cardiorespiratory endurance and most programmes ignored muscular fitness development. Moreover, resistance training was thought to be potentially hazardous for the cardiac patient due to the risk of cardiovascular complications from adverse haemodynamic responses. We now know that resistive exercise testing and training is very safe for properly screened patients, even at relatively high workloads. Improvement in muscular strength facilitates return to daily vocational and avocational activities and is important for the CRP participant to regain lost strength and resume work soon after a cardiac event. Circuit weight training (CWT)

30

is helpful in this respect and has been shown to increase muscular strength, cardiovascular endurance, body composition, bone density and mineral content, selfconfidence, and self-efficacy in various populations. This article presents an update on current research in cardiac patients and also presents guidelines for implementing a properly supervised cardiac resistive exercise programme.

McCartney (2001)10 done a research on Role of Resistance Training in Heart Disease Since the mid-1980s resistance training has become an accepted part of the exercise rehabilitation process for patients eligible for traditional cardiac rehabilitation programs. A growing number of studies have demonstrated the safety of resistance training in Phase III/IV programs (Phase III--community based, beginning 6-12 wk posthospital discharge; a typical patient would be clinically stable with a functional capacity of > or = 5 METs; Phase IV--long-term maintenance) and more recently in Phase II (beginning within 3 wk posthospital discharge and lasting up to 3 months). Evidence is consistent that this form of training provokes fewer signs and symptoms of myocardial ischemia than aerobic testing and training, perhaps because of a lower heart rate (HR) and higher diastolic pressure combining to produce improved coronary artery filling. The major role of resistance training in heart disease patients is to promote increased dynamic muscle strength. Increases in muscular strength have been associated with increased peak exercise performance, improved submaximal endurance, and reduced ratings of perceived leg effort. Two studies show that resistance training may result in improved self-efficacy for strength and exercise tasks and improved quality of life parameters such as total mood disturbance, depression/dejection, fatigue/inertia, and

31

emotional health domain scores. The data on risk factor modification are somewhat equivocal. Studies on blood lipid profiles have mostly been contaminated by confounders, and the effects on blood pressure (BP) are inconsistent. There are encouraging reports that resistance training may increase glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity, independent of changes in body fat or aerobic capacity. Future studies are needed in patients with congestive heart failure and orthotopic heart transplantation; muscle weakness is common in these groups and makes them excellent candidates to benefit from this form of exercise.

Kostka (2002)11 done a research on Resistance (strength) Training in Health Promotion and Rehabilitation. Recent research data bring about sound scientific evidence on the importance of resistance training in health promotion and primary and secondary prevention of many diseases. This paper reviews the current scientific evidence and the most important recommendations on resistive training programming in healthy adults, elderly subjects and cardiac and pulmonary patients. An adequate resistance training appears to be an effective and safe method of improvement of muscle strength, enhancement of aerobic endurance (VO2max), beneficial modification of risk factors of cardiovascular and metabolic diseases, and increase in autonomy and wellbeing, especially in the elderly and cardiac and pulmonary patients. An appropriate preliminary examination, exercise programme and medical control increase the safety and long-term effectiveness of strength training.

32

Butler, Palmer and Rogers (1992)12 done a research on Circuit Weight Training in Early Cardiac Rehabilitation. A prospective, randomized study evaluated the feasibility, safety, and efficacy of upper body circuit weight training (CWT) in 25 stable male cardiac patients entering the initial out-of-hospital phase of cardiac rehabilitation. Both groups performed 30 minutes of aerobic exercise only for 6 weeks. The aerobic exercise group (N = 13) continued this regimen for 6 more weeks, during which time the CWT group (N = 12) performed 15 minutes of aerobic exercise followed by CWT (two loops, eight upper body exercises). The only adverse response was in one CWT patient in whom restenosis developed. Peak heart rate during aerobic exercise and CWT was similar, but peak systolic blood pressure during aerobic exercise was significantly greater than during CWT. Peak rate pressure product during aerobic exercise and CWT was similar. Treadmill time increased significantly in both groups. Upper body strength (cumulative pounds lifted) increased significantly only in the CWT group. A coordinated program of CWT and aerobic exercise can be performed safely in stable cardiac patients during phase 2 cardiac rehabilitation, resulting in improved upper body strength and aerobic capacity.

Hunter,McCarthy and Bamman (2004)13 done a research on Effects of Resistance Training on Older Adults.Using an integrative approach, this review highlights the benefits of resistance training toward improvements in functional status, health and quality of life among older adults. Sarcopenia (i.e. muscle atrophy) and loss of strength are known to occur with age. While its aetiology is poorly understood, the multifactorial sequelae of sarcopenia are well documented and present a major public health concern to

33

our aging population, as both the quality of life and the likelihood of age-associated declines in health status are influenced. These age-related declines in health include decreased energy expenditure at rest and during exercise, and increased body fat and its accompanying increased dyslipidaemia and reduced insulin sensitivity. Quality of life is affected by reduced strength and endurance and increased difficulty in being physically active. Strength and muscle mass are increased following resistance training in older adults through a poorly understood series of events that appears to involve the recruitment of satellite cells to support hypertrophy of mature myofibres. Muscle quality (strength relative to muscle mass) also increases with resistance training in older adults possibly for a number of reasons, including increased ability to neurally activate motor units and increased high-energy phosphate availability. Resistance training in older adults also increases power, reduces the difficulty of performing daily tasks, enhances energy expenditure and body composition, and promotes participation in spontaneous physical activity. Impairment in strength development may result when aerobic training is added to resistance training but can be avoided with training limited to 3 days/week.

Feigenbaum and Franklin (2001)14 done a research on Prescription of Resistance Training for Healthy Populations. Although there are well documented protective health benefits conferred by regular physical activity, most individuals of all ages are not physically active at a level for sufficient maintenance of health. Consequently, a major public health goal is to improve the collective health and fitness levels of all individuals. The American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) and other international organisations have established guidelines for comprehensive exercise programmes composed of

34

aerobic, flexibility and resistance-exercise training. Resistance training is the most effective method available for maintaining and increasing lean body mass and improving muscular strength and endurance. Furthermore, there is an increasing amount of evidence suggesting that resistance training may significantly improve many health factors associated with the prevention of chronic diseases. These health benefits can be safely obtained by most segments of the population when prescribed appropriate resistanceexercise programmes. Resistance-training programmes should be tailored to meet the needs and goals of the individual and should incorporate a variety of exercises performed at a sufficient intensity to enhance the development and maintenance of muscular strength and endurance, and lean body mass. A minimum of 1 set of 8 to 10 exercises (multi-joint and single joint) that involve the major muscle groups should be performed 2 to 3 times a week for healthy participants of all ages. More technical and advanced training including periodised multiple set regimens and/or advanced exercises may be more appropriate for individuals whose goals include maximum gains in strength and lean body mass. However, the existing literature supports the guidelines as outlined in this paper for children and adults of all ages seeking the health and fitness benefits associated with resistance training.

McCartney and McKelvie (1996)15 done a research on The Role of Resistance Training in Patients with Cardiac Disease.During the past decade, research has demonstrated that resistance training is a safe and effective mode of exercise for cardiac patients who are suitable candidates for conventional exercise rehabilitation. Fears of an excessive pressor response seem unwarranted and the incidence of ischaemia is less than

35

that during dynamic exercise such as walking and cycling. Major benefits from resistance training include improved muscular strength, increased peak exercise capacity and submaximal endurance, reduced ratings of perceived exertion during exercise and improved self-efficacy in strength-related tasks. The effects of resistance training on blood pressure and blood lipids levels are equivocal, but there may be positive effects on glucose metabolism. This form of training is likely to assume greater importance in cardiac rehabilitation in the future.

Takeshima, et. al., (2004)16 done a research on Effect of Concurrent Aerobic and Resistance Circuit Exercise Training on Fitness in Older Adults. The purpose of this study was to determine the physiological effects of a programmed accommodating circuit exercise (PACE) program consisting of aerobic exercise and hydraulic-resistance exercise (HRE) on fitness in older adults. Thirty-five volunteers were randomly divided into two groups [PACE group (PG) 8 men and 10 women, 68.3 (4.9) years, and nonexercise control group (CG) 7 men and 10 women, 68.0 (3.4) years). The PG participated in a 12-week, 3 days per week supervised program consisting of 10 min warm-up and 30 min of PACE (moderate intensity HRE and aerobic movements at 70% of peak heart rate) followed by 10 min cool-down exercise. PACE increased ( P<0.05) oxygen uptake ( V(.)O(2)) at lactate threshold [PG, pre 0.79 (0.20) l min(-1), post 1.02 (0.22) l min(-1), 29%; CG, pre 0.87 (0.14) l min(-1), post 0.85 (0.15) l min(-1), -2%] and at peak V(.)O(2) [PG, pre 1.36 (0.24) l min(-1), post 1.56 (0.28) l min(-1), 15%; CG, pre 1.32 (0.29) l min(-1), post 1.37 (0.37) l min(-1), 4%] in PG measured using an incremental cycle ergometer. Muscular strength evaluated by a HRE machine increased at low to high

36

resistance dial settings for knee extension (9-52%), knee flexion (14-76%), back extension (18-92%) and flexion (50-70%), chest pull (6-28%) and press (3-17%), shoulder press (18-31%) and pull (26-85%), and leg press (21%). Body fat (sum of three skinfolds) decreased (16%), and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDLC) increased (10.9 mg dl(-1)) for PG. There were no changes in any variables for CG. These results indicate that PACE training incorporating aerobic exercise and HRE elicits significant improvements in cardiorespiratory fitness, muscular strength, body composition, and HDLC for older adults. Therefore, PACE training is an effective well-rounded exercise program that can be utilized as a means to improve health-related components of fitness inolderadults.

Anderson and Kearney (1982)17 done a research on Effects of Three Resistance Training Programs on Muscular Strength and Absolute and Relative Endurance. Three sets of Ss: (a) a high-resistance-low-repetition (HL) group (N = 15) performed three sets of 6-8 RM per session; (b) a medium-resistance-medium-repetition (MM) group (N = 16) performed two sets of 30-40 RM per session; and (c) a low-resistance-high-repetition (LH) group (N = 12) performed one set of 100-150 RM, trained three times per week for nine weeks. Strength (1 RM), absolute, and relative endurance were assessed before and after the training period.The 20% improvement in 1 RM strength in the HL group was significantly greater than the 8% (MM) and 5% (LH) changes in the other two groups. In terms of absolute endurance, the LH (41%) and MM (39%) groups improved significantly more than the HL (28%) group. When relative endurance was considered it was found that the HL group actually decreased (7%) while the MM group improved by

37

22% and the LH group improved by 28%. Those differences were significant.These results show that resistance training in untrained males produces changes in strength and endurance irrespective of the protocol. However, those forms of training which favored strength development (high resistance) produced strength improvement only while those which favored endurance development (high repetitions) produced endurance and to a much lesser extent strength. The major anomaly was that the HL group actually decreased in relative endurance.Since Ss were initially "untrained" any form of overload stimulation would likely provoke a training response. One should be cautious about generalizing these changes to elite or highly-trained athletes.

Housh et. al., (1995)18 done a research on Effects of Eccentric Only Resistance Training and Detraining The effects on dynamic constant eccentric resistance (DCER formerly called isotonic training) training on the extensor muscles of one leg were assessed for: eccentric DCER strength in both legs, concentric isokinetic leg extension peak torque-velocity curves in both legs, and retention of the previous two factors after detraining.Males were divided into a training group (N = 9) and a non-training control group (N = 8). Training consisted of eight weeks of eccentric-only DCER exercise (3-5 sets of 6 repetitions at 80% of eccentric 1 RM) on the nondominant limb followed by an additional eight weeks of detraining.DCER strength improved in the trained (29%) and untrained (17%) limbs. No changes in isokinetic values were recorded in either limb. The training increases were retained after eight weeks of detraining.

38

Bishop et. al., (1997)19 done a research on The Influence of Resistance Training on Endurance Performance in Female Endurance CyclistsThe purpose of this study was to determine the effects of resistance training on endurance performance in female endurance cyclists. Ss were assigned to a resistance training (N = 14) and a control group (N = 7). Resistance training focusing on leg strength consisted of training twice per week for 12 weeks.There were no significant changes in either group in a one-hour cycle test, lactate threshold, peak Vo2, or muscle fiber characteristics.

Mayhew et. al., (1997)20 done a research on Changes in Upper Body Power Following Heavy-Resistance Strength Training in College Men The effects of heavyresistance training on measures of bench press power using absolute loads and seated shot put performance were measured. College men (N = 24) trained twice weekly for 12 weeks. Bench press power was measured by timing free weight actions at 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, and 80% of 1 RM.1 RM performance increased significantly (9.1%) after training. There was no change in shot put performance. Peak power was produced between 40-50% of 1 RM before and after training. There was no relationship between changes in shot put performance and changes in resistance-training strength.

Hetzler et. al., (1997)21 done a research on Effects of 12 Weeks of Strength Training on Anaerobic Power in Prepubescent Male Athletes Two groups of 10 prepubescent and pubescent male baseball players trained three times per week for 12 weeks using a variety of general free-weight and machine exercises designed for both strength and power acquisition. One group was experienced in strength training while the

39

other comprised novices. A comparable control group (N = 10) did not perform the training program but did participate in all other non-experimental activities.For the experienced, novice, and control groups respectively, the following gains were recorded: leg press -- 41%, 40%, and 14%; and bench press -- 23%, 18%, and 0%. Both training groups were significantly better than the control group. Similarly, the two training groups improved in vertical jump. However, the control group improved to a significantly greater degree in peak and mean anaerobic power and the 40-yard dash.The training regime improved the training activities but did not transfer to functional performance measures. One could argue that the training actually caused anaerobic power and 40-yd dash measures to decrease, particularly in the experienced strength-training group.The metabolic changes in training groups did not transfer changes in energy potential to dynamic cycling, supporting the principle of specificity. In particular, the high force/low velocity aspects of the training did not transfer to high velocity activities.

Hsu et. al., (1997)22 done a research on The Effects of Shoulder Isokinetic Strength Training on Speed and Propulsive Forces in Front Crawl Swimming. The effects of shoulder isokinetic strength training on 50 m sprint time, propulsive force of arm stroke, and propulsive force for whole stroke in crawl stroke swimming were assessed in competitive swimmers (M = 8; F = 20). Two groups were formed. Both groups had the same training program but one experienced added isokinetic strength training that focused on the internal and external rotator muscles of the shoulders. The study lasted five weeks.The strength trained group improved significantly in the three

40

factors involving swimming speed and propulsive forces. No changes were observed in the swimming-only group.

Hass et. al., (1998)23 done a research on Effects of Training Volume on Strength and Endurance in Experienced Resistance Trained Adults The effects of low volume strength training and high volume strength training on strength and endurance development in resistance trained adults (N = 40) were determined. Ss w ere assigned to a group of experimental training consisting of either one or three sets of 8-12 repetitions to failure, three times per week for 13 weeks. Performance gains were measured through 1RM for leg extension, leg curl, chest press, overhead press, and biceps curl. Muscular endurance was measured for chest press and leg extension as the number of repetitions to failure with a load of 75% of baseline 1RM. Both groups increased strength and muscular strength significantly with no difference between them on any measure. Stone et. al., (1979)24 done a research onA Short-Term Comparison of Two Different Methods of Resistance Training on Leg Strength and Power. The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of short term Nautilus training and free weight training on leg strength and power. Ss (N = 34 males) trained for four weeks using a combination of Nautilus and free-weights. They were then divided into two groups, one performing only Nautilus activities, the other only free weights (all movements with the greatest velocity). Both groups trained three times per week for five weeks. The length of time for the study was selected as being a more common duration devoted to preparatory strength training for many sports.The free weight group was significantly better than the Nautilus group in strength (1RM squat) and vertical jump. There was no significant

41

difference between the groups on Nautilus leg press. The superiority of free weights over Nautilus exercises was attributed to several possible factors.

Choi et. al., (1997)25 done a research on Comparison of Training Effects Between Power-up Type and Bulk-up Type in Strength Training. Power-up strength training is employed to mainly improve strength and power while bulk-up training is for muscular hypertrophy. This investigation compared the structural and functional adaptations that result from both forms of training.Power-up training (the repetition method) was characterized by longer inter-set intervals while performing 5 sets of 90% of 1 RM. Bulkup training (the interval method) consisted of shorter inter-set intervals while performing 9 sets of 40-80% (multi-poundage) of 1 RM. Two groups of six males trained twice per week for 8 weeks.Power-up training showed a greater rate of improvement in all dynamic (1 RM), isometric, and isokinetic knee extension forces under maximal effort but less change in the cross-sectional area of the quadraceps femoris and average knee-extension force. The rate of decrease in 50 consecutive knee extension trials was less in the bulk-up trained group. The two types of training produced different effects.The type of strength training that is undertaken should be that which is appropriate for meeting the objectives of training.

Hortobagyi et. al., (1991)26 done a research on Effects of Simultaneous Training for Strength and Endurance on Upper and Lower Body Strength and Running Performance High resistance (HR), low resistance (LR), and control groups of college males were formed. Following the workouts, subjects ran two miles. There were no

42

differences between the two active groups in body compositions or fitness tests. Overall strength changes were 6.5% compared to 16% in a prior study conducted without concomitant running. Strength and endurance improvements were independent of HR or LR training.

REFERENCES

H. Kaikkonen et. al., The Effect of Heart Rate Controlled Low Resistance

Circuit Weight Training and Endurance Training on Maximal Aerobic Power in Sedentary Adults Scandinavian Journal of Medical Sciences and Sports 10(4) (August 2000):211-5.

43

E. T. Howley et. al., The Effect of Moderate Resistance Weight Training on

Peak Arm Aerobic Power International Journal of Sports Medicine 14(1) (January1993): 43-7
3

N. J. de Vos et. al., Optimal Load for Increasing Muscle Power During

Explosive Resistance Training in Older Adults Journal of Gerontology Applied Biological Science and Medical Sciences 60(5) (May 2005):638-47.

T. R. Henwood and D. R Taaffe, Improved Physical Performance in Older

Adults Undertaking a Short-Term Programme of High-Velocity Resistance Training Gerontology 51(2) (March-April 2005):108-15.

A. D. Faigenbaum et. al. , The Effects of Different Resistance Training on Muscular Strength and Endurance Development in Children

Protocols

Pediatrics104(1) (July1999):5.

O. Seynns et. al., Physiological and Functional Responses to Low-Moderate

Versus High-Intensity Progressive Resistance Training in Frail Elders Journal of Gerontology American Biological Science and Med Science 59(5) (May 2004):503-9.

A. C Jozsih et. al., Changes in Power with Resistance Training in Older and

Younger Men and Women Journal of Gerontology American Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences 54(11) (November 1999):M591-6.

44

B. A. Franklin D.P.Swain and R.J.Shephard, New Insights in the Prescription of

Exercise for Coronary Patients Journal of Cardiovascular for Nurses18 (2) (April-June 2003):116-23.

D. E. Verrill and P. M. Ribisl, "Resistive exercise training in cardiac An update Sports Medicine 21(5) (May 1996):347-83.

rehabilitation.

10

N. Mc Cartney, "Role of Resistance Training in Heart Disease" Medical

Sciences and Sports Exercises 33(4) (April 2001):525-31.

11

T. Kostka

Resistance (strength) Training in Health Promotion and

Rehabilitation Pol Merkuriusz Lek 13(78) (December 2002):520-3.

12

R. M. Butler, G.Palmer and F.J.Rogers Circuit Weight Training in Early

Cardiac Rehabilitation Journal of American Osteopathy Association 92(1) (January 1992):77-89.

13

G. R. Hunter, J. P. Mc Carthy and M. M. Bamman Effects of Resistance on Older Adults Sports Medicine 34(5) (2004):329-48.

Training

14

M. S. Feigenbaum and B. A. Franklin Prescription of Resistance Training for

Healthy Populations Sports Medicine 31(14) (2001):953-64.

45

15

McKelvie, The Role of Resistance Training in Patients with Cardiac Disease

Journal of Cardiovascular Risk 3(2) (April 1996):160-6.

16

N. Takeshima et. al., Effect of Concurrent Aerobic and Resistance Circuit

Exercise Training on Fitness in Older Adults European Journal of Applied Physiology 93(1-2) (October 2004):173-82.

17

T. Anderson and J. T. Kearney, Effects of Three Resistance Training Programs

on Muscular Strength and Absolute and Relative Endurance Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 53 (1982):1-7.

18

T. J. Housh et. al., Effects of Eccentric Only Resistance Training and

Detraining International Journal of Sports Medicine 17 (1995):145-148.

19

D. Bishop et. al., The Influence of Resistance Training on Endurance

Performance in Female Endurance Cyclists Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 29(5) (1997):1502.

20

J. L. Mayhew et. al., Changes in Upper Body Power Following Heavy-

Resistance Strength Training in College Men International Journal of Sports Medicine 18 (1997):516-520.

46

21

R. K. Hetzler et. al., Effects of 12 Weeks of Strength Training on Anaerobic

Power in Prepubescent Male Athletes Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 11 (1997):174-181.

22

T. G. Hsu et. al., The Effects of Shoulder Isokinetic Strength Training on

Speed and Propulsive Forces in Front Crawl Swimming Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 29(5) (1997): 713.

23

C. J. Hass et. al., Effects of Training Volume on Strength and Endurance in

Experienced Resistance Trained Adults Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 30(5) (1998):651.

24

M. H. Stone et. al., A Short-Term Comparison of Two Different Methods of

Resistance Training on Leg Strength and Power Athletic Training 14 (1979):158-160.

25

J. Y. Choi et. al.,Comparison of Training Effects Between Power-up Type and

Bulk-up Type in Strength Training Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 29(5) (1997):54.

26

T. Hortobagyi et. al., Effects of Simultaneous Training for Strength and

Endurance on Upper and Lower Body Strength and Running Performance The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness 31 (1991):20-30.

47

CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY

This chapter describes the methodology and procedure adopted for this study. Precisely this includes selection of subjects, reliability of data, instrument reliability, test

48

reliability, subjects reliability, experimental design, administration of training programme, administration of test items, collection of data, and the statistical technique employed for analysis of the data.

Selection of Subjects The investigator randomly selected 50 male subjects from college and their age ranged from 18 to 25 years. 25 subjects were assigned to an experimental group and 25 subjects to control group. Prior to the administration of test the investigator held a series of meetings with the subjects and were made clear about the objectives and purposes of the test. The testing procedure was explained to them in detail. They were requested to cooperate and participate actively as subjects for this study. The subjects assured their voluntary participation during treatment period.

Experimental Design This study was formulated as post test random group design. One group was exposed to experimental and other group was kept as control group. The experimental group was assigned the weight training programme. The other acted as the control group and no training programme was given except their day to day activities. The experimental group was given weight training programme for a period of eight weeks. The intensity and repetitions were increased after every two weeks.

Selection of variables

49

1) 2) 3)

Aerobic Capacity-Forestry step test Anaerobic Capacity-Sargent jump Resting Pulse Rate

Reliability of Data The reliability of data was measured by ensuring instrument reliability, tester competency and subject's reliability.

Instrument Reliability The instruments used for this study were calibrated and standardized. They were Stop watch (Casio made in Japan) and a standard black board with scale marking was used to measure the standing reach and standing vertical jump.

Tester Reliability To ensure that the investigator was well versed with the techniques of conducting the test, the investigator had a number of practice sessions in testing procedure. Tester reliability was established by test re-test process whereby consistencies of results were obtained.

Reliability of Subjects The step test for measuring aerobic capacity, Sargent vertical jump test for measuring anaerobic capacity were taken two times with sufficient rest in between.

50

Criterion Measures-Resistance Training The criterion measures chosen for testing the hypothesis were:

1)

Aerobic capacity measured with forestry step test. The pulse counted for 15 seconds

taken after 15 seconds of the completion of test. It was tabulated with norms and expressed as VO 2 max (ml Kg-1 min 1)1

2) Anaerobic capacity measured with Sargent vertical jump test was taken and expressed in kgm/s.The number of inches between the reach and jump measured to the nearest

inch further converted into centimeters and derived in kgm/s-1 from the equation [p=2.21 wt D].2

3)

Resting pulse rate was measured at the radial artery and the pulse counted for one

minute was recorded.3 Administration of Training Programme The experimental group had to undergo weight training programme for a period of eight weeks, three days in a week. The control group did not involve in any training programme. Schedule of weight training programme is given under: No of days Monday First two weeks Rowing Leg press Military press 2-4 weeks Dumbbell flys Full squat Good morning exercise 4-6 weeks Power clean Seated cable rows Military press 6-8 weeks Rowing Leg press Military press

51

Bench press Wednesday Upright rows Half squat Power clean Friday Seated cable rows Military press

Bench press Leg press Military press Rowing Leg press Military press

Bench press Upright rows Half squat Dumbbell flys Full squat Good morning exercise

Power clean Seated cable rows Military press Bench press Upright rows Half squat

Administration of the test

Aerobic capacity4 Purpose: The purpose of forestry step test was to measure the aerobic capacity. Equipment: 33 centimeter step bench. Procedure: The subjects were asked to stand facing 33 centimeter step bench. On the command, Ready start" the subjects stepped up and down on the bench to a four count rhythm as follows. On count one, the subject stepped up on the bench with left leg. On count two, the subject stepped up by lifting the body up and placed the right leg on the bench. On count three, any one of the leg is brought back to the floor and at count four the other foot was also stepped down to the floor. The subject was allowed to begin with either foot. The subject was not permitted to step up with a jump and was instructed to extend the knees fully when both the feet were on the bench. The stepping exercises were done for five minutes at the rate of 22 steps per minute. Immediately after the completion of exercise the subjects were asked to sit down for 15 seconds and investigator took the

52

pulse count at 5.15 (15 seconds after the test) and stopping at 5.30minutes. The investigator recorded the pulse of the subject for a duration of 15 seconds.

Scoring: The final score for each subject was calculated in terms of aerobic fitness index for men.

Anaerobic capacity5

Purpose: The purpose of the Sargeant vertical jump test was to measure the anaerobic capacity.

Equipment: A plain wall marked in centimeters with two centimeters gap. For every two centimeters a horizontal line was marked and at each height centimeter were written on the both sides of the wall distingly. One weighing machine was used. The subjects body weight was measured without shoes and cloths. The subjects were asked to wear shorts only. Marking on the wall: On a flat wall for every two centimeters a horizontal line was marked for one mete width. The measurement was marked at 150 centimeters and ended at 210 centimeters. The measurement was written on the sides of the wall. Procedure: The investigator marked the measurements on the wall. Two measurements were taken, the first one was the standing by extending his dominant hand and touched the mark. This was standing reach measurement. The measurement was taken to the nearest centimeter. The reach was measured with the subject standing with the dominant

53

side against the wall and the feet were kept together. The subject then touched a chalk powder with his middle finger. The subject was asked to jump on the spot by swinging arms forward and backward by bending his knees. The jump was taken by using both the toes.. The subject reached as high as possible to put a mark on the wall with the dominant arm so that the digits of the fingers were against the measurement on the wall. The

highest point was observed and then recorded to the nearest centimeter. After standing reach was measured, the subject moved to a jumping position. Rules: Any preparatory movements were not permitted other than the arm swing and bending the knees. Scoring: The distance between the standing reach and the jumping reach was measured and the values derived from equation (P=2.21 x Wt x OD). 2.21= A constant value that used to measure anaerobic power Wt =Body Weight OD =Performance difference in jump

Resting Pulse Rate6 Purpose: The purpose of this test was to measure the resting pulse rate of the subjects.

Equipment: A stop watch. Procedure: The investigator recorded the pulse rate by palpating the radial artery for one full minute for each subject. Before taking pulse rate the subjects were asked to laying down position and relaxation for ten minutes. The resting pulse was taken after ten minutes in the early morning. The subject was asked to continue with normal breathing.

54

Scoring: The number of pulse counted in one minute. Collection of Data The data pertaining to selected physiological variables such as aerobic power, resting pulse rate, and anaerobic power were collected after administration of appropriate tests and measurement procedures. All were given a chance to practice and get familiar with the tests. The test procedures were explained for each test prior to the administration of each test.

Statistical technique To compare the mean differences between initial and final scores of experimental and control group, 't' test was employed for each of the selected variables.

REFERENCES

B.J. Sharkey, Physiology of Fitness (Campaign, Illinosis: Human Kinesthetic

Publishers, 1984): 258.

55

Harold M. Barrow and Rosemary McGee, A Practical Approach to

Measurement in Physical Education 2 n d ed. (Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger, 1971):48.

3

http://www.censusatschool.ntu.ac.uk/files/pulserate. ibid B.J. Sharkey, Physiology of Fitness ibid Harold M.Barrow and Rosemary McGee, A Practical

Approach to Measurement in Physical Education

6

ibid http://www.censusatschool.ntu.ac.uk/files/pulserate.

CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF THE DATA AND RESULTS OF THE STUDY

56

The statistical analysis of data collected on selected physiological variables has been presented in this chapter. The data pertaining to aerobic power, resting pulse rate, anaerobic power, for both experimental and control groups were tested by 't' test. The level of significant was chosen at 0.05 level. Findings

To find out the significant mean difference between initial and final scores for experimental and control groups 't' test was used. The mean difference of the criterion measures for the control and experimental groups are presented in tables, mean difference of experimental and control group for each variable is presented in the figure1. TABLE - I DIFFERENCE IN MEAN OF EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS ON AEROBIC CAPACITY (ml Kg - 1 min - 1 ) Groups EXP. CONT. No. 25 25 Initial mean 39.12 40.28 Final mean 42.04 39.04 Mean difference 2.92 1.24 S.E.M .288 .24 't' ratio 10.13** 1.16

** Significant at 0.01 level of confidence 't' value needed for significance at 0.01 level with 24 degrees of freedom was 2.797.

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Table I reveals that in the case of the experimental group significant changes were noticed in aerobic capacity following eight weeks of resistance training. Since the 't' value obtained for aerobic capacity was 10.13, which is higher than the required table value. In the case of control group there were no significant changes. The mean of aerobic capacity for experimental and control group is presented in figure 1. DIFFERENCE IN MEAN OF EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS ON AEROBIC CAPACITY mean in (ml Kg-1 min-1)

45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Experimental Control initial final

Fig.1

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TABLE II DIFFERENCE IN MEAN OF EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS ON VO 2 MAX (ml Kg - 1 min - 1 ) Groups No. Initial mean Final mean Mean difference S.E.M. 't' ratio

EXP.

25

39.12

42.04

2.92

0.288

10.13**

CONT.

25

40.28

39.04

1.24

0.24

1.16

** Significant at 0.01 level of confidence 't' value needed for significance at 0.01 level with 24 degrees of freedom was 2.797. Table II reveals that in the case of the experimental group significant changes were noticed in maximum oxygen consumption following 12 weeks of resistance training. Since the 't' value obtained for maximum oxygen consumption was higher than the required table value. In the case of control group there were no significant changes. The mean of maximum oxygen consumption for experimental and control group was presented in figure 2.

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DIFFERENCE IN MEAN OF EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS ON VO2 MAX mean in (ml Kg-1 min-1)
50 40 30 20 10 0 Experimental Control Initial Final

Fig. 2

TABLE - III DIFFERENCE IN MEAN OF EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUP ON ANAEROBIC CAPACITY (in cms.) Groups No EXP. CONT. 25 25 Initial Mean 92.28 96.98 Final Mean 94.66 96.7 Mean S.E 't'ratio 5.92** 0.40

Difference 2.38 0.4 0.28 0.24

** Significant at 0.01 level of confidence. 't' value needed for significance at 0.01 level with 24 degrees of freedom was 2.797.

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Table III shows that in the case of experimental group significant changes were noticed in an aerobic capacity following eight weeks of resistance training programme. The obtained 't' values was higher than the required table value. In the case of control group there was no significant changes. The mean of anaerobic capacity for experimental and control group was presented in the figure 3. DIFFERENCE IN MEAN OF EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUP ON ANAEROBIC CAPACITY means in (cm)

110 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Experimental Control Initial Final

Fig. 3

TABLE IV

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DIFFERENCE IN MEAN OF EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUP ON RESTING PULSE RATE (in beats/minutes) Groups EXP. CONT. No. 25 25 Initial Mean 70 72.84 Final Mean 68 73.04 Mean Difference 2 .2 S.E 0.26 0.18 't' ratio 8.61** 1.11

** Significant at 0.01 level of confidence 't' value needed for significance at 0.01 level with 24 degree freedom was 2.797. Table IV revels that in that in case of the experimental group. significant changes was noticed in resting pulse rate following eight weeks of resistance training programme. Since the 't' value obtained was 8.61 which was higher than the required table value of 2.797 with 24 degrees of freedom. In the case of control group, there was no significant change. The mean of resting pulse rate for experimental and control group is presented in figure 4.

DIFFERENCE IN MEAN OF EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUP ON RESTING PULSE RATE mean in (numbers)

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70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Experimental Control

Initial Final

Fig. 4

Discussion of Findings All the subjects of the experimental group involved in this study were under gone resistance training programme for a period of eight weeks. From the tables it was evident that in the case of selected physiological variables such as aerobic capacity, anaerobic capacity, and resting pulse rate there were significant changes noticed after eight weeks of resistance training programme. As regard to control group no

significant changes were seen in the selected physiological variables. Aerobic capacity of the experimental group improved after

following eight weeks of resistance training. This may be attributed to the fact that as muscles were exercised the heart rate, respiratory functions 63

and the muscles undergone the work load for eight weeks. These load caused the physiological changes such that the cardiorespiratory system was adjusted slowly and thus improved in efficiency. When the mean score of the experimental group in aerobic capacity was compared with

norms of aerobic fitness category of Forestry step test for college boys. The subjects ranked only fair (initial mean 39.12), prior to the training programme while after eight weeks of training they had progressed to a better grade 'good' (final mean being 42.04 ml Kg - 1 min - 1 )

The resting pulse rate for the experimental group was decreased due to adaptation of following the weight training programme. This is due to the vigorous work out done by men which increased the parasympathetic activity in the heart while decreasing the sympathetic drive which would have probably improved the efficiency of the heart. From this findings it is quiet interesting to know that the college males have positive influence upon their physiological variables due to the training programme. Thus the research hypothesis is accepted.

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CHAPTER IV

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION

SUMMARY The purpose of the study was to determine the effects of eight weeks of resistance training programme on selected physiological

variables such as, anaerobic capacity, aerobic capacity, and resting pulse rate of college men. The subjects of the study were 50 college men from place, Kerala state. The subjects were randomly assigned into two groups that was an experimental group (N=25) and a control group (N=25). The experimental group participated in resistance training programme three days in a week for a period of eight weeks. The control group did not participate in any training except their day to day activities. All the subjects were tested in the selected physiological variables such as aerobic capacity, anaerobic capacity, and resting pulse rate before and after eight weeks of resistance training programme. Aerobic capacity measured with Forestry step test and the pulse counted was taken for 15 seconds, after 15 seconds of the completion of test. It was tabulated with norms and expressed as VO 2 Max (ml Kg1 min1). Anaerobic capacity measured with Sargent vertical jump test was taken and expressed in kgm/s. The number of inches between the reach 65

and jump measured to the nearest inch further converted into centimeters and derived in kgm/s-1 from the equation [p=2.21 wt D]. Resting pulse rate was taken at the radial artery and the pulse counted for one minute was recorded in number of beats per minute. The data pertaining to selected physiological variables and

psychological variables were analysed by paired 't' test to determine the difference between initial and final mean for experimental and control group. Significant difference were existing at 0.05 level (0.05 = 2.064) in experimental group following eight weeks of resistance training in anaerobic capacity, aerobic capacity, and resting pulse rate. In the case of control group there were no change in any of the selected variables.

CONCLUSIONS The results of the study seems to be permitted for the following conclusions: 1. Participation in eight weeks of resistance training programme resulted in improvement on aerobic capacities. 2. Participation in eight weeks of resistance training programme resulted in improvement on anaerobic capacity. 3. Participation in eight weeks of resistance training programme resulted in decrease of pulse rate.

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RECOMMENDATIONS In the light of conclusions drawn, the following recommendations are made: 1. Similar studies may be under taken for different age groups and sex other than this study. 2. Similar longitudinal studies may be undertaken by increasing the duration and intensity of training programme.

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APPENDIX - A
Aerobic Capacity For Experimental Group and Control group
Experimental Group Sl.No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. Initial score 35 42 36 41 42 36 39 43 33 45 39 35 37 39 34 36 37 37 37 43 36 41 42 34 38 Control group Final score Initial score Final score 33 37 34 37 39 33 37 37 31 41 35 33 35 36 32 33 35 35 35 38 36 39 40 33 37 35 41 35 40 39 42 42 41 43 42 36 38 38 35 40 39 38 36 36 40 35 37 41 39 41 36 41 34 40 40 43 42 40 42 40 37 37 38 33 40 40 38 35 41 41 36 38 42 39 40

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APPENDIX - B
Vo2 MAX For Experimental Group and Control group
Experimental group Sl.No. Initial score 1. 35 2. 41 3. 36 4. 35 5. 41 6. 38 7. 34 8. 46 9. 33 10. 43 11. 40 12. 40 13. 38 14. 43 15. 42 16. 40 17. 41 18. 40 19. 34 20. 42 21. 36 22. 36 23. 43 24. 39 25. 42 Control Group Final score Initial score Final score 40 36 36 44 42 43 40 37 37 38 38 37 45 35 34 40 36 36 40 36 37 48 34 35 36 35 37 46 41 40 46 39 40 42 39 42 41 42 44 46 37 37 45 38 37 42 39 39 43 42 43 43 42 45 39 37 36 42 43 42 38 40 39 37 36 37 45 38 38 40 44 43 45 38 37

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APPENDIX - C
PULSE RATE For Experimental Group and Control group Experimental Group
Sl.No. Initial score 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 72 72 68 72 68 76 72 76 80 64 60 68 72 64 68 68 76 78 64 68 68 68 72 72 64 Final score 68 69 64 68 64 72 70 72 78 63 60 66 69 62 69 65 78 75 63 65 67 68 70 72 63

Control Group
Initial score 76 72 72 68 60 72 68 72 74 64 68 68 64 70 71 70 76 68 64 70 68 72 70 67 73 Final score 76 72 73 68 62 74 69 72 74 63 68 69 64 69 72 68 76 68 64 71 68 72 71 66 73

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APPENDIX - D
Anaerobic Capacity For Experimental Group and Control group Experimental Group
Sl.No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. Initial score 93.2 113.43 61.88 91.49 94.14 93.65 78.27 101.05 86.03 83.29 103.15 103.58 104.47 79.56 95.36 111.38 105.92 71.28 83.52 95.91 95.04 86.03 109.61 110.43 85.88 Final score 99.11 112.34 65.15 100.55 95.82 99.33 87.16 104.23 107.64 78.48 104.08 104.08 112.71 95.47 115.23 111.38 107.64 106.27 85.06 86.61 113.66 96.25 84.74 102.1 89.1 71

Control Group
Initial score 82.09 95.06 90.73 92.46 100.01 99.36 69.56 105.19 104.35 87.27 93.39 63.65 94.19 101.99 90.21 75.61 92.64 93.76 72.68 104.82 91.78 91.41 82.09 85.44 86.06 Final score 83.23 95.92 89.2 93.39 101.56 100.77 68.75 106.27 103.4 87.27 93.39 63.65 95.28 101.99 91.34 75.61 93.85 90.78 73.58 102.17 92.61 90.42 83.02 85.44 86.06

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WEBSITES http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bc2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Resistance_training http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/entry/Resistance_training http://www.answers.com/training&r=67 http://www.resistance-training.com/ http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/search?p=cardiovascular http://www.censusatschool.ntu.ac.uk/files/pulserate.

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