+Bio notes: Maintaining a balance Enzymes: Enzymes are protein molecules, present in cells which act as biological catalysts,

controlling the rate of each step of complex chemical reactions that take place in cells. Enzymes accelerate chemical reactions and remain unchanged at the end of the reaction and can be reused. Metabolism: Metabolism is the sum total of all chemical reactions occurring within a living organisms. Metabolism is divided into two: Anabolic reactions are those reactions which involve building up large organic compounds from simpler molecules. (Usually require energy) Catabolic reactions are those which involve breaking down complex organic compounds to simpler ones. (Usually give out energy). Chemical composition of enzymes: Enzymes are protein molecules made from living cells they are globular which means they have long chains or sequences of amino acids that have been folded into their specific shape. The molecule on which an enzyme acts is called a substrate. An enzyme fits together with its substrate in a specific site called the active site. If the active site is altered then the enzyme will not function. Cofactors are vitamins or metal ions which bind to the protein part which helps to form the active site. The role of enzymes in metabolism: Accelerate chemical reactions: enzymes can speed up or slow down reactions without changing the temperature. Lowering of activation energy: enzymes dont provide activation energy but reduce the amount of energy needed. Characteristics of enzymes: Temperature sensitive: Work best at the body temperature of the living organism, in most living things its temperatures up to 40 degrees, above the ideal temperature and the enzyme will decrease its efficiency and start to denature, below and the shape will change but it is often reversible. Ph sensitive: Each enzyme has its own narrow range of ph within which it is most efficient. Substrate specific: Amylase acts on starch turning it into glucose Rennin acts on the protein in milk causing it to curdle Catalyse present in most living cells and acts on toxic hydrogen peroxide turning it into harmless water and oxygen gas. Ph is the way of describing the acidity of a substance where below 7 is acidic and above 7 is alkaline or base and 7 it is neutral. Models for how enzymes work are the lock and key model and the induced fit model. Homeostasis: Homeostasis is defined as the maintenance by an organism of a constant or almost constant internal state, regardless of external environment. Homeostasis is important for keeping a constant internal environment for metabolism to occur as stable temperatures and ph levels will ensure the most efficient environment for metabolism. Also a water and salt concentration is needed to be stable.

Explain that homeostasis consist of two stages detecting changes from the stable state countering changes from stable state. These two stages are 1. Detecting change: sensory cells or receptors detect change in temp and or chemical composition within the body. This change is called a stimulus 2. Counteracting change: effectors organs then reverse the change. A response that successfully reverses the change will return the body to homeostasis. Nervous system

The nervous system consists of the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord and the PNS consists of the sensory nerves and the effector nerves. When the environmental temperature begins to exceed a comfortable level for the body, temperature sensors in the skin detect the temperature change and a sensory neuron conducts a nervous impulse to the hypothalamus found in the brain. Nerve impulses pass this information from the receptors to effector neurons then onto effectors, such as blood vessels, sweat glands, endocrine glands and muscles.

Stimulus response pathway Stimulusreceptorcontrol centreeffectorsresponse Role of nervous system in thermoregulation in humans. The body has some effective mechanisms to alter body temperature. To reduce temperature, heat can be expelled by sweating or radiation of heat from the skin. To increase heat, the body can respond by shivering or by contracting the skin. These responses can be activated by heat receptors. If a mechanism is activated, it will operate until receptors indicate that the optimum temperature has been reached. If receptors in the skin detect heat, they relay information via the nerves to the hypothalamus, which also contains receptors sensitive to the heat of passing blood. This triggers the sympathetic nervous system to dilate skin capillaries and activate sweat glands. When receptors in the skin detect a low temperature, a negative feedback mechanism is activated to stop the original action. If skin temperature is still low, the hypothalamus may activate thyroid hormones to increase metabolic rate, activate the sympathetic nervous system to shut down skin capillaries and sweat glands and activate food metabolism in the liver to produce heat. In this way, the body can maintain a stable body temperature. Temperature limits of living things: Temperature limits of living things are one of the many limiting factors that can determine the presence of life on earth. Other limiting factors include water, nutrients, light, oxygen and a balanced ph. Broad temperature ranges: there are some organism that can live in the extreme temperature ranges like -70 degrees Celsius and up to 350 degrees Celsius but individual organisms cannot not survive in such a large range, they need a more narrower range. Temperature regulations in exothermic and endothermic organisms: Endotherms derive most of their body heat from cell metabolism. Mammals and birds are endothermic animals. Australian endotherms include: the kangaroos and the platypus (temperate regions); the rabbit-eared bandicoot (desert dweller); and the alpine pygmy possum (alpine dweller) Ectotherms derive most of their body heat from their surroundings. All invertebrates and fish, reptiles and amphibians are ectothermic. Australian ectotherms include the blue-tongued lizard, the green tree frog and barramundi.

Endotherms In hot conditions, the red kangaroo licks the inside of its paws, where skin is thinner, and blood supply is closer to surface, so that heat can be easily dumped to the outside. Evaporation from saliva promotes the loss of heat from the blood. The large ears of the rabbit-eared bandicoot provide a large surface area to pass excess heat when it is burrowing during the heat of day and when it is active at dusk. Fairy penguins have feathers that provide an insulating layer, trapping a layer of air close to the skin reduces the amount of heat loss. In can also keep the penguin cool when its hot or warm when its cold. Ectotherms Magnetic termites (Amitermes meridionalis) pack the walls of their mounds with insulating wood pulp and align their mounds north-south to maximize exposure to the sun in the mornings and evenings when the air is cooler and to minimize exposure during heat of day. Bogong moths are able to avoid their bodies freezing by supercooling their tissues. This process involves reducing the temperature of body fluids below their usual point of freezing and as a result, ice crystals do not form and destroy the cells. Insects in alpine areas, as a rule, tend to be smaller, darker and use basking behaviours to absorb what heat is available. Central netted dragon can live in the harsh Australian deserts by hiding in burrows or under rocks when it is hot and when it is cold it will go out into the sun to get warm. It also hunts at night so it doesnt overheat while hunting. Temperature changes and responses in plants: Plants can be damaged at temperature extremes when enzyme structures are altered or membranes change their properties. As many important enzymes that are involved in photosynthesis and respiration are embedded in plant membranes, extremes of temperature can be a major problem. In cold conditions, extracellular ice formation causes dehydration. Some plants can tolerate freezing temperatures as low as - 50oC by altering their solute concentrations and through the lack of ice-nucleating sites in cells to prevent intracellular freezing. In hot desert conditions, plants have to develop a compromise between access to gases for photosynthesis and access to gases for respiration by keeping their stomates open and cooling by evaporation. This risks dehydration of the plant.

Transport-dissolved nutrients and gases:

Blood is the transport medium of mammals. It maintains the internal environment of all organs as it supplies material to every cell in the body and removes the unwanted substances that cannot be allowed to accumulate in cells. From the Preliminary course, recall that blood consists of 55% plasma, a straw-coloured liquid of which 90% is water. The other components of the blood are red and white blood cells and platelets. Red blood cells are unique in that they do not contain a nucleus and have a biconcave shape. They are much smaller than white blood cells and more numerous. They contain the protein haemoglobin, a complex protein molecule consisting of four polypeptides, each containing an iron atom. The iron atom has an affinity for oxygen molecules. When haemoglobin is combined with an oxygen molecule, it is called oxyhaemoglobin. Plants carry dissolved mineral nutrients in the xylem vessels and carry food (mostly glucose) in phloem tubes.

The ways these are carried through mammalian blood: Most carbon dioxide enters the red blood cells and is combined with water to form bicarbonate ions (HCO3-). Some is attached to haemoglobin molecules in red blood cells and a small percentage is transported in plasma as dissolved CO2. Oxygen attaches itself to haemoglobin in the red blood cells, becoming a complex called oxyhaemoglobin (HbO2). Liquid water is the solvent making up 90% of the plasma. Salts are carried as dissolved ions in the plasma. Lipids are carried with phospholipids and cholesterol in a protein coated package called a chylomicron. The nitrogenous wastes (urea, uric acid and creatinine) are dissolved in blood plasma.

Other products of digestion, such as sugars, amino acids and various vitamins, are transported in the plasma. The adaptive advantage of haemoglobin Oxygen is not very soluble in water and so cannot be carried efficiently dissolved in the blood plasma. Most of the oxygen is carried by haemoglobin in the red blood cells. Thus, the presence of haemoglobin in red blood cells in blood increases the blood's capacity to carry oxygen. Organisms with blood (containing haemoglobin) are able to deliver oxygen to cells more efficiently than other organisms with blood that has no haemoglobin. The net effect is that these organisms are more effective operators in a given environment than their competitors. At high altitudes, blood is not able to absorb as much oxygen as at sea level. The human body adapts to what is effectively oxygen deprivation by initially increasing heart rate, breathing rate, then the number of red blood cells (more haemoglobin), then density of capillaries. Experiment used is the microscope one where we had to measure the size of red blood cells. The need for oxygen in living cells and why removal of carbon dioxide from cells is essential Cells require oxygen in the process of respiration: Glucose + oxygen water + energy (in the form of ATP) carbon dioxide +

Carbon dioxide is a waste product and must be removed to maintain the normal pH balance of the blood. By removing excess carbon dioxide, it prevents a build up of carbonic acid, which causes the lowering of the pH, and therefore increasing breathing rate and depth. Carbonic acid forms when carbon dioxide dissolves in water. At normal levels, (after excess removal of carbon dioxide) the carbon dioxide - bicarbonate ion (HCO3-) equilibrium is an important mechanism for buffering the blood to maintain a constant pH. Experiment is the blowing of carbon dioxide in water and seeing the change in ph (ph goes down) The structure of arteries, capillaries and veins in relation to their function Arteries carry blood away from the heart under high pressure and so must have a structure that can withstand the pressure. They have thick, but elastic walls, made up of three tissue layers: endothelium as a lining, smooth muscle to contract the vessel and connective tissue to allow for expansion. Arteries do not pump blood.

Veins carry blood back toward the heart. They carry the same quantity of blood as the arteries but not at the same high pressures. Veins have the same three layers as the arteries: endothelium, smooth muscle and connective tissue. However, the layers are not as thick. The veins also contain valves that prevent the backflow of blood. Capillaries have walls that are only one endothelium cell thick, as they have to allow diffusion of materials through their wall to reach the cells found in the tissues in which the capillary is located.

The main changes in the chemical composition of the blood as it moves around the body and the tissues in which these changes occur The blood circulates through two systems in the body: the pulmonary system and the systemic system. In the pulmonary system, blood flows from the heart to the lungs and then back to the heart. Blood travels in the pulmonary artery from the right ventricle to the lungs where carbon dioxide is released into the alveoli of the lungs. This is then ultimately released out of the body. Oxygen is picked up from the alveoli and diffused into the red blood cells to then be taken back to the heart. So via the pulmonary system, carbon dioxide is decreased and oxygen levels increased. In the systemic system, blood flows from the heart to the rest of the body, except the lungs, and then returns. The left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood to the rest of the body, and as this blood circulates in capillaries, oxygen is delivered to the cells and carbon dioxide is picked up. Other waste products, such as urea, are also picked up from the liver and transported in the blood to the kidneys. Blood flowing to the small intestines collects the products of digestion and transports them to the liver. Glucose is circulated in the blood stream to all cells in the body for respiration. Deoxygenated blood returns to the heart via the inferior and superior vena cava.

The current theories about the processes responsible for the movement of materials through plants in xylem and phloem tissue: From your Preliminary course, you should recall that the transport system in plants involves phloem and xylem. Xylem transports water and mineral ions upward only, from roots toward leaves. Phloem transports organic materials, in particular sugars, up and down to where the material is needed or for storage. Xylem: The transpiration-cohesion-tension mechanism is currently the theory that accounts for the ascent of xylem sap. This sap is mainly pulled by transpiration rather than pushed by root pressure. Cohesion is the sticking together of water molecules so that they form a continuous stream of molecules extending from the leaves down to the roots. Water molecules also adhere to the cellulose molecules in the walls of the xylem. As water molecules are removed by transpiration in the leaf, the next molecule moves upwards to take its place, pulling the stream of molecules continuously along. This is passive transport. Phloem: The pressure-flow mechanism (or Source to sink) is a model for phloem transport now widely accepted. The model has the following steps. Step 1: Sugar is loaded into the phloem tube from the sugar source, e.g. the leaf (active transport) Step 2: Water enters by osmosis due to a high solute concentration in the phloem tube. Water pressure is now raised at this end of the tube.

Step 3: At the sugar sink, where sugar is taken to be used or stored, it leaves the phloem tube. Water follows the sugar, leaving by osmosis and thus the water pressure in the tube drops. The building up of pressure at the source end, and the reduction of pressure at the sink end, causes water to flow from source to sink. As sugar is dissolved in the water, it flows at the same rate as the water. Sieve tubes between phloem cells allow the movement of the phloem sap to continue relatively unimpeded.

Excretion- wastes water and salts

Plants and animals carry out the normal functions for living on a daily basis. To do this, they require gases such as oxygen for respiration and, in plants, carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. These metabolic reactions are chemical reactions that accumulate wastes. If these wastes aren't disposed of, they could kill the organism.
A first-hand investigation of the structure of a mammalian kidney by dissection, use of a model or visual resource and identify the regions involved in the excretion of waste products

Why the concentration of water in cells should be maintained within a narrow range for optimal function Water is the solvent for metabolic reactions in living cells. Many molecules and all ions important for the life of the cell are carried in an aqueous solution and these diffuse to reaction sites through the water in the cell. Metabolic reactions within the cell can occur only in solution where water is the solvent. It is critical for proper functioning of these reactions that the amount and concentration of water in the cell be kept constant. Most cells die when the water content is changed significantly. Why the removal of wastes is essential for continued metabolic activity Metabolic wastes, particularly nitrogenous wastes that are the by-products of the breakdown of proteins and nucleic acids, are toxic to cells and must therefore be removed quickly. Nitrogenous wastes have the ability to change the pH of cells and interfere with membrane transport functions and may denature enzymes. Metabolic wastes are the product of metabolic reactions. If they are not removed their concentration in the cell increases. This inhibits the reactions that produce them, interfering with normal metabolic activity.

Differences in urine concentration of terrestrial mammals, marine fish and freshwater fish Terrestrial mammals Terrestrial mammals must work to find water and they are surrounded by air into which water quickly evaporates. Water conservation is of prime concern and these animals cannot excrete large quantities of water for the removal of metabolic waste.

Marine fish: The loss of water to the external environment is a problem that all marine fish must deal with. The marine environment in which the fish lives is hyperosmotic to the internal environment, i.e. there is a higher salt concentration in the water than inside the cells. This results in an osmotic gradient in which water is lost from the fish to the environment while ions are gained by diffusion. Ions are excreted by specialised glands. Freshwater fish: The freshwater environment is hypo-osmotic to the internal environment of fish, i.e. there is a lower salt concentration in the water than inside the cells. This results in an osmotic gradient in which water is gained by the fish from the environment without drinking and salts are lost by diffusion. Ions are absorbed in the gut and by active uptake across the gills. The role of the kidney in the excretory system of fish and mammals The kidney is an organ of the excretory system of both fish and mammals. It plays a central role in homeostasis, forming and excreting urine while regulating water and salt concentration in the blood. It maintains the precise balance between waste disposal and the animal's needs for water and salt. The role of the kidney in fish is dependent on the environment of the fish: o In marine (salt water) environments, the kidneys excrete small quantities of isotonic (same concentration as sea water) urine. This helps conserve water and excrete the excess salt they gain from their hyper osmotic environment. o In freshwater fish, the kidneys work continuously to excrete copious quantities of dilute urine, which also has a very low salt concentration. This helps to remove excess water gained from the hypo-osmotic environment. Why the processes of diffusion and osmosis are inadequate in removing dissolved nitrogenous wastes Diffusion and osmosis are both examples of passive transport, relying on random movements of molecules. Diffusion is too slow for the normal functioning of the body and does not select for useful solutes. Osmosis only deals with the movement of water and thus would only allow water to move out of the body, not the nitrogenous wastes. Active and passive transport and relate these to processes occurring in the mammalian kidney Active transport involves an expenditure of energy on the part of the organism, usually because the substance is moving against the concentration gradient, i.e. when a salt moves to an area of high salt concentration from an area of low salt concentration. Passive transport involves no expenditure of energy as the materials follow the natural concentration gradient, i.e. movement from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. Both diffusion and osmosis are examples of passive transport. In the mammalian kidney, both active and passive transport processes occur. o Passive transport: Once filtration has occurred in Bowman's capsule, water returns via the interstitial fluid from the tubule to the capillary in the process of osmosis. This occurs along the length of the tubule. + + o Active transport: Depending on their concentration, the ions in the blood (Na , K , Cl + , H and HCO3) can be transported to cells in the nephron tubule and then secreted by the cells into the tubule. Some poisons and certain drugs are eliminated from the body in this manner. The processes of filtration and reabsorption in the mammalian nephron regulate body fluid composition Filtration of the blood occurs in Bowman's capsule where high blood pressure in the glomerulus forces all small molecules out of the blood into the capsule. Water, urea, ions (Na+, K+, Cl- , Ca2+, HCO3- ), glucose, amino acids and vitamins are all small enough to be moved into the glomerular filtrate. Blood cells and proteins are too large to be removed.

This filtering process is non-selective and therefore many valuable components of the blood must be recovered by reabsorption.

Reabsorption takes place selectively at various points along the proximal tubule, loop of Henle and distal tubule. All glucose molecules, amino acids and most vitamins are recovered, although the kidneys do not regulate their concentrations. The reabsorption of the ions Na+, K+, Cl- , Ca2+ and HCO3-occurs at different rates depending on feedback from the body. In some cases, active transport is required. Water is reabsorbed in all parts of the tubule except the ascending loop of Henle. The amount of water reabsorbed depends on feedback from the hypothalamus. If no water were reabsorbed human would soon dehydrate, losing water at a rate of around 7.5 L per hour.

The chemical composition of the body fluids is precisely regulated by the control of solute reabsorption from the glomerular filtrate. Diagram of nephron:

The role of the hormones, aldosterone and ADH (anti-diuretic hormone), in the regulation of water and salt levels in blood Aldosterone is a steroid hormone secreted by the adrenal gland. Its function is to regulate the transfer of sodium and potassium ions in the kidney. When sodium levels are low, aldosterone is released into the blood causing more sodium to pass from the nephron to the blood. Water then flows from the nephron into the blood by osmosis. This results in the homeostatic balance of blood pressure. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH or vasopressin) controls water reabsorption in the nephron. When levels of fluid in the blood drop, the hypothalamus causes the pituitary to release ADH. This increases the permeability of the collecting ducts to water, allowing more water to be absorbed from the urine into the blood. The resulting urine is more concentrated. When there is too much fluid in the blood, sensors in the heart cause the hypothalamus to reduce the production of ADH in the pituitary, decreasing the amount of water reabsorbed in the kidney. This results in a lower blood volume and larger quantities of more dilute urine.

Comparison of the process of renal dialysis with the function of the kidney from the investigation Dialysis means separation in Greek, and, like the nephrons of the kidney, the dialysis

machine separates molecules from the blood removing some and returning others. The patient's blood is pumped from an artery through tubes made of selectively permeable membrane. The artificial tubing allows only water and small solute molecules to pass through it into a dialysing solution that surrounds the tube. This dialysing solution is similar to the interstitial fluid found around nephrons. As the blood circulates through the dialysis tubing, urea and excess salts diffuse out of it instead of leaving by pressure filtration, as in the nephron. Those substances needed by the body, such as bicarbonate ions (HCO3 -)

diffuse from the dialysing solution into the blood (reabsorption). The machine continually discards used dialysing solution as wastes build up in it. Two healthy kidneys filter the blood volume about once every half-hour. Dialysis is a much slower and less efficient process than the natural processes found in a healthy kidney but it is a lifesaver for those people with damaged kidneys. Enantiostasis as the maintenance of metabolic and physiological functions in response to variations in the environment and its importance to estuarine organisms in maintaining appropriate salt concentrations Enantiostasis is the maintenance of normal metabolic and physiological functioning, in the absence of homeostasis, in an organism experiencing variations in its environment. All organisms living in an estuary experience large changes in salt concentration in their environment over a relatively short time span, with the tidal movement and mixing of fresh and salt water. Organisms that must tolerate wide fluctuations of salinity are said to beeuryhaline. One strategy to withstand such changes in salt concentration is to allow the body's osmotic pressure to vary with that of the environment. Organisms that do this, and therefore do not maintain homeostasis, are said to be osmoconformers. Most marine invertebrates are osmoconformers. In contrast, marine mammals and most fish are osmoregulators, maintaining homeostasis regardless of the osmotic pressure of the environment. However, as the salt concentration of body fluids in an osmoconformer changes, various body functions are affected, such as the activity of enzymes. For normal functioning to be maintained, another body function must be changed in a way that compensates for the change in enzyme activity.

One example of enantiostasis is when a change in salt concentration in the body fluid, which reduces the efficiency of an enzyme, is compensated for by a change in pH, which increases the efficiency of the same enzyme. Coping with salt in plants Most plants cannot tolerate high salt concentrations in the root zone as it leads to water stress. The salt accumulates in the leaves and is toxic. Enzymes are inhibited by Na+ ions. Halophytes are plants that can tolerate higher levels of salt in their environment. The grey mangrove, Avicennia marina, has special salt glands in its leaves that excrete salt. Other mangroves exclude salts at their roots through ultrafiltration and a third mechanism is to store salt in leaves and then drop the leaves. Another mechanism involves the efficient control of transpiration. Some mangroves have small leaves hanging vertically to reduce the surface presented to the sun and thus reducing transpiration. Salt marsh plants also have mechanisms for salt regulation. For example, Sarcocornia quinqueflora accumulates salt in the swollen leaf bases which fall off, thus removing excess salt and Sporobolus virginicus has salt glands on its leaves. Another form of salt stress can occur in salt laden air such as in coastal environments. Some coastal plants, such as the Norfolk Island pine, have a mesh of cuticle over their stomates, which prevent small water droplets from entering the leaf. Adaptations of a range of terrestrial Australian plants that assist in minimising water loss You will recall from the Preliminary course that the leaves of plants contain stomates or small pores that allow the exchange of gases essential for respiration and photosynthesis. These gases include water vapour, as well as oxygen and carbon dioxide. If stomates are open, there will be a loss of water by transpiration and evaporation. Plants in arid areas have to balance the need for CO2 with

the need to conserve water. Adaptations of Australian xerophytes (plants adapted to dry conditions) include: o hard leathery, needle-shaped leaves with reduced surface areas such as in Hakea sericea (needlebush) and coastal tea trees o use of phyllodes for photosynthesis rather than leaves that would lose water by transpiration, as in many acacias o some salt bushes, e.g. Atriplex, change the reflectiveness of their leaves during leaf development so that they have highly reflective leaves during summer o Eucalypts avoid high radiation in the middle of the day by hanging their leaves vertically to present less surface area to sun o heat loss is greater for small leaves or highly dissected leaves than it is for larger leaves and many Acacias have fronds of bipinnate leaves o Waxy cuticle prevents evaporation in many Eucalypts. ]

BLUE PRINT OF LIFE Evolution in its broadest sense means change over time. Biological evolution is a change to the gene pool of a population. So, evolution refers to a lasting change to a population over generations. The theory of evolution is supported by many forms of evidence. There are inherent variations in populations and not all individuals survive to reproduce. Through the mechanism of natural selection, heritable changes may occur in populations over many generations. Changes in physical conditions in the environment These include natural conditions, such as temperature and the availability of water. The Australia landmass has become drier over time and this has lead to changes in the species of kangaroos that are present today. Approximately 25 million years ago, Australia was considerably wetter than today with large areas of rainforest. During this time, kangaroos were small and omnivorous, with unspecialised teeth, eating a variety of foods from the forest floor. Food was nutritious and abundant; there was no need for specialised grinding teeth. As Australia became more arid and grass became the dominant vegetation in some areas, environmental selective pressure resulted in larger kangaroos favouring teeth suitable for grass. These teeth, high-crested molars, efficiently grind low-nutrition grass into a more easily digestible paste. Slicing pre-molars have been reduced. Changes in chemical conditions in the environment Chemicals that can affect the evolution of species include salts and elements, such as iron. For example, many parts of Australia have soils that have a high salinity. There are a range of salt tolerant plants that have evolved to inhabit those areas. The animals that feed from these plants have also evolved to inhabit those areas. The sheep blowfly, Lucilia cuprina, is a major problem to the Australian sheep industry. It stresses, weakens and can be lethal to sheep when larvae, laid by females, burrows into wounds and wet wool. Chemicals, such as dieldrin and organophosphates, have been used extensively to control the blowfly. However, genetic resistance has occurred within the fly population that has made these chemicals ineffective. Withholding a particular insecticide for a time allowed the resistance of this particular blowfly population to drop. Continued use of the insecticide has resulted in the mutation of a modifier gene that increases and maintains the resistance. Thus, the insecticides can never be effective again, regardless of the number of blowfly generations that pass. Competition for resources This occurs within a species and between species. If a new species is introduced into an area then the competition may lead to different species using different resources.

Resources can include food, space or mates. If populations that live in the same area could specialise on slightly different resources or breed at different times, they would avoid direct competition. Some species of fruit fly have evolved into different species with each confined to a different type of fruit tree. This is possible if there are different flowering and fruiting times on each tree type suited for different breeding cycles in the fruit flies. Eventually, two distinct species can result. An investigation is the peppered moth Evidence for evolution: Palaeontology The fossil record provides a time line of evolution of life engraved in the order in which the fossils appear in rock layers. Some parts of the fossil record show a gradual change in life forms over millions of years. Of particular interest are transitional fossils that have characteristics belonging to ancestral and descendant groups. The most famous transitional form is Archaeopteryx. This is a fossil first thought to be a therapsid reptile. Its reptilian features include teeth and a reptilian-like skeleton. However, Archaeopteryx also had feathers and a wishbone sternum used to attach flight muscles. This provides evidence of an evolutionary pathway from dinosaurs to birds.

Biogeography Charles Darwin and Alfred Russell Wallace both observed the distribution of species into different biogeographic regions and saw this as major evidence to support the theory of evolution. They argued that animals in different regions had come from ancestors in that region and had adapted over time to the conditions there. Special Creation, the prevailing religious-based explanation of the time, did not explain why islands with similar conditions did not contain the same flora and fauna. Darwin proposed that migration and evolution were much more satisfactory explanations for the unique flora found in places such as Australia. Comparative embryology There is an obvious similarity between embryos of fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. A comparison of embryos of vertebrates shows that all have gill slits, even though they do not remain later in life, except in fish. This indicates a fundamental step that is common to all vertebrates and supports the idea of a common ancestor. Comparative anatomy Anatomical structures on different organisms that have the same basic plan but perform different functions are called homologous structures. Homologous structures are evidence for evolution. The structures are shared by related species because they have been inherited in some way from a common ancestor. An example of an homologous structure is the pentadactyl limb found in amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. The basic plan consists of one bone in the upper limb, two in the lower limb leading to five fingers or toes. In bats, the limb is modified to form a wing with the fingers extended and skin stretched between each finger. Whales have within their single paddle-like fin a fully formed pentadactyl limb.

Biochemistry Recent advances in technology have allowed comparison of organisms on a molecular basis rather than simply comparing structures. This was previously impossible between such distantly related organisms as an orchid and a mouse. The study of amino acid sequences shows that more closely related species share more common sequences than do unrelated species. Particular evidence has been derived from the amino acid sequence in haemoglobin, showing that humans and rhesus monkeys share all but eight amino acid sequences whereas there are 125 amino acid differences between humans and lampreys. This supports the fossil, embryological and anatomical evidence that humans are more closely related to rhesus monkeys than they are to lampreys. Divergent and convergent evolution:
Divergent evolution occurs when closely related species experience quite different environments and as a result vastly different characteristics will be selected. The species, over time, will evolve differently and will eventually appear quite different. For example, elephants are large plains-dwelling animals that are closely related to a small guinea pig-like animal called a hyrax. Hyraxes live amongst rocky outcrops on mountains. Comparison of skeletons indicates the close relationship between the two groups. Convergent evolution occurs when two relatively unrelated species develop similar structures, physiology or behaviours in response to similar selective pressures from similar environments. For example, dolphins (mammals) and sharks (cartilaginous fish) have evolved a streamlined body shape and fins that enable them to move efficiently through their aquatic environment, yet they are only remotely related as vertebrates. Communal social behaviour has developed independently in ants, termites and bees.

The experiments carried out by Gregor Mendel Gregor Mendel, in the 1860s, formulated the principles of genetics by careful and methodical experimentation with garden peas, Pisum sativum. Mendel chose garden peas because they were easy to grow, produced new generations quickly and had easily distinguishable characteristics. He was also able to strictly control the breeding patterns of his peas. Mendel examined the following seven characteristics found in peas: Flower colour, purple or white Flower position, axial or terminal Seed colour, yellow or green Seed shape, round or wrinkled Pod shape, inflated or constricted Pod colour, green or yellow Stem height, tall or short. Mendel needed to control fertilisation. Self-fertilisation was ensured by placing a bag over the flowers to make sure pollen from the stamens lands on the carpel of the same flower. Crossfertilisation was ensured by cutting off stamens from a flower before pollen was produced, then dusting the carpel of the flower with pollen from another plant. To ensure reliability, Mendel used thousands of plants in each experiment. Mendel worked with true-breeding plants: self-fertilised plants which produced all offspring identical to the parents.

Mendel first cross-fertilised two true-breeding plants for one characteristic, for example tall plants were crossed with short plants (Mendel called these plants a P1 parent generation). The offspring produced are called F1 (1st filial) generation. The F1 generation were then self-fertilised or cross-fertilised to produce a second generation, F2. Each of the seven traits that Mendel studied had a dominant and a recessive factor. When two truebreeding plants were crossed, only the dominant factor appeared in the first generation. The recessive factor appeared in the second generation in a 3:1 (dominant : recessive) relationship. Homozygous and heterozygous genotypes in monohybrid crosses Alternative factors for the same characteristics are termed alleles, e.g. tall and short are alleles for height; purple and white are the alleles for flower colour. For each characteristic there are at least two factors controlling the phenotype. Gametes (sperm and egg) from each parent contain only one factor. When gametes are formed the pair of factors segregate (separate). Factors that are the same are termed homozygous, e.g. TT and tt. Factors that are different are termed heterozygous, e.g. Tt. In the heterozygous condition the factor that is fully expressed is termed dominant and the factor that has no noticeable effect is called the recessive.
Terms allele and gene, using examples

An allele is an alternative for a particular inheritable characteristic, e.g. tall (T) and short (t) are two alleles for the characteristic of height in some plants. In humans, straight (S) and widow's peak (s) are two alleles for hairline. With the development of modern genetics, we now identify these factors as genes. A gene is a section of DNA coding for proteins that expresses itself as the phenotype of an organism. Alleles are alternative forms of a gene. In many sources you will find the terms allele and gene used to mean the same thing. The reasons why the importance of Mendel's work was not recognized until sometime after it was published Mendel began his work in 1858 and published the results of his experiments in 1866, but his work lay undiscovered until 1900 when others performed similar experiments. It was only then that the importance of his work was realized. It is unclear why such original work went unnoticed, perhaps: o Mendel was not a recognized, high profile member of the scientific community o He presented his paper to only a few people at an insignificant, local, scientific meeting o Other scientists did not understand the work or its significance. The roles of Sutton and Boveri in identifying the importance of chromosomes Two scientists are credited with the discovery of the role of chromosomes in 1902. They were the German scientist Theodor Boveri and the American microbiologist Walter Sutton. Boveri worked on sea urchins and showed that their chromosomes were not all the same and that a full complement was required for the normal development of an organism. Sutton worked on grasshoppers and showed that their chromosomes were distinct entities. He said even though they duplicate and divide they remain as a distinct structure. He associated the behaviour of chromosomes with Mendel's work on the inheritance of factors and concluded that chromosomes were the carriers of hereditary units. Together their work became known as the Sutton-Boveri chromosome hypothesis. The chemical nature of chromosomes and genes Chromosomes consist of 40% DNA and 60% protein (histone). Short lengths of DNA make up genes so genes have the same chemical composition as DNA. DNA is described in more detail in Part 4.

The relationship between the structure and behaviour of chromosomes during meiosis and the inheritance of genes Chromosomes are made of DNA. Genes are coded within the DNA on the chromosomes. During division each chromosome (which therefore includes the genes) makes a complete copy of itself. The new chromosome is attached to the original chromosome by a centromere. In the initial division of meiosis the homologous chromosomes line up in matching pairs and one of each pair of homologous chromosomes moves into a new cell. Next the duplicated chromosomes separate to single strands resulting in four sex cells that are haploid, (ie contain half the chromosome number of the original cell). The genes are located on the chromosomes. They are duplicated during the first stage of meiosis and are then randomly assorted depending on which chromosomes from each pair enters which new haploid cell during the first and second division. Prophase metaphaseanaphasetelophase The role of gamete formation and sexual reproduction in variability of offspring Gamete formation results in the halving of the chromosome number (n) (diploid to haploid) and sexual reproduction results in combining gametes (haploid to diploid) to produce a new diploid organism (2n). The processes involved in forming this new organism result in variability of the offspring. Gametes are formed during the process of meiosis. In meiosis there are two stages that lead to variability. These are: o random segregation of individual chromosomes with treir associated genes ie, different new combinations of the original maternal and paternal chromosomes and o The process of crossing over where the maternal and paternal chromosomes of each pair may exchange segments of genes making new combinations of genes on the chromosomes. In sexual reproduction each female or male cell produces 4 sex cells (gametes) from the process of meiosis. Each of these sex cells is haploid (has half the normal chromosome number) and has a random assortment of genes from the parent. The genes (Mendel's alleles) are separated and the sex cells have a random assortment of dominant and recessive genes. More variability is introduced depending on which sex cells are successful in fertilisation. The resulting embryo has a completely different set of genes from either of the parents. The work of Morgan that led to the identification of sex linkage Thomas Morgan worked on the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster. He looked at crosses between redeyed and white-eyed flies and found that the results could not be accounted for by simple Mendelian crosses. He showed that some genes were sex-linked because they were located on the X chromosome. Ways in which the environment may affect the expression of a gene in an individual The appearance of an individual is not based solely on their genetic information. The environment of the organism also plays a part. Hydrangeas are plants that have different flower colour (pink or blue) depending on the pH of the soil they are grown in. In acid soils (less than pH 5) Hydrangeas are blue. In soils that have a pH greater than 7 Hydrangeas are pink. The pH has an effect on the availability of other ions in the soil and it is these ions that are responsible for the colour change.
Another example of the influence of the environment on the appearance is the height of plants. Genetically identical plants will grow to different heights if they are exposed to different growing conditions.

The process of DNA replication and explain its significance The process Recall from Blueprint of Life, Subsection 3, that DNA is a double-stranded molecule twisted into a helix with each strand comprised of a sugar-phosphate backbone and attached bases -

adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C) and guanine (G) connected to a complementary strand by pairing the bases, A-T and G-C. A unit made up of a deoxyribose sugar, a phosphate molecule and one of four nitrogen bases (adenine, thymine, guanine and cytosine) is called a nucleotide. Thus, DNA consists of nucleotide units. The nitrogen bases that are part of each nucleotide are the rungs of the double helix of DNA. They only combine in one way, adenine binds to thymine and guanine binds to cytosine. Along the DNA molecule, there are long sequences of genetic code made up of these bases. The replication of these long sequences accounts for the replication of the genetic code of an organism. The process of DNA replication consists of the following steps. Step 1: Step 2: Step 3: The DNA double helix is unwound by an enzyme. The DNA unzips forming two single strands Nucleotides are added to the single strands resulting in two identical strands of DNA

The two double stranded molecules are the chromatids. The significance The significance of this process is the genetic information is passed on from generation to generation. During sexual reproduction, the genetic code is copied and then half of the genetic information passes into each of the sex cells (ovum or sperm). When fertilisation occurs the new organism has half the genetic material from each parent. The DNA in a cell contains the genetic information to make an entire organism. When a cell divides it takes with it an exact copy of the genetic code of that organism. Using a simple model, the process by which DNA controls the production of polypeptides Polypeptide synthesis involves a type of nucleic acid, called RNA (ribonucleic acid). RNA is the intermediary between DNA and polypeptide synthesis. It is a single strand of nucleotide bases. It has ribose sugar and the nitrogen base, thymine, is replaced by uracil which bonds withadenine. There are two types of RNA that are involved in polypeptide synthesis, messenger RNA (mRNA) and transfer RNA (tRNA). In the nucleus, the double stranded DNA molecules unzip and the DNA code is transcribed into the single stranded mRNA molecule. The mRNA moves out of the nucleus into the cytoplasm and attaches to a ribosome. In the cytoplasm, the mRNA is translated into amino acids. At the ribosome, the messenger RNA lines up forming a template. A group of three bases, called a codon, codes for a specific amino acid. There are codes that start and stop the chain formation. AUG is the starting point for translation. tRNA has an anticodon (a non-amino acid forming codon) on one end and an amino acid on the other. A polypeptide is formed as each amino acid is added from tRNA to a chain following the sequence on the mRNA. The relationship between proteins and polypeptides A protein is made up of one or more polypeptides. A polypeptide is made up of a chain of many amino acids. Information to construct a flow chart that shows that changes in DNA sequences can result in changes in cell activity If there is a simple substitution for a single base pair on a strand of DNA such as a G-C replaced by A-T, then this will result in a different amino acid codon forming a different polypeptide. If one base pair is lost from the sequence there will be a shift along the DNA molecule producing different polypeptides.The flow chart below shows the reaction if thymine is lost from the start of a DNA sequence.

Cell activity is controlled by enzymes. Enzymes are formed from chains of polypeptides. If the chain of amino acids forming the polypeptide is not in the right sequence, then the enzyme formed will not be functional. In this case, there is a premature stop. The evidence that led to Beadle and Tatums one gene one protein hypothesis and to explain why this was altered to the one gene one polypeptide hypothesis Beadle and Tatum used bread mould to investigate nutritional mutations. Using X-rays, they produced mould that was unable to produce a specific amino acid. The mould was unable to grow unless the amino acid was added. They showed that genes controlled biochemical processes. Their hypothesis was that for each gene there was one enzyme or protein. The enzymes that they studied consisted of one polypeptide but many enzymes consist of chains of polypeptides. Therefore, the hypothesis has been changed to the one gene one polypeptide hypothesis. How mutations in DNA may lead to the generation of new alleles Any change in the base sequence in DNA results in changes to the polypeptides that are produced and is a source of new alleles. To produce changes in alleles, the mutation must occur in the sex cells of the organism which are then passed on to the next generation. Evidence for the mutagenic nature of radiation There is much evidence for the mutagenic nature of radiation. Environmental factors that may increase the rate of mutation include X-rays, radiation from atomic bombs and ultraviolet light. A mutagen is a natural or human-made agent (physical or chemical) which can alter the structure or sequence of DNA. Mutagens can be carcinogens (cancer causing) or teratogens (birth defects causing). Radiation was the first mutagenic agent known. Its effects on genes were first noticed in the 1920's.When X-rays were first discovered, they were thought to be harmless and were a great novelty. You could even buy an X-ray machine for your home for entertainment. Most of the first generation of scientists who worked with radiation died of cancer. Famous examples are Marie Curie and her daughter who both died of leukaemia. Hans Muller received the Nobel Prize in 1927 for showing that genes had the ability to mutate when exposed to X-rays. Beadle and Tatum used X-rays to produce mutations in bread mould in the formulation of their one gene one polypeptide hypothesis. The atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki also increased the evidence for mutations caused by radiation. There was a tenfold increase in cancer deaths directly after the bombs were dropped.

Mutagens may cause death in the individual but unless they affect the sex cells the effect is not passed on to the next generation. How an understanding of the source of variation in organisms has provided support for Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection One of the foundation pillars for the theory of evolution is the variation that occurs among individual members of a species. The basis of this variation is the genetic makeup of the individuals in a species. It is this variation that selection acts upon. Mutation of DNA provides a source of new variations thus supporting Darwin's theory of evolution. Watson, Crick, Franklin and Wilkins Scientific discoveries are rarely the work of one person but tend to result from teams of people bringing together different skills. These teams may be working together or may be scattered all over the world working independently in different laboratories. Determining the structure of DNA is a good case study exemplifying the role of collaboration and effective communication in scientific research. The four people in this story worked at two different places. Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins were from King's College London and James Watson and Francis Crick were from Cambridge University. Rosalind Franklin was a woman working in a field that was male dominated. You will see as the story progresses that she didn't get equal recognition for her contributions. Her work on X-ray diffraction showed that DNA had the characteristics of a helix. She wished to gather more evidence of this result but Maurice Wilkins showed her results to Watson and Crick without her permission or knowledge. This information was enough to encourage Watson and Crick to develop their model of the double helix for the structure of DNA. Rosalind Franklin died of cancer in 1958 at the age of 37. Watson, Crick and Wilkins received the Nobel Prize for their work in 1962.